Content deleted Content added
Citation bot (talk | contribs) Altered pages. Add: pmid, issue, volume, bibcode. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by Abductive | Category:Nutrition by type | #UCB_Category 1/11 |
|||
| (23 intermediate revisions by 13 users not shown) | |||
Line 6:
'''Vegetarian nutrition''' is the set of health-related challenges and advantages of [[Vegetarianism|vegetarian]] [[diet (nutrition)|diets]].
Appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful and [[nutrition]]ally adequate for all stages of the human life cycle, including during pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and [[adolescence]].<ref name="ada">{{cite journal |doi=10.1053/jada.2003.50142|pmid=12778049|title=Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets|journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association|volume=103|issue=6|pages=748–65|year=2003|last1=American Dietetic|first1=Association|last2=Dietitians Of|first2=Canada}}</ref> However, vegetarian diets deficient in [[Vitamin B12|vitamin B<sub>12</sub>]] or calories may compromise children's health and development.<ref name="ada"/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Black|first=Maureen|title=Effects of vitamin B12 and folate deficiency on brain development in children|journal= Food and Nutrition Bulletin|pmc=3137939|pmid=18709887|volume=29|issue=2 Suppl|date=June 2008|pages=S126–31|doi=10.1177/15648265080292S117}}</ref> The UK [[National Health Service]] recommends that vegetarian diets should also follow the general recommendations for healthy diets, such as low fat, salt and sugar intakes and [[5 A Day|5 fruits or vegetables a day]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-04-27|title=The vegetarian diet|url=https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/the-vegetarian-diet/|access-date=2021-05-22|website=nhs.uk|language=en}}</ref> [[Qatar]]'s public health ministry states, "One cannot be a healthy vegetarian by going to a fast food restaurant and ordering french fries and soda!".<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015|title=Qatar Dietary Guidelines|url=https://www.moph.gov.qa/_layouts/download.aspx?SourceUrl=/Admin/Lists/PublicationsAttachments/Attachments/68/MOPH_DIETARY_BOOKLET_ENG.PDF
Vegetarian diets tend to be rich in [[carbohydrates]], [[omega-6 fatty acids]], [[dietary fibre]], [[carotenoids]], [[folic acid]], [[vitamin C]], [[vitamin E]], [[potassium]] and [[magnesium]]. They are possibly low in [[saturated fat]], [[cholesterol]], and animal protein.
Line 18:
[[File:Red_Beans_and_Rice.jpg|thumb|Red beans and rice]]
Despite the long-standing, widespread belief that vegetarians must consume grains and beans within a short time to make a ''[[complete protein]]'' that contains all 9 [[essential amino acid]]s that must be supplied through diet, this has never been substantiated by research. The protein-combining theory was brought to popular attention after being promoted in [[Frances Moore Lappé]]'s 1971 bestselling book ''[[Diet for a Small Planet]]''. In later editions of the book, starting in 1981, Lappé withdrew her contention that ''protein combining'' is necessary.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Frances Moore Lappé |last=Lappé |first=Frances Moore |year=1981 |title=Diet for a Small Planet |page=162 |isbn=978-0-345-32120-6|title-link=Diet for a Small Planet |publisher=Ballantine Books }}</ref>
Plant foods rich in protein include [[soy bean]]s and soy products such as [[tofu]], [[veggie burger]]s, and [[soy milk]]; other [[legume]]s; [[nut (fruit)|nuts]] and [[seed]]s; and [[cereal|cereal grains]].<ref>{{cite book |first1=Winston J. |last1=Craig |first2=Laura |last2=Pinyan |chapter=Nutrients of Concern in Vegetarian Diets |pages=299–332 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f_XKBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA299 |editor1-first=Joan |editor1-last=Sabate |year=2001 |title=Vegetarian Nutrition |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-3683-1}}</ref>
Line 31:
[[File:Huehnereier 2989.jpg|right|thumb|[[Egg (food)|Eggs]] are a source of vitamin B<sub>12</sub> for vegetarians.]]
