Openness to experience: Difference between revisions

'''Openness to experience''' is one of the domains which are used to describe [[personality psychology|human personality]] in the [[Big Five personality traits|Five Factor Model]].<ref>{{cite journal | authorlast = Goldberg |first=L. R. | year = 1993 | title = The structure of phenotypic personality traits | url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0003-066X.48.1.26 |url-access=subscription| journal = American Psychologist | volume = 48 | issue = 1| pages = 26–34 | doi=10.1037/0003-066X.48.1.26 | pmid=8427480|s2cid=20595956 }}</ref><ref name = "mccrae">{{cite journal | authorlast1 = McCrae|first1= R. R., |last2=John|first2= O. P. | year = 1992 | title = An introduction to the Five-Factor Model and its applications | journal = Journal of Personality | volume = 60 | issue = 2| pages = 175–215 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.1992.tb00970.x | pmid=1635039| last2 = John | s2cid = 10596836 | url = https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1557&context=publichealthresources }}</ref> Openness involves six [[Facet (psychology)|facets]], or dimensions: active [[imagination]] (fantasy), [[aesthetic]] sensitivity, attentiveness to inner feelings, preference for variety (adventurousness), intellectual [[curiosity]], and [[anti-authoritarianism|challenging authority]] (psychological liberalism).<ref>{{citation|last1=Costa,|first1= P. T. & |last2=McCrae,|first2= R. R. (|year=1992). ''|title=NEO personality Inventory professional manual''.|location= Odessa, FL: Fla.|publisher=Psychological Assessment Resources.}}{{page needed|date=November 2014}}</ref> A great deal of [[psychometric]] research has demonstrated that these facets or qualities are significantly correlated.<ref name = "mccrae"/> Thus, openness can be viewed as a global personality trait consisting of a set of specific traits, habits, and tendencies that cluster together.

Openness tends to be [[Normal distribution|normally distributed]] with a small number of individualspeople scoring extremely high or low on the trait, and most people scoring moderately.<ref name = "mccrae"/> People who score low on openness are considered to be ''closed to experience''. They tend to be conventional and traditional in their outlook and behavior. They prefer familiar routines to new experiences, and generally have a narrower range of interests.

Openness has moderate positive relationships with creativity, intelligence, and knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aitken Harris|first=Julie|date=March 2004|title=Measured intelligence, achievement, openness to experience, and creativity|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886903001612|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=36|issue=4|pages=913–929|doi=10.1016/s0191-8869(03)00161-2|s2cid=144326478 |issn=0191-8869}}</ref> Openness is related to the psychological trait of [[absorption (psychology)|absorption]], and like absorption has a modest relationship{{Specify|reason=what sort of relationship?|date=August 2023}} to individual differences in hypnotic susceptibility. Openness has more modest relationships with aspects of [[subjective well-being]] than other [[Big Five personality traits|Five Factor Model]] personality traits.<ref name=Steel>{{cite journal|lastlast1= Steel|firstfirst1=Piers|author2last2=Schmidt,|first2= Joseph & |last3=Shultz,|first3= Jonas|title=Refining the relationship between personality and Subjective well-being|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0033-2909.134.1.138|url-access=subscription|journal=Psychological Bulletin|year=2008|volume=134|pages=138–161 |doi= 10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.138|pmid= 18193998|issue= 1|hdl=1880/47915|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

On the whole, openness appears to be largely unrelated to symptoms of mental disorders.<ref name="clinical disorders">{{cite journal | firstfirst1 = John M. | lastlast1 =Malouff | author2last2 = Thorsteinsson,|first2= Einar B. & |last3=Schutte,|first3= Nicola S.|title =The relationship between the five-factor model of personality and symptoms of clinical disorders: a meta-analysis| url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10862-005-5384-y |url-access=subscription| journal = Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment |year = 2005 | volume= 27| pages = 101–114|doi= 10.1007/s10862-005-5384-y | issue = 2| s2cid =145806896 }}</ref>

Openness to experience is usually assessed with self-report measures, although peer-reports and third-party observation are also used. Self-report measures are either [[lexical hypothesis|lexical]]<ref name="Thompson">{{cite journal|last=Thompson|first=E.R.|title=Development and Validation of an International English Big-Five Mini-Markers|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886908002195|url-access=subscription|date=October 2008|volume=45|issue=6|pages=542–548|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2008.06.013}}</ref> or based on statements.<ref name="Goldbergetal">{{cite journal|lastlast1=Goldberg|firstfirst1=L.R.|author2last2=Johnson, JA|first2=J.A. |author3last3=Eber, HW|first3=H.W. |title=The international personality item pool and the future of public-domain personality measures|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0092656605000553|url-access=subscription|journal=Journal of Research in Personality|year=2006|volume=40|issue=1|pages=84–96|doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2005.08.007|s2cid=13274640 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Which measure of either type is used is determined by an assessment of psychometric properties and the time and space constraints of the research being undertaken.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}

