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{{Short description|Part of the Eighty Years' War}}
{{Other uses|Siege of Maastricht (disambiguation)}}
{{Self-published|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Siege of Maastricht
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|combatant1={{flagicon|Dutch Republic}} Dutch Rebels
|combatant2={{flagicon|Spain|1506}} [[Spain]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Dutch Republic}} [[Melchior von Schwarzenberg]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Spain|1506}} [[Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma|Alexander Farnese]] <br/> {{flagicon|Spain|1506}} [[Gillis van Berlaymont]]{{KIA}}
|strength1= 1,200–2,000<ref name=David>{{cite book |last1=David |first1=Saul |title=The Encyclopedia of War |date=2012 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |isbn=978-1-4093-8664-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6MOFgnUQ5mgC&pg=PA400 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=ue>{{aut|P.J.H. Ubachs & I.M.H. Evers}} (2005): ''Historische Encyclopedie Maastricht'', page 61. Walburg Pers, Zutphen. {{ISBN|90-5730-399-X}}</ref>
|strength2= 20,000–34,000<ref name=David/><ref name=ue/>
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{{Campaignbox Eighty Years' War}}
The '''siege of Maastricht''' was a battle of the [[Eighty Years' War]] which lasted from March 12
==Prelude==
===Political background===
The Siege of Maastricht was undertaken in a moment in which the Royal authority had almost collapsed in the Spanish Netherlands. A wave of Protestant, popular violence known as [[Beeldenstorm]] had erupted in 1566, leading Philip II to dispatch
[[File:Afkondiging van het Eeuwig Edict, 1577 De vrede van nederlant wert gepublijceert tot Antwerpen 1577 den 27 feb (titel op object), RP-P-OB-79.678.jpg|300px|thumb|Promulgation of the Perpetual Edict in Antwerp, engraving by [[Simon Frisius]], ca.
The new governor, [[John of Austria]], illegitimate half-brother to Philip, signed the so-called [[Edict of 1577|Perpetual Edict]] on 12 February 1577, ordering the Spanish troops to leave the Netherlands for [[Italy]] in exchange
While the Spanish Army went
===Military campaigning===
The Spanish army continued its offensive amidst the Netherlandish inner conflict and made rapid gains. With Leuven secured, John of Austria sent Alexander Farnese, his nephew and close friend, to besiege [[Zichem]]. The town was captured, and its garrison executed
[[File:Slag bij Rijmenam, 1578.jpg|300px|thumb|left|The States victory at the Battle of Rijmenan on 1 August 1578, by [[Frans Hogenberg]], ca. 1588-1580.]]
The Spanish army faced an unexpected setback in August when John, whom Farnese had already re-joined with his troops, [[Battle of Rijmenam (1578)|attacked]] the States Army camp at [[Rijmenam]], near [[Tienen]]. The States troops, led by the [[Maximilien de Hénin, 3rd Count of Bossu|Count of Bossu]], repelled the attack{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020a|loc=v. I pp.
In November 1578, as the Spanish army was being decimated by diseases, Farnese left the camp at Bouge garrisoned by just six companies and advanced along the right bank of the Meuse with the bulk of the army, then numbering 20,000 men, towards Limburg. He intended to
[[File:Tachtigjarige oorlog-1579.svg|300px|thumb|Political map of the Spanish Netherlands in January 1579 with Spanish campaign.]]
On 10 January 1579 Farnese sent a messenger to the Maastricht, the Spanish Captain [[Francisco Montesdoca]], its former governor, to inform the magistrates that he would confirm the city's privileges if they allowed a Spanish garrison inside. The offer was rejected, but Farnese did not besiege the city immediately. He advanced northwards from Limbourg to [[Visé]] on 15 January, aiming at crossing the Meuse. He considered doing this at [[Born, Netherlands|Born]], and later at [[Echt, Netherlands|Echt]], but he delayed the operation until the army arrived at [[Beesel]]. A company of [[musketeers]] was sent to the left bank in boats to protect the laying of a [[pontoon bridge]]. The first unit to make it to the opposite side, the Tercio of [[Francisco de Valdez|Francisco de Valdés]], was sent to occupy [[Weert]]. The crossing was completed in three days despite the bad weather.{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II pp.
