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[[File:CLS diploma.jpg|thumb|Juris Doctor diploma conferred by [[Columbia Law School]]|292x292px]]
A '''Juris Doctor''', '''Doctor of Jurisprudence''',<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The Doctor of Jurisprudence (JD) Degree |url=https://law.stanford.edu/office-of-student-affairs/the-doctor-of-jurisprudence-jd-degree/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706191250/https://law.stanford.edu/office-of-student-affairs/the-doctor-of-jurisprudence-jd-degree/ |archive-date=6 July 2022 |access-date=2023-04-09 |website=Stanford Law School |language=en}}</ref> or '''Doctor of Law<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=The Law School > Academic Catalog {{!}} The University of Chicago |url=http://graduateannouncements.uchicago.edu/graduate/lawschool/ |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=Graduate Announcements, The University of Chicago |language=en |archive-date=15 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230615201522/http://graduateannouncements.uchicago.edu/graduate/lawschool/ |url-status=live }}</ref>''' ('''JD''') is a [[Postgraduate education|graduate]]-entry [[professional degree]] that primarily prepares individuals to practice [[law]]. In the [[United States]], it is the only qualifying law degree,. while otherOther jurisdictions, such as [[Australia]], [[Canada]], and [[Hong Kong]], offer both the postgraduate JD degreesdegree as well as the and undergraduate [[LL.B.]], [[Bachelor of Civil Law|BCL]], or other qualifying law degreesdegree depending on the requirements of the jurisdiction where the person will practice law.
 
Originating in the United States in the late 19th century, the JD has since replaced the [[Bachelor of Laws]] (LLB) asis the most common law degree in the country. The degree generally requires three years of full-time study to complete and is conferred upon students who have successfully completed coursework and practical training in legal studies. The JD curriculum typically includes fundamental legal subjects such as constitutional law, civil procedure, criminal law, contracts, property, and torts, along with opportunities for specialization in areas like international law, corporate law, or public policy. Upon receiving a JD, graduates must pass a bar examination to be licensed to practice law. The [[American Bar Association]] does not allow an accredited JD degree to be issued in less than two years of law school studies.<ref name="uwsl2008">{{cite web |title=JD Program & Policies |url=http://www.law.washington.edu/students/academics/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923205607/http://www.law.washington.edu/students/academics/ |archive-date=23 September 2008 |access-date=2 September 2008 |publisher=[[University of Washington School of Law]]}}</ref><ref name="russo2004">
{{cite journal |last=Russo |first=Eugene |year=2004 |title=The changing length of Ph.D.s |journal=Nature |volume=431 |issue=7006 |pages=382–383 |bibcode=2004Natur.431..382R |doi=10.1038/nj7006-382a |pmid=15372047 |s2cid=4373950}}
</ref>
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|archive-date=22 July 2015
}}
</ref><ref name="Canadian Framework" />
 
To be fully authorized to practice law in the courts of a given state in the United States, the majority of individuals holding a JD degree must pass a [[Multistate Performance Test|bar examination]],<ref>{{cite web
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170509092216/http://www.nybarexam.org/
|url-status=live
}}</ref> except from the state of Wisconsin.<ref>{{Cite web |last=School |first=University of Wisconsin Law |title=Diploma Privilege {{!}} University of Wisconsin Law School |url=https://law.wisc.edu/current/diploma_privilege/ |access-date=2023-04-09 |website=law.wisc.edu |language=en |archive-date=9 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409145828/https://law.wisc.edu/current/diploma_privilege/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Diploma Privilege {{!}} Marquette University Law School |url=https://law.marquette.edu/prospective-students/diploma-privilege |access-date=2023-04-09 |website=law.marquette.edu |archive-date=9 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409151328/https://law.marquette.edu/prospective-students/diploma-privilege |url-status=live }}</ref> United States patent courts also involve a specialized "[[USPTO registration examination|Patent Bar]]" which requirerequires applicants to hold an additional required degree in certain scientific fields alongside their Juris Doctor degrees.<ref name="uspto">{{cite web |url=https://www.uspto.gov/learning-and-resources/patent-and-trademark-practitioners/becoming-patent-practitioner |title=Becoming a Patent Practitioner |author=United States Patent and Trademark Office |date=27 March 2017 |website=USPTO.gov |publisher=United States Government |access-date=3 November 2021 |quote=Learn about applying for registration to practice in patent matters before the USPTO, including requirements, forms, and exam information. |archive-date=5 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605043057/https://www.uspto.gov/learning-and-resources/patent-and-trademark-practitioners/becoming-patent-practitioner |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
==Etymology and abbreviations==
In the [[United States]], the professional doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English as ''Juris Doctor'' (sometimes shown on [[Latin]] diplomas in the [[accusative]] form ''Juris Doctorem'') and at some law schools Doctor of Law (JD),<ref>{{cite dictionaryencyclopedia
|title=JD
|dictionary=Oxford Living Dictionaries
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|place=London, UK
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=9780521541138978-0-521-54113-8
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC&q=bologna+doctor+title&pg=RA1-PA399
|access-date=26 May 2008
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|volume=1, Universities in the Middle Ages
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=978-0-521-36105-27
}}
</ref><ref name="Herbermann-etal-1915">{{cite book
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[[File:London-Inns-of-Court.JPG|right|thumb|The [[Inns of Court]] of London served as a professional school for lawyers in England]]
 