* Lexical measures use individual [[Adjective|adjectivesadjective]]s that reflect ''openness to experience'' traits, such as ''creative'', ''intellectual'', ''artistic'', ''philosophical'', ''deep''. GoldbergL. (1992)R. Goldberg developed a 20-word measure as part of his 100-word Big Five markers.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Goldberg|first=L. R.|title=The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F1040-3590.4.1.26|url-access=subscription|journal=Psychological Assessment|year=1992|volume=4|issue=1|pages=26–42|doi=10.1037/1040-3590.4.1.26|s2cid=144709415 }}</ref> SaucierG. (1994)Saucier developed a briefer 8-word measure as part of his 40-word mini-markers.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Saucier|first=G.|title=Mini-Markers – a brief version of Goldberg's unipolar big-five markers|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327752jpa6303_8|url-access=subscription|journal=Journal of Personality Assessment|year=1994|volume=63|issue=3|pages=506–516|doi=10.1207/s15327752jpa6303_8|pmid=7844738}}</ref> However, the psychometric properties of Saucier’sSaucier's original mini-markers have been found suboptimal withfor samples outside of North America.<ref name="Thompson" /> As a result, a systematically revised measure, the International English Mini-Markers, was developed and has proven to have good psychometric validity for assessing ''openness to experience'' and other five -factor personality model dimensions, both within and, especially, without American populations. Internal consistency reliability of the ''openness to experience'' measure is 0.84 for both native and non-native English-speakers.<ref name="Thompson" />

* Statement measures tend to comprise more words, and hence take up more research instrument space, than lexical measures. For example, the ''openness'' (''intellect'') scale of Goldberg's International Personality Item Pool is 45 words, compared to Saucier or Thompson’sThompson's (2008) 8-word lexical scale for Openness.<ref name="Thompson" /> Examples of statement measure items used, arefrom the [[NEO PI-R]], based on the [[Five Factor Model]], and the HEXACO-PI-R based on the [[HEXACO model of personality]], are ''"Love to think up new ways of doing things"'' and ''"Have difficulty understanding abstract ideas"''.<ref name="Goldbergetal" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-4544288723&partnerID=40&md5=ed34e329995a6f728720326f9fc946b5 |title=Welcome |access-date=2017-09-07 |archive-date=2021-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127065308/https://id.elsevier.com/as/authorization.oauth2?platSite=SC%2Fscopus&ui_locales=en-US&scope=openid+profile+email+els_auth_info+els_analytics_info+urn%3Acom%3Aelsevier%3Aidp%3Apolicy%3Aproduct%3Aindv_identity&response_type=code&redirect_uri=https%3A%2F%2Fbackend.710302.xyz%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Fauthredirect.uri%3FtxGid%3De83eb252b49a4c0a08492a82f3c351c1&state=forceLogin%7CtxId%3D489AC8E3FFED530655389A376417211A.i-0aa80c25b49cd34de%3A4&authType=SINGLE_SIGN_IN&prompt=login&client_id=SCOPUS |url-status=live }}{{full citation needed|date=November 2014}}</ref> In these tests, ''openness to experience'' is one of the five/six measured personality dimensions. In both tests ''openness to experience'' has a number of facets. The NEO PI-R assesses six facets called ''openness to ideas'', ''feelings'', ''values'', ''fantasy'', ''aesthetics'', and ''actions'' respectively. The HEXACO-PI-R assesses four facets called ''inquisitiveness'', ''creativity'', ''aesthetic appreciation'', and ''unconventionality''.

A number of studies have found that ''openness to experience'' has two major subcomponents, one related to intellectual dispositions, the other related to the experiential aspects of openness, such as aesthetic appreciation and openness to sensory experiences. These subcomponents have been referred to as ''intellect'' and ''experiencing openness'' respectively, and have a strong positive correlation (r = .55) with each other.<ref name="Special Section">{{cite journal|lastlast1=Connelly|firstfirst1=B.S.|author2last2=Ones,|first2= D. S. |author3last3=Chernyshenko,|first3= O. S. |title=Introducing the Special Section on Openness to Experience: Review of Openness Taxonomies, Measurement, and Nomological Net|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00223891.2013.830620|url-access=subscription|journal=Journal of Personality Assessment|year=2014|volume=96|issue=1|pages=1–16|doi=10.1080/00223891.2013.830620|pmid=24073877|s2cid=41617495}}</ref>

According to research by [[Samuel D. Gosling|Sam Gosling]], it is possible to assess openness by examining people's homes and work spaces. IndividualsPeople who are highly open to experience tend to have distinctive and unconventional decorations. They are also likely to have books on a wide variety of topics, a diverse music collection, and works of art on display.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gosling, S. (|first=Sam|year=2008). ''|title=Snoop: What your stuff says about you''|url=https://archive. org/details/snoopwhatyourstu0000gosl|url-access=registration|location=New York: |publisher=Basic Books.|isbn=9780465027811 }}{{page needed|date=November 2014}}</ref>