Having taken Weert on 29 January, Farnese advanced with most of his forces to meet the States Army, then led by the [[Huguenot]] [[François de La Noue]], who withdrew his troops towards Antwerp. By mid-February, Farnese advanced to [[Eindhoven]], but soon turned west to [[Turnhout]].{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II pp.
With the States Army neutralized and the rebels divided, Farnese held a war council at Turnhout and informed his commanders about his intention of besieging Maastricht, whose control he deemed key to prevent the arrival of reinforcements to the rebels from Germany, as well as to ensure that the Prince-bishop of Liège, [[Gerard van Groesbeeck]], would cooperate with them.{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II p. 153}}{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=50}} At that moment,
== Siege ==
===Preparations===
With a population of about 15,000 to 17,500 people,{{sfn|Verbelen|2009|p=31}} Maastricht was one of the largest cities in the Low Countries, yet its prosperity, based on its [[Textile manufacturing|textile factories]] and [[Brewery|breweries]], had diminished in the ten years prior to the siege because the interruption of the trade due to the disturbances, and the military constraints over the population.{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II p. 150}}{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|
[[File:Maastricht 1575.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Map of Maastricht in the ''[[Civitates Orbis Terrarum]]'' by Frans Hogenberg and [[Georg Braun]], 1575.]]
While Schwarzenberg was the senior commander, the
On the Spanish side, preparations began in March, when Farnese ordered [[Gilles de Berlaymont]], general of the artillery, to leave Namur for [[Liège]] and organize the transportation down the Meuse of 48 cannons, 3 [[culverins]], 50,005 cannonballs and 500 quintals of powder. Ottavio Gonzaga, general of the cavalry, was dispatched to invest Maastricht from the right bank of the Meuse leading a substantial cavalry force, while ''[[Maestre de Campo]]'' Lope de Figueroa was entrusted the blockade of the city from the opposite bank leading his tercio, a Walloon foot regiment and four cavalry companies.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|
As cold persisted over March, the Spanish troops looked for lodgement in the villages nearby. The States troops set several of them on fire, but Figueroa drove them off and captured several of the arsonists.{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II p. 154}} Meanwhile, Cristóbal de Mondragón invested Maastricht from the German side of the Meuse in command of a large force of Walloon and German soldiers. To ease the communications between the two sections of the besieging force, two pontoon bridges were laid over the river, one north of the city, at Haren, and another south of it, at Heugem.{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II pp.
===First assault===
As the siege began during a market day, hundreds of peasants from the villages around Maastricht found themselves enclosed inside the city.{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II p. 153}} Schwarzenberg ordered the rationing of the food and appointed men to take loans from the local merchants at a reasonable interest to allow the purchase of provisions.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=62}} In the meantime, the besiegers built four earth forts on the side of Brabant to block the way to any force that attempted to relieve the city, the first one at the village of [[Hunnenberg]], on the course of the [[Jeker]] river, which flows towards Maastricht, and the other three in front of the Tongeren gate, the [[Bastion|bulwark]] of Saint Servaas and the Boschpoort, opposite to the church of the [[Teutonic Order]]. [[Peter Ernst I von Mansfeld-Vorderort|Peter Ernst von Mansfeld]], governor of [[Duchy of Luxemburg|Luxemburg]], had summoned thousands of [[Pioneer (military)|pioneers]] for the siege works, but, as they had not arrived yet, the soldiers undertook the construction of the forts. Farnese himself
[[File:Vaenius - Alexander Farnese.png|thumb|Portrait of Alexander Farnese by [[Otto van Veen]], ca. 1585.]]