The nature of the JD can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practice law.<ref name="Stein-1981" />{{rp|pages=434, 435}} The universities only taught civil and canon law (used in a very few jurisdictions, such as the courts of admiralty and church courts) but not the [[common law]] that applied in most jurisdictions. Professional training for practicing common law in England was undertaken at the [[Inns of Court]], but over time the training functions of the Inns lessened considerably and apprenticeships with individual practitioners arose as the prominent medium of preparation.<ref name="Stein-1981" />{{rp|pages=434, 436}} However, because of the lack of standardisationstandardization of study, and of objective standards for appraisal of these apprenticeships, the role of universities became subsequently important for the education of lawyers in the English-speaking world.<ref name="Stein-1981" />{{rp|page=436}}
 
In England in 1292 when [[Edward I]] first requested that lawyers be trained, students merely sat in the courts and observed, but over time the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences, which led to the institution of the [[Inns of Court]] system.<ref name="Stein-1981" />{{rp|page=430}} The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of [[moot court]]-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation.<ref name="Stein-1981" />{{rp|page=431}} By the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university, akin to the [[University of Oxford]] and the [[University of Cambridge]], though very specialized in purpose.<ref name="Stein-1981" />{{rp|page=432}} With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the [[Crusades]], the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew.<ref name="Stein-1981" />{{rp|page=433}}
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The Inns of Court continued but became less effective, and admission to the bar still did not require any significant educational activity or examination. In 1846, Parliament examined the education and training of prospective [[barristers]] and found the system to be inferior to that of Europe and the United States, as Britain did not regulate the admission of barristers.<ref name="Stein-1981" />{{rp|page=436}} Therefore, formal schools of law were called for but were not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions.<ref name="Stein-1981" />{{rp|page=436}}
 
Until the mid nineteenth century, most law degrees in England (the BCL at Oxford and Durham, and the LLB at London)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l8UUAAAAQAAJ|title=Oxford University Calendar|date=1833|last1=Baxter|first1=W.|access-date=2 September 2017|archive-date=9 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409145105/https://books.google.com/books?id=l8UUAAAAQAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kt8NAAAAQAAJ|title=Durham University Calendar|date=1844|access-date=2 September 2017|archive-date=9 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409145106/https://books.google.com/books?id=kt8NAAAAQAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3uENAAAAQAAJ|title=London University Calendar|date=1845|last1=Univ|first1=London|access-date=2 September 2017|archive-date=9 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409145111/https://books.google.com/books?id=3uENAAAAQAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> were postgraduate degrees, taken after an initial degree in arts. The Cambridge degree, variously referred to as a BCL, BL or LLB, was an exception: it took six years from matriculation to complete, but only three of these had to be in residence, and the BA was not required (although those not holding a BA had to produce a certificate to prove they had not only been in residence but had actually attended lectures for at least three terms).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ad4NAAAAQAAJ|title=Cambridge University Calendar|date=1833|access-date=2 September 2017|archive-date=9 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409145111/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ad4NAAAAQAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VoMPRz8nYQEC&pg=187|title=A History of the University of Cambridge:, Volume 3; Volumes 1750–1870|pages=187–190|author=Peter Searby|year=1988|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521350600978-0-521-35060-0}}</ref> These degrees specialisedspecialized in Roman civil law rather than in English common law, the latter being the domain of the Inns of Court, and thus they were more theoretical than practically useful.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Ol0qAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA533|title=The Solicitors' Journal|date=29 April 1865}}</ref> Cambridge reestablished its LLB degree in 1858 as an undergraduate course alongside the BA,<ref name="LL Cantab">{{cite web|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001669/18581020/082/0003|title=Cambridge|date=20 October 1858|via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]|work=Norwich Mercury|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and the London LLB, which had previously required a minimum of one year after the BA, become an undergraduate degree in 1866.<ref name="LLB Lond">{{cite book|title=University of London Calendar|date=1866|page=95|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IeQNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA95|last1=Univ|first1=London}}</ref> The older nomenclature continues to be used for the BCL at Oxford today, which is a master's level program, while Cambridge moved its LLB back to being a postgraduate degree in 1922 but only renamed it as the LLM in 1982.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law.cam.ac.uk/courses/llm/the_history_of_the_llm.php|title=LLM|publisher=Cambridge University Faculty of Law|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071102202003/http://www.law.cam.ac.uk/courses/llm/the_history_of_the_llm.php|archive-date=2 November 2007}}</ref>
 