Openness to experience correlates with [[creativity]], as measured by tests of [[divergent thinking]].<ref>{{Cite journal

| authorlast = McCrae, |first = R. R.

| pages = 1258&ndash;12651258–1265

}}</ref> Openness has been linked to both artistic and scientific creativity as professional artists, musicians, and scientists have been found to score higher in openness compared to members of the general population.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite namejournal|last=Feist>Feist, |first=G. J. (|year=1998). |title=A meta-analysis of the impact of personality on scientific and artistic creativity. |journal=Personality and Social Psychological Review, |volume=2,|issue=4 |pages=290–309|doi=10.<1207/ref><ref>s15327957pspr0204_5 |pmid=15647135 |s2cid=24067985 }}
|2={{Cite journal|date=2021-04-01|title=Musical expertise and personality – differences related to occupational choice and instrument categories|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886920307649|url-access=subscription|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|language=en|volume=173|pages=110573|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2020.110573|issn=0191-8869|last1=Kuckelkorn|first1=Karen L.|last2=De Manzano|first2=Örjan|last3=Ullén|first3=Fredrik|s2cid=233521386}} }}</ref>

Openness to experience correlates with [[intelligence]], correlation coefficients ranging from about ''r'' = .30 to ''r'' = .45.<ref name=Moutafi2006>{{cite journal|lastlast1=Moutafi|firstfirst1=Joanna|author2last2=Furnham,|first2= Adrian |author3last3= Crump,|first3= John |title=What facets of openness and conscientiousness predict fluid intelligence score?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1041608005000348|url-access=subscription|journal=Learning and Individual Differences|year=2006|volume=16|pages=31–42 |doi=10.1016/j.lindif.2005.06.003}}</ref> OpennessThese torelations experiencevary significantly based on which component of intelligence is moderatelyexamined. associatedFor example, meta-analyses have found relations ranging from .08 with processing speed abilities to .29 with verbal abilities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Stanek |first1=Kevin C. |last2=Ones |first2=Deniz S. |date=2023-06-06 |title=Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=120 |issue=23 |pages=e2212794120 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2212794120 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=10266031 |pmid=37252971|bibcode=2023PNAS..12012794S }}</ref> Another common distinction is between [[crystallized intelligence]], and [[fluid intelligence]]. Some studies have found moderate associations with crystallized intelligence but only weaklyweak associations with [[fluid intelligence]].<ref name=Moutafi2006 /><ref>{{Cite book

| authorlast = Geary, | first = D. C.

}}</ref> In contrast, more recent meta-analyses have found more similar relations for crystallized and fluid abilities (.20 and .19, respectively).<ref name=":0" /> A study examining the [[Facet (psychology)|facets]] of openness found that the Ideas and Actions facets had modest positive correlations with [[fluid intelligence]] (''r''=.20 and ''r''=.07 respectively).<ref name=Moutafi2006 /> Meta-analyses have also found the ideas, curiosity, and need for cognition facets (i.e., facets most associated with the intellect aspect of openness) to be positive correlates of fluid abilities with correlations ranging from .18 to .21.<ref name=":0" /> Fluid abilities may come more easily for people who tend to be curious and open to learning. Alternatively, people with strong fluid abilities may find it more enjoyable to ponder and explore ideas. Several studies have found positive associations between openness to experience and [[general knowledge]],<ref>{{multiref2

These mental abilities may come more easily when people are dispositionally curious and open to learning. Several studies have found positive associations between openness to experience and [[general knowledge]].<ref name|1=Furnham2006>{{cite journal|lastlast1=Furnham|firstfirst1=Adrian|author2last2=Chamorro-Premuzic, |first2=Tomas |author-link2=Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic |title=Personality, intelligence, and general knowledge|journal=Learning and Individual Differences|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1041608005000385|url-access=subscription|year=2006|volume=16|pages=79–90 |doi=10.1016/j.lindif.2005.07.002}}</ref><ref name
|2=chamorro>{{cite journal|lastlast1= Chamorro-Premuzic|firstfirst1=Tomas|author2last2=Furnham, |first2=Adrian & |last3=Ackerman,|first3= Phillip L.|title=Ability and personality correlates of general knowledge|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886906000870|url-access=subscription|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|year=2006|volume=41|pages=419–429 |doi= 10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.036|issue= 3}}</ref><ref name
|3=Furnham2007>{{cite journal|lastlast1=Furnham|firstfirst1=Adrian|author2last2=Christopher,|first2= Andrew N.;|last3= Garwood, |first3=Jeanette &|last4= Martin, |first4=G. Neil|title=Approaches to learning and the acquisition of general knowledge|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886907001638|url-access=subscription|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|year=2007|volume=43|pages=1563–1571 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2007.04.013|issue=6}} }}</ref><ref name=Furnham2008>{{cite journal|lastlast1=Furnham|firstfirst1=Adrian|author2last2=Chamorro-Premuzic,|first2= Tomas|title=Cognitive ability, learning approaches and personality correlates of general knowledge|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01443410701727376|url-access=subscription|journal=Educational Psychology|year=2008|volume=28|pages=427–437 |doi=10.1080/01443410701727376|issue=4|s2cid=144132702|author-link2=Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic}}</ref> especially verbal knowledge.<ref name=":0" /> People high in openness may be more motivated to engage in intellectual pursuits that increase their knowledge.<ref name=Furnham2008 /> Openness to experience, especially the Ideas facet, is related to [[need for cognition]],<ref name="same or different">{{cite journal|lastlast1=Fleischhauer|firstfirst1=Monica|author2last2=Enge,|first2= Sören |author3last3=Brocke,|first3= Burkhard |author4last4=Ullrich,|first4= Johannes |author5last5=Strobel,|first5= Alexander |author6last6= Strobel,|first6= Anja |title=Same or Different? Clarifying the Relationship of Need for Cognition to Personality and Intelligence|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0146167209351886|url-access=subscription|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|year=2010|volume=36|pages=82–96 |issue=1|doi=10.1177/0146167209351886|pmid=19901274|s2cid=28728034}}</ref> a motivational tendency to think about ideas, scrutinize information, and enjoy solving puzzles, and to [[typical intellectual engagement]]<ref name=Rocklin>{{Cite journal