Farnese asked Maastricht's former governor, Francisco Montesdoca, and ''Maestre de Campo'' Hernando de Toledo, who had spent several years in garrison duties there, about the city's weak points, but they were unable to answer.{{sfn|Vázquez|1879|p=187}} Farnese and his chief engineer, [[Gabrio Serbelloni]], intended to start the approach towards the Boschpoort, whose fortifications they deemed the weakest. Besides, they were close to the Meuse, which would allow Mondragón to support the attack from the opposite bank. However, Berlaymont had a different opinion. He argued that the ground near the Boschpoort was low, and therefore exposed to floods in case of heavy rains, and also that it was very open, so the troops would be too exposed to the artillery fire from Maastricht's walls.{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II pp.
Farnese ordered the ravelin to be carried by assault on 23 March 1579. The attack was entrusted to the Spanish foot companies under Francisco de Aguilar, Gaspar Ortiz and Sancho Ladrón.{{sfn|Vázquez|1879|p=188}} When the assault became imminent, Tapin ordered additional artillery to be brought to the rampart behind the ravelin and the building of an earthwork in front of the gate. Moreover, in order to increase the willingness of his men to fight to the bitter end, he had twenty Spanish prisoners thrown into the Meuse with a weight on their feet.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=65}} To prepare the assault, Farnese ordered Berlaymont to batter the entrance to the ravelin from the city walls with eight cannons. Captain Vázquez stated that, nevertheless, the artillery general did it just with three pieces because Farnese gave his orders through Count Guido di San Giorgio, from [[Monferrato]], who was his confidant and a well-taught military theorist, but who Berlaymont despised because of his lack of experience.{{sfn|Vázquez|1879|p=188}} On the other hand, the anonymous ''Chronicle of St. Servaas'', written by an inhabitant of the city, mentions that the bombardment was carried out by five cannons which shot over 300 cannonballs.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=65}} The assault was launched after the cannonade and, although the Spanish infantry managed to seize most of the ravelin, it was forced to abandon it because of the artillery and musketry fire from the walls.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=65}}
===Underground fighting===
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[[File:Beleg van Maastricht, 1579.JPG|300px|thumb|left|Engraving of the siege by Frans Hogenberg, ca. 1589-1581.]]
By 26 March 1579, the Spanish battery had been increased to 12 cannons in the plain before Maastricht and 2 culverins in a height nearby. More than 11,000 shots had been fired over the city since 20 March, the highest caliber being of 42 pounds.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=68}} That same day, two mines were detonated with no result other than further hindering the assault over the ravelin. Farnese even considered lifting the siege, but he finally persisted so as not to lose reputation. In the following days, fighting focused on the mines and counter-mines dug by the Spanish and Dutch sappers. One of the Spanish galleries was intercepted by a Dutch counter-mine. Having at first blocked the way with planks, then the Dutch sappers poured a large vat of boiling water over the hole, scalding the men who worked in the mine and forcing them to abandon it. Another gallery was intercepted, and this time Tapin ordered an amount of [[green wood]] to be set on fire at the entrance of the counter-mine to propel the smoke over the Spanish gallery by using [[bellows]] from the [[pipe organ]] of the [[Basilica of Saint Servatius]].{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II p. 159}}{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=69}} Next day, 31 March, Farnese ordered a number of planks to be loopholed and sent a few dozen Spanish soldiers down the mines to claim them back. Firing from behind the planks and pushing the Dutch with pikes, the Spanish were able to re-occupy the galleries.{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II p. 159}}{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|
The same day in the afternoon, aiming at taking revenge, the defenders launched a sortie over the Spanish trenches spanning from the Brussels gate to the St. Antonius gate. Tapin himself was in command. 600 foot soldiers sallied across the Kruispoort, and 60 horsemen across the Boschpoort.{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II pp.