Between the 1960s and the 1990s, law schools in England took on a more central role in the preparation of lawyers and consequently improved their coverage of advanced legal topics to become more professionally relevant. Over the same period, American law schools became more scholarly and less professionally oriented, so that in 1996 Langbein could write: "That contrast between English law schools as temples of scholarship and American law schools as training centers for the profession no longer bears the remotest relation to reality".<ref name="Langbein1996" />
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==Creation of the JD and major common law approaches to legal education==
The JD originated in the United States during a movement to improve training of the professions. Prior to the origination of the JD, law students began law school either with only a high school diploma, or less than the amount of undergraduate study required to earn a bachelor's degree. The LLB persisted through the middle of the 20th century, after which by then turned into a completed[[Postgraduate education|postgraduate]] degree requiring the previous completion of a bachelor's degree becameas a requirementpre-requisite for virtually all students entering law school, it became a bachelor's degree in name only. The didactic approaches that resulted were revolutionary for university education and have slowly been implemented outside the United States, but only recently (since about 1997) and in stages. The degrees which resulted from this new approach, such as the MD and the JD, are just as different from their European counterparts as the educational approaches differ.
 
===Legal education in the United States===
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|publisher=Lawbook Exchange
|page=50
|isbn=9781584774419978-1-58477-441-9
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PEVayHaV4XYC&q=history+of+legal+education&pg=PA1
|via=Google Books
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}}</ref> Because the JD degree was no more advantageous for bar admissions or for employment, the vast majority of Marquette students preferred to seek the LLB degree.<ref name=Hylton-2012-01-11/>
 
As more law students entered law schools with collegepreviously awarded bachelor's degree degrees in the 1950s and 1960s, a number of law schools may have introduced the JD to encourage law students to complete their undergraduate degrees.<ref name=Hylton-2012-01-11/> As late as 1961, there were still 15 ABA-accredited law schools in the United States which awarded both LLB and JD degrees. Thirteen of the 15 were located in the Midwest, which may indicate regional variations in the United States.<ref name=Hylton-2012-01-11/>
[[File: Juris_Doctor diploma.jpg|thumb|A Juris Doctor conferred by [[Suffolk Law School]].]]
It was only after 1962 that a new push — this time begun at less-prominent law schools — successfully led to the universal adoption of the JD as the first law degree. The turning point appears to have occurred when the [[American Bar Association|ABA]] Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar unanimously adopted a resolution recommending to all approved law schools that they give favorable consideration to the conferring of the JD degree as the first professional degree, in 1962 and 1963.<ref name=asklib-faq-115308/> By the 1960s, most law students were college graduates having previously obtained a bachelor's degree, and by the end of that decade, almost all were required to be.<ref name=Perry-2012-06/> Student and alumni support were key in the LLB-to-JD change, and even the most prominent schools were convinced to make the change: Columbia and Harvard in 1969, and Yale (last) in 1971.<ref name=Perry-2012-06/>{{rp|pages=22–23}}<ref name=asklib-faq-115308/><ref>
{{cite journal
|last=Schoenfeld |first=M.
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|pages=585–591
|url=http://collegewing.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/LLB-to-JD-for-school-website.pdf
|url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014080058/http://collegewing.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/LLB-to-JD-for-school-website.pdf
|archive-date=14 October 2014
}}
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150803095954/http://www.law.harvard.edu/academics/degrees/gradprogram/
|url-status=live
}}</ref> Similarly, Columbia refers to the LLM and the JSD as its graduate program.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.law.columbia.edu/admissions/graduate-legal-studies/|title=Graduate Legal Studies|work=Columbia Law School|access-date=28 August 2015|archive-date=27 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150827064742/http://web.law.columbia.edu/admissions/graduate-legal-studies|url-status=live}}</ref> Yale Law School lists its LLM, MSL, JSD, and Ph.D. as constituting graduate programs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.law.yale.edu/study-law-yale/degree-programs/graduate-programs |title=Graduate Programs – Yale Law School |website=Law.yale.edu |access-date=17 April 2017 |archive-date=1 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501190904/https://law.yale.edu/study-law-yale/degree-programs/graduate-programs |url-status=live }}</ref> A distinction thus remains between professional and graduate law degrees at some universities in the United States.
 