| last = Rocklin

| year = 1994

| title = Relation Between Typical Intellectual Engagement and Openness : Comment on Goff and Ackerman ( 1992 )

}}</ref> (a similar construct to need for cognition).<ref name=Mussell>{{cite journal|last=Mussell|first=Patrick|title=Epistemic curiosity and related constructs: Lacking evidence of discriminant validity|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886910002540|url-access = subscription|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|year=2010|volume=49|pages=506–510 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.014|issue=5}}</ref>

Openness to experience is {{clarify|reason=related how?|text=strongly related to|date=August 2023}} the psychological construct of [[absorption (psychology)|''absorption'']],<ref name=Phares>{{cite book |title=Introduction to personality |year=1997|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontope00phar_0|url-access=registration |publisher=Longman |location=New York |isbn=978-0-673-99456-1 |last1=Phares |first1=E.J. |last2=Chaplin |first2=W.F. |edition=4th |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontope00phar_0/page/522 522] |chapter=Personality and Intellect |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontope00phar_0 |url=https:/page/archive.org494/detailsmode/introductiontope00phar_0/page/5222up }}</ref> defined as "a disposition for having episodes of 'total' attention that fully engage one's representational (i.e. perceptual, enactive, imaginative, and ideational) resources.”<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tellegen |first1=Auke |last2=Atkinson |first2=Gilbert |date=June 1974 |title=Openness to absorbing and self-altering experiences ('absorption'), a trait related to hypnotic susceptibility |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fh0036681|url-access=subscription|journal=Journal of Abnormal Psychology |volume=83 |issue=3 |pages=268–77 |pmid=4844914 |doi=10.1037/h0036681}}</ref>

The construct of absorption was developed in order to relate individual differences in [[Hypnotic susceptibility|hypnotisability]] to broader aspects of personality.<ref name=Phares/><ref name=absorption>{{cite journal |last1=Glisky |first1=Martha L. |last2=Tataryn |first2=Douglas J. |last3=Tobias |first3=Betsy A. |last4=Kihlstrom |first4=John F. |last5=McConkey |first5=Kevin M. |title=Absorption, openness to experience, and hypnotizability|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.60.2.263|url-access=subscription |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=263–72 |date=February 1991 |pmid=2016669 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.60.2.263}}</ref> The construct of absorption influenced [[Paul Costa Jr|Costa]] and McCrae's development of the concept of "openness to experience" in their original [[Revised NEO Personality Inventory|NEO model]], due to the independence of absorption from [[extraversion]] and [[neuroticism]].<ref name=Phares/> A person's openness to becoming absorbed in experiences seems to require a more general openness to new and unusual experiences. Openness to experience, like absorption, has modest positive correlations with individual differences in hypnotisability.<ref name=absorption/>

[[Factor analysis]] has shownshows that the fantasy, aesthetics, and feelings facets of openness are closely related to absorption and predict hypnotisability, whereas the remaining three facets of ideas, actions, and values are largely unrelated to these constructs.<ref name=Phares/><ref name=absorption/> This finding suggests that openness to experience may have two distinct yet related subdimensions: one related to aspects of attention and consciousness assessed by the facets of fantasy, aesthetics, and feelings; the other related to intellectual curiosity and social/political liberalism as assessed by the remaining three facets. However, all of these have a common theme of ‘openness’ in some sense. This two-dimensional view of openness to experience is particularly pertinent to hypnotisability. However, when considering external criteria other than hypnotisability, it is possible that a different dimensional structure may be apparent, e.g. intellectual curiosity may be unrelated to social/political liberalism in certain contexts.<ref name=absorption/>