===Second assault===
The defenders launched several additional sorties from 1 April to 3 April 1579 to hinder the Spanish siege works. In the largest one, 200 Spanish soldiers were killed, among them Captain Caravantes, who had been appointed less than two weeks before. Five sappers were captured and brought to the city. After the senior one was drowned in the Meuse when he refused to cooperate with the defenders, the remaining four agreed.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=72}} Also on early April, Captain Willem de Riddere, along seven or eight men, managed to sneak through the Spanish lines in a boat down
[[File:Map Siege of Maastricht 1579.jpg|300px|thumb|Map of Maastricht and the Spanish circumvallation line around it by the Walloon military engineer Pierre Le Poivre, 1615.]]
One of the mines was ignited that day below the ravelin of the Tongeren gate, whose tip was seriously damaged. Farnese then ordered Captain Antonio Trancoso to assault it in command of about 80 soldiers from his company. They scaled the ruined rampart, only to discover that the defenders had erected behind it a second parapet with a moat and a [[stockade]].{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II p. 160}}{{sfn|Strada|1681|p=66}} After a fierce fight, the Spanish took control of the ravelin, though Trancoso was badly wounded and died next day. Tapin immediately ordered a counter-attack across the gate, which ultimately failed. Several prisoners were taken on both sides. One of them, Alessandro Cavalca, a gentleman from the entourage of Farnese, was drowned next day
On the morning of 9 April 1579, while men took their positions for the assault, the moat of the Boschpoort was emptied through breaches dug by the sappers while Mondragón subjected the gate to a heavy bombardment from the Wyck side with six cannons. Meanwhile, 20 cannons battered the walls in two points near the Tongeren gate and the Boschpoort.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=74}}{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II p. 162}} The assault column directed to
Before giving the order to assault Maastricht, Farnese send two officers to inspect the moat. One stated that it was empty enough, but the other argued the contrary. Farnese then wanted to make an inspection personally, but his war council dissuaded him, and he sent instead Guido di San Giorgio, who reported that the moat was shallow enough. Just before the assault, one mine was blown under a platform that the defenders had erected to defend the Tongeren gate. A second mine was ignited too, but it had been counter-mined by the Dutch from below and inflicted no damage.{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II p. 163}}{{sfn|Strada|1681|p=73}} The rubble and the earth from the walls, as well as the fascine thrown by the pioneers into the moat, eased the way for
The assault on the Tongeren gate was ill-coordinated, as the German and Walloon infantry, deployed on the right wing, attacked before the Tercio of Hernando de Toledo was ready. They were met by heavy musketry fire and decimated by the shots of cannons loaded with nails and chains.{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II pp.
===Continuation of the siege===
After the failed assault, Farnese summoned his war council to decide on the next movement. A new assault was deemed impossible due to the lack of gunpowder and [[lead]], which had to be brought from Luxemburg. Therefore, it was decided to build a massive artillery platform facing the Brussels gate to easily batter the walls and, notably, to prevent the defenders from erecting additional fortifications before the gate.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=82}}{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II p. 175}} That section of the wall was particularly strong, as a large bastion with [[Loophole (firearm)|loopholes]] and a deep moat had been built in front of the gate. Moreover, the bastion contained a second fortification, also surrounded by a moat and linked to the first and to the Brussels gate through narrow bridges over the moats. One large tower
As the States-General were assembling forces to march in relief of Maastricht, the Spanish command also decided to built a [[circumvallation]] line on both sides of the Meuse to fully isolate the city. The soldiers were exhausted and many pioneers had left the camp, so Farnese dispatched cavalry troops to gather peasants from the villages nearby and hired 3,000 coal miners from Liège.{{sfn|Strada|1681|
[[File:Beleg van Maastricht, noodmunt van twaalf stuivers, NG-VG-4-172.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Obverse and reverse of an emergency coin issued by the governor of Maastricht during the siege.]]