===Major common law approaches===
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|via=Google Books
|access-date=1 August 2021
|archive-date=
|archive-url=
|url-status=
}}</ref> This system of curriculum has existed in the United States for over 100 years. The JD program generally requires a bachelor's degree for entry, though this requirement is sometimes waived.<ref>
{{cite web
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====Replacement for the LLB====
An initial attempt to rename the LLB to the JD in the US in the early 20th century started with a petition at Harvard in 1902. This was rejected, but the idea took hold at the new law school established at the [[University of Chicago]] and other universities. By 1925, 80% of US law schools awarded the JD to students who had entered the program with an undergraduate degree, while granting undergraduate entrants the LLB. The change was initially rejected by the leading law schools of the time Harvard, Yale and Columbia. By the late 1920s, schools were moving away from the JD and once again granting only the LL.BLLB, with only law schools in Illinois holding out. This changed in the 1960s, by which time almost all law school entrants were graduates. The JD was reintroduced in 1962 and by 1971 had replaced the LLB, with many schools going offering a JD as a replacement to their LLB alumni.<ref name=Perry-2012-06>{{cite journal
|first=David |last=Perry
|date=June 2012
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====Australia====
The traditional law degree in Australia is the undergraduate Bachelor of Laws ([[Bachelor of Laws#Australia|LLB]]). Beginning in the 2010s, many Australian universities now offer JD programs, including the country's best ranked universities (e.g. the [[University of New South Wales]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.law.unsw.edu.au/future-students/unsw-jd |title=Unsw Jd &#124; Law |website=Law.unsw.edu.au |date=7 April 2017 |access-date=17 April 2017 |archive-date=28 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428145223/http://www.law.unsw.edu.au/future-students/unsw-jd |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[University of Sydney]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sydney.edu.au/law/fstudent/jd/program.shtml |title=The Sydney Juris Doctor (JD) – Future Students – The University of Sydney |website=Sydney.edu.au |date=30 March 2017 |access-date=17 April 2017 |archive-date=20 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101220224339/http://sydney.edu.au/law/fstudent/jd/program.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Australian National University]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://law.anu.edu.au/study/study-programs/anu-juris-doctor |title=The ANU Juris Doctor – ANU College of Law – ANU |website=Law.anu.edu.au |date=10 August 2015 |access-date=17 April 2017 |archive-date=19 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419141757/https://law.anu.edu.au/study/study-programs/anu-juris-doctor |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[University of Melbourne]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://law.unimelb.edu.au/study/jd |title=The Melbourne JD (Juris Doctor) : Melbourne Law School |location=AU |website=Law.unimelb.edu.au |access-date=17 April 2017 |archive-date=11 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411220702/http://law.unimelb.edu.au/study/jd |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Monash University]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://monash.edu/pubs/2019handbooks/courses/L6005.html|title=Monash University Handbook|website=Monash University|access-date=10 June 2019|archive-date=27 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027161717/https://www3.monash.edu/pubs/2019handbooks/courses/L6005.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Western Sydney University]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/future/study/courses/postgraduate/juris-doctor|title=Western Sydney University - JD Course InfomationInformation|website=westernsydney.edu.au|access-date=18 February 2024|archive-date=18 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240218122710/https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/future/study/courses/postgraduate/juris-doctor |url-status=live}}</ref>).
 