Although the factors in the Big Five model are assumed{{By whom|date=August 2023}} to be independent, openness to experience and [[extraversion]] as assessed in the [[NEO-PI-R]] have a substantial positive correlation.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00186-6|title=A comparative study of Zuckerman's three structural models for personality through the NEO-PI-R, ZKPQ-III-R, EPQ-RS and Goldberg's 50-bipolar adjectives|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886901001866|url-access=subscription|year=2002|last1=Aluja|first1=Anton|last2=García|first2=Óscar|last3=García|first3=Luis F.|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=33|issue=5|pages=713–725}}</ref> Openness to experience also has a moderate positive correlation with [[sensation-seeking]], particularly, the experience seeking facet.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1027/1614-0001.26.3.132|title=Is Openness to Experience an Independent Personality Dimension?|year=2005|last1=García|first1=Luis F.|last2=Aluja|first2=Anton|last3=García|first3=Óscar|last4=Cuevas|first4=Lara|journal=Journal of Individual Differences|volume=26|issue=3|pages=132–138|s2cid=56268785|url=httpshttp://semanticscholarweb.orgudl.es/paperusuaris/c3a3098c4609222ad6e63f0b62b018cd37a02e57e7806312/grup/aaluja-archi/arti_aluja/pu_66.pdf|access-date=2019-12-13|archive-date=2021-01-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127065259/https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Is-Openness-to-Experience-an-Independent-Dimension%3A-Garc%C3%ADa-Aluja/c3a3098c4609222ad6e63f0b62b018cd37a02e57|url-status=live}}</ref> In spite of this, it has been argued{{By whom|date=August 2023}} that openness to experience is still an independent personality dimension from these other traits because most of the variance in the trait cannot be explained by its overlap with these other constructs. A study comparing the [[Temperament and Character Inventory]] with the Five Factor model found that Openness to experience had a substantial positive correlation with [[self-transcendence]] (a "spiritual" trait) and to a lesser extent [[novelty seeking]] (conceptually similar to sensation seeking).<ref name=defruyt>{{cite journal|lastlast1=De Fruyt|firstfirst1=F.|author2last2=Van De Wiele,|first2= L. & |last3=Van Heeringen,|first3= C.|title=Cloninger's Psychobiological Model of Temperament and Character and the Five-Factor Model of Personality|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886999002044|url-access=subscription|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|year=2000|volume=29|pages=441–452 |doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00204-4|issue=3}}</ref> It also had a moderate negative correlation with [[harm avoidance]].

The [[Myers–Briggs Type Indicator]] (MBTI) measures the preference of "intuition," which is related to openness to experience.<ref name="four ways">{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/0191-8869(92)90236-I|title=Four ways five factors are basic|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/019188699290236I|url-access=subscription|year=1992|last1=Costa|first1=Paul T.|last2=McCrae|first2=Robert R.|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=13|issue=6|pages=653–665|s2cid=86867568 }}</ref> Robert McCrae pointed out that the MBTI sensation versus intuition scale "contrasts a preference for the factual, simple, and conventional with a preference for the possible, complex, and original," and is therefore similar to measures of openness.<ref name=boundaries>{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/per.2410080404|title=Openness to Experience: Expanding the boundaries of Factor V|year=1994|last1=McCrae|first1=Robert R.|journal=European Journal of Personality|volume=8|issue=4|pages=251–272|s2cid=144576220|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1229330|access-date=2019-09-11|archive-date=2021-01-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127035439/https://zenodo.org/record/1229330|url-status=live}}</ref>

There are social and political implications to this personality trait. People who are highly open to experience tend to be liberal and tolerant of diversity.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | authorlast = McCrae |first=R. R. | year = 1996 | title = Social consequences of experiential openness | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1231474 | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–337 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.323 | pmid = 8900080 | access-date = 2019-12-13 | archive-date = 2019-12-16 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191216114217/https://zenodo.org/record/1231474 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>
|2={{cite journal | authorlast = Jost |first=John T | year = 2006 | title = The end of the end of ideology|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0003-066X.61.7.651|url-access=subscription | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 61 | issue = 7| pages = 651–670 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.61.7.651 | pmid = 17032067 }} }}</ref> As a consequence, they are generally more open to different cultures and lifestyles. They are lower in [[ethnocentrism]], [[right-wing authoritarianism]],<ref name=RWA>{{Cite journal

| authorlast = Butler, | first = J. C.

| pages = 1&ndash;141–14

| authorlast1 = Sibley, | first1 = Chris G.