Preparations for the relief of Maastricht had accelerated after the arrival of Willem de Riddere to Antwerp in early April 1579. The States recruited 3,000 to 4,000 [[reiters]] in Gelderland and intended to mobilize a large infantry force. However, most of the Walloon Catholic units refused to intervene
While the conversations took place, the artillery platform was quickly erected with [[gabions]] made from [[wickerwork]] and filled with earth that were stacked on top of each other and supported by poles. These were crafted with help from the wives of the German soldiers. When finished, it measured about 35 m wide and 40 m height.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=84}}{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II p. 176}} Three cannons and two dozen of the best musketeers of the Spanish army were posted on top. Meanwhile, in order to put the city under a cross-fire, Spanish troops landed from boats on the St. Antonius island, in middle of the Meuse, and started to entrench themselves there, but were promptly driven away by the fire from Maastricht.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=84}}
The situation inside the city was becoming increasingly gloomy. Without news from outside since 18 April 1579, Schwarzenberg ordered emergency coins valued at half, one and two [[stuiver]]s to be minted in red copper on 28 April. This became the only money of legal course in Maastricht during the siege, and the prices of food, drinks and clothes were regulated by the military command.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=85}} Food restrictions were imposed on 4 May 1579 when Schwarzenberg ordered the two deans of the butchers' guild to inspect every house and stable in the city to prepare a list of the extant cattle. The burghers complained, as they had fed the garrison for longer than a year. Each soldier was paid four stuivers daily, the stonemason masters ten, and the poor people was fed at the expense of the town council, but the burghers were unable to exert their offices and received no compensation. Moreover, on 22 May, those who possessed [[wheat]], [[rye]] or other grain in a quantity considered larger than sufficient to meet their basic needs, were ordered to sell it at the market at a fixed price.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|
===Capture and sack of the city===
With supporting fire from the platform recently erected, the Spanish focused on capturing the bastion of the Brussels gate. The fire from above made the Dutch defense difficult, leading Tapin to order the fortification to be gradually demolished.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=87}}{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II pp.
[[File:Rampart Maastricht 1579.jpg|thumb|300px|Sketch of the defenses around the Brussels gate by a German soldier of the garrison of Maastricht, drawn on 19 June 1579 and sent to the [[List of rulers of Hesse|Landgrave of Hesse]].{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=83}}]]
On 4 June, the Dutch sappers detonated two counter-mines below two Spanish mines, inflicting a number of casualties, including Captain Ortiz. Meanwhile, anticipating the loss of the Brussels gate, Tapin ordered a lunette to be built behind it. Thousands of civilians worked on the new fortification, which was quickly finished and furnished with eight cannons.{{sfn|Strada|1681|p=111}} By then, the number of able soldiers in command of Schwarzenberg and Tapin had fallen to just 400.{{sfn|Meteren|1618|p=173}} According to a Dutch deserter, 1,000 defenders had been killed in the fighting.{{sfn|Strada|1681|p=110}} Farnese decided then to drag siege artillery to the section of the walls under Spanish control to batter the new lunette. While supervising the operation, Berlaymont was killed.{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II p. 180}} His loss, according to Vázquez, was much deplored, 'for he was a brave gentleman, well-liked and much loved by all the nations'.{{sfn|Vázquez|1879|p=211}}
The Spanish artillery fire forced the Dutch to abandon their remaining positions in the Brussels gate and retreat behind the lunette. This was subjected to a heavy bombardment, and Tapin was wounded. To encourage his men and keep morale high, he ordered to be taken to the front in a [[Litter (vehicle)|litter]].{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II pp.