Generally, universities that offer the JD also offer the LLB, although at some universities, only the graduate-entry JD is offered. The University of Melbourne, for example, has phased out its undergraduate LLB program for a graduate JD one.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.smh.com.au/national/education/a-decade-into-the-melbourne-model-young-graduates-give-their-assessment-20150930-gjxt3u.html |title=A decade into the Melbourne Model, young graduates give their assessment |website=Smh.com.au |date=4 October 2015 |access-date=17 April 2017 |archive-date=7 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507111418/http://www.smh.com.au/national/education/a-decade-into-the-melbourne-model-young-graduates-give-their-assessment-20150930-gjxt3u.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
An Australian Juris Doctor consists of three years of full-time study, or the equivalent. The course varies across different universities, though all are obliged to teach the [[Priestley 11]] subjects per the requirements of state admissions boards in Australia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lawadmissions.vic.gov.au/qualifications-and-training/academic|title=Academic|first=Victorian Legal Admissions|last=Board|website=www.lawadmissions.vic.gov.au|access-date=20 March 2019|archive-date=9 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609000525/https://www.lawadmissions.vic.gov.au/qualifications-and-training/academic|url-status=live}}</ref> JDs are considered equivalent to LLBs, and graduates must meet the same requirements to qualify, including undergoing a practical training.
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428214830/http://www.cmec.ca/Publications/Lists/Publications/Attachments/95/QA-Statement-2007.en.pdf
|url-status=live
}}</ref>
 
All Canadian ''Juris Doctor'' programs consist of three years and have similar content in their mandatory first year courses, including public law, property law, tort law, contract law, criminal law and legal research and writing.<ref>
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====Italy====
In [[Italy]], only one program gives access to traditional legal professions such as laywerlawyer, magistrate or public notary, and that is the ''Laurea Magistrale in Giurisprudenza''.<ref name="Degree Programmes - School of Law">{{cite web
|title=Degree Programmes
|department=School of Law
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915002057/http://www.law.unibo.it/en/programmes/degree-programmes
|url-status=live
}}</ref>. ThisLegal programstudies hashave existeda long history in Italy for several centuries, as one of the reason behind the establishment ofwith the [[University of Bologna]], being the oldestmain universityItalian allegedlycenter foundedfor instudies 1088,of wasboth to[[canon providelaw]] anand education[[Civil in,law among the others,(legal system)|civil law]] in the 12th and canon13th lawcenturies.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-25 |title=University of Bologna {{!}} History & Development {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/University-of-Bologna |access-date=2024-03-23 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
 
The ''laurea magistrale in giurisprudenza'' is a five-year academic program, deemed a master's-level degree under the [[Bologna Process|Bologna process]],<ref>{{cite web
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513191934/https://www.miur.it/0006Menu_C/0012Docume/0098Normat/4640Modifi_cf2.htm
|url-status=live
}}</ref> that can be entered into with a [[high school diploma]]. The program comprises universities classes in legal theory and legal subjects, excluding practical courses, and is concluded with a thesis ({{lang-it|tesi di laurea}}) to be defended before an academic commission.<ref name="Degree Programmes - School of Law" /> AIn couplea ofnovel universitiesapproach, area currentlyfew experimentinguniversities withare trialing a 3+2 coursemodel, wherewhich studentsinitially pursueoffers a bachelor's degree in law, andfollowed thenby decidethe whetheroption to completeundertake twoan furtheradditional two years of studies to obtainearn the Italian Juris Doctor.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Russo |first=Maria |date=2010-11-24 |title=Laurea in Giurisprudenza |url=https://www.universita.it/laurea-giurisprudenza/ |access-date=2024-03-24 |website=Universita.it |language=it-IT}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-22 |title=Trento, nuova laurea per giuristi cosmopoliti - Cronaca |url=https://www.ladige.it/cronaca/2017/07/22/trento-nuova-laurea-per-giuristi-cosmopoliti-1.2636936 |access-date=2024-03-24 |website=l'Adige |language=it}}</ref>
 
Italian graduates in law are awarded the title of Doctor of Law ({{lang-it|Dottore Magistrale in Giurisprudenza}}, commonly known as ''Dottore in legge''), in keeping with standard Italian practice of awarding the title of [[doctor (title)|doctor]] to holdersuniversity of master's level degreesgraduates.
 