|author2 last2 = Duckitt, | first2 = John

}}</ref> Openness has a stronger (negative) relationship with right-wing authoritarianism than the other five-factor model traits ([[conscientiousness]] has a modest positive association, and the other traits have negligible associations).<ref name=prejudice/> Openness has a somewhat smaller (negative) association with social dominance orientation than (low) [[agreeableness]] (the other traits have negligible associations). Openness has a stronger (negative) relationship with prejudice than the other five-factor model traits (agreeableness has a more modest negative association, and the other traits have negligible associations). However, right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation are each more strongly (positively) associated with prejudice than openness or any of the other five-factor model traits.<ref name=prejudice /> Recent research has argued that the relationship between openness and prejudice may be more complex, as the prejudice examined was prejudice against conventional minority groups (for example sexual and ethnic minorities) and that people who are high in openness can still be intolerant of those with conflicting worldviews.<ref>Brandt, Mark J., John R. Chambers, Jarret T. Crawford, Geoffrey Wetherell, and Christine Reyna. "Bounded openness: The effect of openness to experience on intolerance is moderated by target group conventionality." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 109, no. 3 (2015): 549.</ref><ref>Verkuyten, Maykel, Levi Adelman, and Kumar Yogeeswaran. "The Psychology of Intolerance: Unpacking Diverse Understandings of Intolerance." Current Directions in Psychological Science (2020): 0963721420924763.</ref>

Openness to experience has been found to have modest yet significant associationscorrelations with [[happiness]], [[positive affect]], and [[quality of life]], andbut to beis unrelated to [[life satisfaction]], [[negative affect]], and overall affect in people in general.<ref name=Steel/> These relationships with aspects of [[subjective well-being]] tend to be weaker compared tothan those of other five-factor model traits, that is, [[extraversion]], [[neuroticism]], [[conscientiousness]], and [[agreeableness]].

Openness to experience was found to be associatedcorrelates with life satisfaction in older adults after controlling for confounding factors.<ref>{{cite journal|authorlast = Stephan, |first=Yannick|year = 2009 | title = Openness to experience and active older adults' life satisfaction: A trait and facet-level analysis |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886909002451|url-access=subscription|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2009.05.025| journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume= 47 |issue=6 | pages= 637–641}}</ref>

At least three aspects of openness are relevant to understanding personality disorders: [[cognitive distortions]], lack of [[insight]], and [[impulsivity]]. Problems related to high openness that can cause issues with social or professional functioning are excessive [[Fantasy (psychology)|fantasizing]], peculiar thinking, diffuse identity, unstable [[goal]]s, and nonconformity with the demands of the society.<ref name=Piedmont>{{cite journal |last1=Piedmont |first1=Ralph L. |last2=Sherman |first2=Martin F. |last3=Sherman |first3=Nancy C. |title=Maladaptively high and low openness: the case for experiential permeability|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00777.x|url-access=subscription |journal=Journal of Personality |volume=80 |issue=6 |pages=1641–68 |date=December 2012 |pmid=22320184 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00777.x}}</ref>

High openness is characteristic to [[schizotypal personality disorder]] (odd and fragmented thinking), [[narcissistic personality disorder]] (excessive self-valuation), and [[paranoid personality disorder]] (sensitivity to external hostility). Lack of insight (shows low openness) is characteristic to all personality disorders and could explain the persistence of maladaptive behavioral patterns.<ref name=Williams>{{cite journal |title= Using the Five-Factor Model to Identify a New Personality Disorder Domain: The Case for Experiential Permeability |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0015368|url-access=subscription |year=2009 |pages=1245–1258 |volume=96 |issue=6 |doi=10.1037/a0015368 |pmid=19469599 |last1=Piedmont |first1=Ralph L. |last2=Sherman |first2=Martin F. |last3=Sherman |first3=Nancy C. |last4=Dy-Liacco |first4=Gabriel S. |last5=Williams |first5=Joseph E. G.}}</ref>

The problemsProblems associated with low openness are difficulties adapting to change, low tolerance for different worldview or lifestyles, [[Reduced affect display|emotional flattening]], [[alexithymia]], and a narrow range of interests.<ref name=Piedmont/> [[Rigidity (psychology)|Rigidity]] is the most obvious aspect of (low) openness among personality disorders; and thatit shows lack of knowledge of one's emotional experiences. It is most characteristic of [[obsessive-compulsive personality disorder]]. Its opposite, known as [[impulsivity]] (here: an aspect of openness that shows a tendency to behave unusually or autistically), is characteristic of [[schizotypal]] and [[borderline personality disorder]]s.<ref name=Williams/>

Openness to experience has mixed relationships with different types of [[religiosity]] and [[spirituality]].<ref name=Saroglou>{{cite journal|last=Saroglou|first=Vassilis|title=Religion and the five-factors of personality: A meta-analytic review|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886900002336|url-access=subscription|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|year=2002|pages=15–25|doi= 10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00233-6|volume=32}}</ref> General religiosity has a weak association with low openness. Religious [[fundamentalism]] has a somewhat more substantial relationship with low openness. [[Scholarly approaches to mysticism#Mystical experience|Mystical experiences]] occasioned by the use of [[psilocybin]] were found to increase openness significantly (see 'Drug Use,' below).