After the failed assault, Farnese fell ill and had to remain in bed. On 26 June 1579, he promised the besieged that the city would be spared if they surrendered. However, his terms were rejected, as the defenders did not trust him.{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II p. 181}}{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=94}} Therefore, he determined that a final assault was to take place on 29 June, the [[feast of Saints Peter and Paul]]. The night before, while the deployment was being carried out, some Spanish and German soldiers unsuccessfully tried to storm the Dutch entrenchment, yet Farnese kept his orders. The Spanish infantry was placed on the right, and the German and Walloon soldiers on the left. During the night, several attacks were feigned in order to prevent the Dutch from resting.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|p=94}}
At dawn, Maastricht was finally stormed. The defenders were then asleep and, taken by surprise, could not contain the push. Assailed from all
To put pressure over the last defenders, Mondragón launched an assault over Wyck, leading Tapin to realize that his position was hopeless. He request terms to Gonzaga and surrendered on condition to be spared with the surviving soldiers in exchange for a ransom. Schwarzenberg was slain during the battle, although it was rumored that he escaped in a boat disguised as a cook. By 1580, nevertheless, his states in [[Schinveld]] passed into the hands of a relative, dispelling any rumor about his survival.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|
==Aftermath==
The four months of siege and the sack of the city left Maastricht partially ruined. Contemporaneous Netherlandish authors such as Emanuel van Meteren and [[Pieter Bor]] noted that just 300 to 400 burghers remained after the capture of the city, which according to them had to be repopulated by people from Liège.{{sfn|Thomassen|1890|
The Spanish casualties were high. According to Alonso Vázquez, more than 1,500 Spanish soldiers died in the combats, including 23 captains and three sergeant majors.{{sfn|Vázquez|1879|p=217}} 22 German and Walloon captains were killed, for a total loss, excluding the pioneers, of about 2,500 soldiers.{{sfn|Strada|1681|p=120}} Farnese dispatched Cristóbal de Mondragón to Spain to inform Philip II about the success, and wrote letters to the pope [[Gregory XIII]] and to his parents, [[Ottavio Farnese]] and [[Margaret of Parma]] – half-sister of Philip II and former governess of the Netherlands.{{sfn|Marek y Villarino de Brugge|2020b|loc=v. II p. 189}}{{sfn|Strada|1681|p=121}} However, his
===Military and political developments===
While the siege of Maastricht and the Cologne peace talks were being undertaken, Farnese was
==Legacy==
As a major victory for Philip II, the Siege of Maastricht was depicted in paintings, engravings and plays. The siege features prominently in two series of paintings about battles and sieges of the Eighty Years' War commissioned in the late 1590s by [[Albert VII, Archduke of Austria|Archduke Albert]], governor from the Spanish Netherlands, to commemorate military victories that highlighted the reputation of the [[Spanish Crown]], and intended as a present to Philip II. When the canvases arrived to Spain, Philip had already died, but they were kept at the [[El Escorial|Palace of El Escorial]].{{sfn|García-Frías Checa|2006|p=154}} The two series differ in the size, being the large one 204 x 245 cm and the smaller one 119 x 169 cm, and in the
The first artworks to depict the siege were two engravings by Frans Hogenberg which were published shortly thereafter. One focuses
A series of paintings depicting the campaigns of Alexander Farnese, based on Hooghe's engravings for ''De Bello Belgico'', was created in the early 18th century by the [[Cuzco School]] of the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]], during the reign of [[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]].{{sfn|Panbehchi|2014|p=19}} They were meant to foster a sense of continuity at a moment when the [[Habsburg dynasty]] had been replaced in Spain by the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] one, which was linked to the [[House of Farnese]] through the second wife of Philip V, [[Elisabeth Farnese]], direct descendant of Alexander.{{sfn|Panbehchi|2014|