Generally, humans need 2.4 to 3 [[microgram]]s of vitamin B<sub>12</sub> each day.<ref name=ODS>{{cite web|title=Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin B12|url=http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/vitaminb12/|work=USA.gov|publisher=Office of dietary supplements|access-date=14 March 2012}}</ref> There are cases to suggest that vegetarians and vegans who are not taking vitamin B<sub>12</sub> supplements or food fortified with B<sub>12</sub> do not consume sufficient servings of B<sub>12</sub> and have abnormally low blood concentrations of vitamin B<sub>12</sub>.<ref>{{cite journal
It is essential, therefore, that vegetarians consume adequate amounts of dietary supplements or foods that have been fortified with B<sub>12</sub>, such as vegetable [[stock (food)|stock]], [[veggie burger]] mixes, [[textured vegetable protein]], [[soy milk]]s, vegetable and sunflower [[margarine]]s, and [[breakfast cereal]]s.<ref name=b12>The Vegetarian Society. ''[http://www.vegsoc.org/info/b12.html Information Sheet: Vitamin B{{ssub|12}}] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822090753/http://www.vegsoc.org/info/b12.html |date=22 August 2008 }}''. Retrieved 26 April 2007.</ref> B<sub>12</sub> used in these foods or supplements is typically grown from vegan sources (such as [[bacteria]]). Soybeans and barley seeds from plants grown in soils amended either with cow dung (which is rich in B<sub>12</sub>) or with pure B<sub>12</sub> had a higher B<sub>12</sub> content than those grown without this supplementation.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF00007957|title=Enrichment of some B-vitamins in plants with application of organic fertilizers|journal=Plant and Soil|volume=167|issue=2|pages=305–311|year=1994|last1=Mozafar|first1=A.|bibcode=1994PlSoi.167..305M |s2cid=44300067}}</ref>
=== Omega-3 fatty acids ===
Line 40:
Vegetarian diets can be low in [[omega-3 fatty acid]]s (O3FAs). Major vegetarian O3FA sources include [[algae]], [[hemp|hempseeds and hempseed oil]], [[walnut]]s, [[flax|flaxseeds and flaxseed oil]], [[olive oil]], [[canola oil]], [[avocado]], and [[salvia hispanica|chia seeds]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}}
A potential problem is that vegetarian diets lacking eggs or generous amounts of [[edible seaweed]] generally lack a direct source of [[Fatty_acid#Length_of_fatty_acids|long-chain]] O3FAs such as [[
A 2022 review found that [[Seaweed oil|microalgal oil]] supplementation is consistent in increasing DHA and EPA levels, whilst high dose [[Linseed oil|flaxseed]] or [[Echium|echium seed]] oil supplements provide no increase despite significant increases in ALA levels.<ref
[[Image:English Walnuts.jpg|thumb|right|[[Walnuts]] are a source of [[omega-3 fatty acid]]s.]]
Line 48:
===Calcium===
In general, [[Lacto-ovo vegetarianism|lacto-ovo-vegetarians]] have a relatively high intake of [[calcium]] that meet or exceed calcium recommendations.<ref name="Vesanto 2016">{{cite journal |date= 2016| last1=Melina | first1=Vesanto | last2=Craig | first2=Winston | last3=Levin | first3=Susan | title=Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets | journal=Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics | volume=116 | issue=12 | pages=1970–1980 | pmid=27886704 | doi=10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.025| s2cid=4984228 | url=https://higherlogicdownload.s3.amazonaws.com/THEACADEMY/859dd171-3982-43db-8535-56c4fdc42b51/UploadedImages/VN/Documents/Position-of-the-Academy-of-Nutrition-and-Dietetics-Vegetarian-Diets.pdf}}</ref>
A 2022 review found no significant difference in calcium intake between vegetarians and [[Omnivore|omnivores]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bickelmann |first1=Franziska V. |last2=Leitzmann |first2=Michael F. |last3=Keller |first3=Markus |last4=Baurecht |first4=Hansjörg |last5=Jochem |first5=Carmen |date=2022-06-06 |title=Calcium intake in vegan and vegetarian diets: A systematic review and Meta-analysis |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2022.2084027 |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=63 |issue=31 |pages=
Compared with omnivores, vegetarians tend to have a lower [[Bone density|bone mineral density]] (BMD) but not a higher fracture rate.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Iguacel I, Miguel-Berges ML, Gómez-Bruton A, Moreno LA, Julián C.|year=2019|title=Veganism, vegetarianism, bone mineral density, and fracture risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Nutr Rev|url=https://academic.oup.com/nutritionreviews/article/77/1/1/5146363|volume=77|issue=1|pages=
=== Iron ===
Line 58:
{{main|Iron deficiency}}
Vegetarians are more likely to have lower iron stores compared with non-vegetarians and have a higher risk of iron deficiency anemia.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Pawlak R, Berger J, Hines I.|year=2016|title=Iron Status of Vegetarian Adults: A Review of Literature|journal=Am J Lifestyle Med|url=|volume=12|issue=6|pages=
[[Image:Tofu-beijingchina.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Tofu]], a soy product, can be a valuable source of not only iron, but also protein, zinc and calcium for vegetarians.]]
Line 71:
{{further|Zinc deficiency}}
A 2013 review found that zinc intake and serum zinc concentrations were significantly lower in populations that follow vegetarian diets compared with non-vegetarians.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Foster M, Chu A, Petocz P, Samman S.|year=2013|title=Effect of vegetarian diets on zinc status: a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies in humans|journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture|url=|volume=93|issue=10|pages=2362–2371|doi=10.1002/jsfa.6179|pmid=23595983|bibcode=2013JSFA...93.2362F |s2cid=46474144 }}</ref>
[[Phytate]]s in many [[whole grain]]s, and [[dietary fiber]] in many plant foods may interfere with zinc absorption, and marginal zinc intake has poorly understood effects. Vegetarians may need more than the US [[Recommended Daily Allowance]] of 15 mg of zinc each day to compensate if their diet is high in phytates.<ref name="ada"/> Major plant sources of [[zinc]] include cooked [[dried bean]]s, [[edible seaweed]], fortified breakfast cereals, soy products, nuts, peas, and seeds.<ref name="ada"/>
Line 81:
==Health effects==
Evidence suggests that vegetarian diets have beneficial effects on [[blood lipids]] and that vegetarians have a reduced risk of [[cancer]], [[cardiovascular disease]], [[hypertension]] and [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type 2 diabetes]].<ref name="Oussalah 2020"/><ref>{{cite journal|author=Wang F, Zheng J, Yang B, Jiang J, Fu Y, Li D.|year=2015|title=Effects of Vegetarian Diets on Blood Lipids: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials|journal=Journal of the American Heart Association
==See also==
| |||