A study examining gender differences in big -five personality traits in 55 nations found that across nations there were negligible average differences between men and women in openness to experience.<ref name="sex diffs">{{cite journal| authorfirst1= David P. |last1=Schmitt |author2last2= Realo,|first2= A;|last3= Voracek,|first3= M., & |last4=Allik,|first4= J.| title = Why can't a man be more like a woman? Sex differences in big five personality traits across 55 cultures|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.94.1.168|url-access=subscription| journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | year = 2008 | volume = 94|issue=1 | pages=168–182|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.94.1.168 | pmid=18179326}}</ref> By contrast, across nations women were found to be significantly higher than men in average neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. In 8eight cultures, men were significantly higher than women in openness, but in 4four cultures women were significantly higher than men. Previous research has found that women tend to be higher on the feelings facet of openness, whereas men tend to be higher on the ideas facet, although the 55 -nation study did not assess individual facets.<ref name="sex diffs"/>

A study on individual differences in the frequency of [[dream#Recall|dream recall]] found that openness to experience was the only big -five personality trait related to dream recall. Dream recall frequency has also been related to similar personality traits, such as [[absorption (psychology)|absorption]] and [[dissociation (psychology)|dissociation]]. The relationship between dream recall and these traits has been considered as evidence of {{clarify|reason=what's that?|text=the continuity theory of consciousness.|date=August Specifically,2023}}. peoplePeople who have vivid and unusual experiences during the day, such as those who are high in these traits, tend to have more memorable dream content and hence better dream recall.<ref name=Watson>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00114-9|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886902001149|url-access=subscription|title=To dream, perchance to remember: Individual differences in dream recall|year=2003|last1=Watson|first1=David|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=34|issue=7|pages=1271–1286}}</ref>

Openness is related to many aspects of sexuality. Men and women high in openness are more well-informed about sex, and have wider sexual experience, stronger sex drives, and more liberal sexual attitudes.<ref name=boundaries/> In married couples, wives' but not husbands' level of openness is related to sexual satisfaction. This might be because open wives are more willing to explore a variety of new sexual experiences, leading to greater satisfaction for both spouses.<ref name=handbook/> Compared to heterosexuals, people who are homosexual, [[asexuality|asexual]], or bisexual—particularly bisexuals—average higher in openness.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=The Journal of Sex Research|volume=55|issue=8|pages=951–961|title=Personality and Sexual Orientation: Extension to Asexuality and the HEXACO Model|dateurl=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00224499.2017.1287844|url-access=subscription|year=February 23, 2017|last=Bogaert|first=Anthony F|doi=10.1080/00224499.2017.1287844|pmid=28276935|s2cid=40027879}}</ref>

Openness to experience, like the other traits in the [[Big Five personality traits|five -factor model]], is believed to have a genetic component. Identical twins (who have the same [[DNA]]) show similar scores on openness to experience, even when they have been adopted into different families and raised in very different environments.<ref>{{Cite journal

| authorlast1 = Jang, |first1=K. L., |last2=Livesly, |first2=W. J., & |last3=Vemon, |first3=P.A.

|dateyear=September 1996

| pages = 577&ndash;592577–592

| pmid=8776880

Higher levels of openness {{clarify|reason=linked how? what sort of activity (e.g. reduced, increased, of a particular sort)?|text=have been linked to activity|date=August 2023}} in the ascending [[dopaminergic]] system and the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]]. Openness is the only personality trait that correlates with neuropsychological tests of dorsolateral prefrontal cortical function, supporting theoretical links among openness, cognitive functioning, and [[IQ]].<ref>{{Cite journal

| authorfirst1 = Colin G. |last1=DeYoung, |first2=Jordan B. |last2=Peterson and |first3=Daniel M. |last3=Higgins

| pages = 825&ndash;858825–858

An Italian study found that people who lived on [[Tyrrhenian Sea|Tyrrhenian]] [[island]]s tended to be less open to experience than those living on the nearby mainland, and that people whose ancestors had inhabited the islands for twenty generations tended to be less open to experience than more recent arrivals. Additionally, people who emigrated from the islands to the mainland tended to be more open to experience than people who stayed on the islands, and than those who immigrated to the islands.<ref>{{cite journal | authorlast1 = Camperio Ciani |first1= A. S., |last2=Capiluppi |first2=C.,|last3= Veronese |first3=A.,|last4= Sartori |first4=G. | year = 2006 | title = The adaptive value of personality differences revealed by small island population dynamics | url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1002/per.595| url-access=subscription |journal = European Journal of Personality | volume = 21 | pages = 3–22 | doi = 10.1002/per.595 | last2 s2cid= Capiluppi | last3 = Veronese | last4 = Sartori | doi-access = free 143581786}}</ref>