==Notes==
Line 136 ⟶ 138:
*{{cite book |last=Arnade |first=Peter |title=Beggars, Iconoclasts, and Civic Patriots: The Political Culture of the Dutch Revolt |year=2018 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=9781501726712}}
*{{Cite book |last=Darby | first=Graham |editor1-first=Graham |editor1-last=Darby |title=The Origins and Development of the Dutch Revolt |publisher=Routledge |date=2001 |pages=8–28 |chapter=Narrative of events |isbn=9780415253796}}
*{{cite thesis |type=PhD |last=Duijnen |first=M. F. van |date=2020 |title= A Violent Imagination: Printed Images of Violence in the Dutch Republic,
*{{Cite book |last=García-Frías Checa | first=Carmen |editor1-first=Bernardo José |editor1-last=García García |title=La imagen de la guerra en el arte de los antiguos Países Bajos |publisher= Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Fundación Carlos de Amberes |date=2006 |pages=135–170 |chapter= Las series de batallas del Real Monasterio de San Lorenzo de El Escorial. Frescos y pinturas |isbn=9788474918014}}
*{{cite journal |last=Habets |first=Jozef |date=1865 |title=Opkomst en voortgang der stadt Maastricht |language=Dutch |journal=Publications de la Société d'archéologie dans le Duché de Limbourg |volume=2 |pages=22–98|doi= }}
*{{cite journal |last=
*{{cite book |last=Limm |first=Peter |title=The Dutch Revolt,
*{{cite book|first=André|last=Marek y Villarino de Brugge|title=Alessandro Farnese: Prince of Parma: Governor-General of the Netherlands (1545–1592): v. I|publisher=MJV Enterprises ltd. inc.|location=Los Angeles|year=2020a|isbn=979-8687255998}}
*{{cite book|last1=Marek y Villarino de Brugge |first1=André |title=Alessandro Farnese: Prince of Parma: Governor-General of the Netherlands (
*{{Cite book |last=Marnef | first=Guido |editor1-first=Graham |editor1-last=Darby |title=The Origins and Development of the Dutch Revolt |publisher=Routledge |date=2001 |pages=84–106 |chapter=The towns and the revolt |isbn=9780415253796}}
*{{cite book |last=Meteren |first=Emanuel van |title=L'Histoire Des Pays-Bas d'Emanuel de Meteren |language=French |year=1618 |publisher=Hillebrand Jacobsz Wou |isbn=}}
Line 149 ⟶ 151:
*{{cite book |last=Stensland |first=Monica |title=Habsburg Communication in the Dutch Revolt |year=2012 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=9789089644138}}
*{{cite book |last=Strada |first=Famiano |title=Segunda Decada de las Guerras de Flandes, desde el principio del Govierno de Alexandro Farnese, Tercero Duque de Parma y Placencia |language=Spanish |year=1681 |publisher=s. n. |isbn=}}
*{{cite book |last=Thomassen |first=M. H. J. P. |title=Krijgsbedrijven van Alexander Farnese in Limburg en aangrenzende gewesten,
*{{cite book |last=Tracy |first=James D. |title=The Founding of the Dutch Republic. War, Finance, and Politics in Holland, 1572–1588 |year=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199209118}}
*{{cite book |last=Vázquez |first=Alonso |title=Los Sucesos de Flandes y Francia del tiempo de Alejandro Farnese |volume=I |language=Spanish |year=1879 |publisher=Miguel Ginesta |isbn=}}
*{{cite thesis |type=Master's thesis |last=Verbelen |first=Charis |date=2009 |title= Het beeld van Alexander Farnese in pamfletten. Studie met de focus op enkele prominente gebeurtenissen tijdens zijn gouverneurschap
*{{Cite book |last=Voges | first=Ramon |editor1-first=Nina |editor1-last=Lamal |editor2-first=Jamie |editor2-last=Cumbie |editor3-first=Helmer J. |editor3-last=Helmers |title=Print and Power in Early Modern Europe (1500–1800) |publisher=Brill |date=2021 |pages=300–315 |chapter=Pictures and Power: The Visual Prints of Frans Hogenberg |isbn=9789004448896}}
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[[Category:Sieges involving the Dutch Republic]]
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[[Category:Looting in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Massacres committed by Spain]]
[[Category:Massacres in the Netherlands]]
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