People living in the eastern and western parts of the United States tend to score higher on openness to experience than those living in the [[Midwestern United States]] and the [[Southern United States]]. The highest average scores on openness are found in the states of [[New York (state)|New York]], [[Oregon]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], and [[California]]. Lowest average scores come from [[North Dakota]], [[Wyoming]], [[Alaska]], [[Alabama]], and [[Wisconsin]].<ref>{{Cite newsmultiref2

| authorfirst = Stephanie | last = Simon

| pages = 339&ndash;369339–369

| s2cid = 17059908 }}

Psychologists in the early 1970s1960s used the concept of openness to experience to describe people who are more likely to use [[marijuana]]. Openness was defined in these studies as high creativity, adventuresomeness, internal sensation novelty seeking, and low authoritarianism. Several correlational studies confirmed that young people who score high on this cluster of traits are more likely to use marijuana.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | authorlast1 = Victor |first1=H. R., |last2= Grossman |first2=J. C., |last3= Eisenman |first3= R. | year = 1973 | title = Openness to experience and marijuana use in high school students | url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fh0035646 | url-access=subscription | journal = Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology | volume = 41 | issue = 1| pages = 78–85 | doi = 10.1037/h0035646 | pmid = 4726715 }}
| last2 2= Grossman | last3 = Eisenman }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authorlast1 = Eisenman | first1=R., Grossman| first2= J. C., Goldstein| first3=R. | year = 1980 | title = Undergraduate marijuana use as related to internal sensation novelty seeking and openness to experience | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1097-4679(198010)36:4%3C1013::AID-JCLP2270360434%3E3.0.CO;2-0 | url-access=subscription | journal = Journal of Clinical Psychology | volume = 36 | issue = 4| pages = 1013–1019 | doi = 10.1002/1097-4679(198010)36:4<1013::AID-JCLP2270360434>3.0.CO;2-0 | pmid = 7440728 | last2 = Grossman | last3 = Goldstein}} }}</ref> More recent research has replicated this finding using contemporary measures of openness.<ref>{{cite journal | authorlast1 = Flory |first1=K., Lynam|first2= D., Milich|first3= R. |first4=C. |first5=R.| year = 2002 | title = The relations among personality, symptoms of alcohol and marijuana abuse, and symptoms of comorbid psychopathology: Results from a community sample | url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F1064-1297.10.4.425|url-access=subscription|journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 10 | issue = 4| pages = 425–434 | doi = 10.1037/1064-1297.10.4.425 | pmid = 12498340 | last2 = Lynam | last3 = Milich | last4 = Leukefeld | last5 = Clayton }}</ref>

Cross-cultural studies have found that cultures high in Openness to experience have higher rates of use of the drug [[MDMA|ecstasy]], although a study at the individual level in the Netherlands found no differences in openness levels between users and non-users.<ref name=handbook>{{cite book|title=Handbook of Individual Differences in Social Behavior|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookindividu00lear|url-access=limited|year=2009|publisher=The Guildford Press|location=New York/London|isbn=978-1-59385-647-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookindividu00lear/page/n274 257]–273|author=Robert McCrae|author2=Angelina R. Sutin|editor= Mark R. Leary, & Rick H. Hoyle|chapter=Chapter 17. Openness to Experience}}</ref> EcstasyMDMA users tended to be higher in extraversionextroversion and lower in conscientiousness than non-users.

A 2011 study found Openness (and not other traits) increased withafter the use of [[psilocybin]], an effect that held even after 14 months.<ref name="psilocybin">{{cite journal | title=Mystical experiences occasioned by the hallucinogen psilocybin lead to increases in the personality domain of openness | authorlast1=MacLean, |first1=K. A., |last2=Johnson, |first2=M. W., & |last3=Griffiths,|first3= R. R. | journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |date year=November 2011 | volume=25 | issue=11 | pages=1453–1461 | doi=10.1177/0269881111420188 | pmid=21956378 | pmc=3537171| last2=Johnson | last3=Griffiths }}</ref> The study found that individual differences in levels of [[mystical experience]] while taking psilocybin were correlated with increases in Openness. Participants who met criteria for a 'complete mystical experience'{{#tag:ref|Six aspects of mystical experience were assessed: unity, transcendence of time and space, ineffability and paradoxicality, sacredness, noetic quality, and positive mood. Participants were deemed to have a 'complete' mystical experience if they scored 60% or higher on all six aspects.<ref name="psilocybin"/>|group=note}} experienced a significant mean increase in Openness, whereas those participants who did not meet the criteria experienced no mean change in Openness. Five of the six [[Facet (psychology)|facets]] of Openness (all except Actions) showed this pattern of increase associated with having a mystical experience. Increases in Openness (including facets as well as total score) among those whose had a complete mystical experience were maintained more than a year after taking the drug. Participants who had a complete mystical experience changed more than 4four [[Standard score#T-Score|T-score]] points between baseline and follow up. By comparison, Openness has been found to normally decrease with ageingaging by 1one ''T''-score point per decade.

*{{annotated link|[[Trait theory]]}}

*{{annotated link|[[Boundaries of the mind]]}}