TheHolders of the ''laureaLaurea magistraleMagistrale in giurisprudenzaGiurisprudenza'' allowsare registrationeligible to register with an Italian bar toassociation, which is a prerequisite performfor the compulsorymandatory eighteen-month traineeshipapprenticeship withunder ana Italianpracticing attorney-at-law priorbefore to sitting totaking the bar examexamination.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Riforma dell'ordinamento professionale forense
|date=January 2013
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915042344/http://www.consiglionazionaleforense.it/documents/20182/281186/2013-01+IV-03+LEGGE+247-2012+RIFORMA+ORDINAMENTO+PROFESSIONALE+FORENSE.pdf/36dc1607-fd5d-4368-83b0-b7358ff0aea5?version=1.0
|url-status=live
}}</ref> AnotherAlternatively, routegraduates intomay theopt legal profession is to undertakefor two furtheradditional yearyears of studiesstudy withinat the ''Scuole di specializzazioneSpecializzazione per le professioniProfessioni legaliLegali'' (specializationSpecialization schoolsSchools for the legalLegal professionProfession), whichleading awardto a ''Diploma di specializzazioneSpecializzazione per le professioniProfessioni legaliLegali'' (specializationSpecialization diplomaDiploma for the legalLegal profession;Profession), equivalentakin ofto a master's degree).<ref>{{Cite web |title=DECRETODecreto LEGISLATIVOLegislativo 5 aprile 2006, n. 160 |url=https://www.normattiva.it/uri-res/N2Ls?urn:nir:stato:decreto.legislativo:2006-04-05;160!vig= |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=normattiva.it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=LEGGELegge 30 luglio 2007, n. 111 |url=https://www.normattiva.it/uri-res/N2Ls?urn:nir:stato:legge:2007-07-30;111!vig= |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=normattiva.it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-22 |title=Trento, nuova laurea per giuristi cosmopoliti - Cronaca |url=https://www.ladige.it/cronaca/2017/07/22/trento-nuova-laurea-per-giuristi-cosmopoliti-1.2636936 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523204732/https://www.ladige.it/cronaca/2017/07/22/trento-nuova-laurea-per-giuristi-cosmopoliti-1.2636936 |archive-date=2023-05-23 |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=l'Adige |language=Italianit}}</ref> ThePossession of the ''laureaLaurea magistraleMagistrale in giurisprudenzaGiurisprudenza'' sufficesalso qualifies individuals to sitpartake in the competitive public examination, organizedadministered by the Ministry of justiceJustice, thatfor giveentry access tointo the [[Judiciary of Italy#Ordinary magistracy|ordinary magistracy]].<ref>{{cite web |date=16 June 2022 |title=NUOVONuovo ACCESSOAccesso DIRETTODiretto ALAl CONCORSOConcorso INIn MAGISTRATURAMagistratura CONCon LALa SOLASola LAUREALaurea – RIFORMARiforma CARTABIACartabia 2022 – ARTArt 4 LEGGELegge 17 GIUGNOGiugno 2022, N. 71, n. 98 |url=https://www.fglaw.it/concorso_magistratura_nuovo_accesso_semplificato_direttamente_con_la_laurea_riforma_2022.html |access-date=20 April 2023 |language=it}}</ref>
 
====Japan====
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==In academia==
In the United States, the Juris Doctor is the degree that prepares the recipient to enter the law profession (as do the [[Doctor of Medicine|M.D.]] or [[Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine|D.O.]] in the medical profession and the [[Doctor of Dental Surgery|D.D.S]] or D.M.D. in the dental profession). While the J.D. is the sole degree necessary to become a professor of law or to obtain a license to practice law, it (like the M.D., D.O, D.D.S, or D.M.D.) is not a "research degree".<ref>
Line 1,164 ⟶ 1,162:
|pages=87–88
|publisher=Cambria Press
|isbn=978-16049761061-60497-610-6
|postscript=none
}} – see esp. Mwenda's comments on pp.&nbsp;87–88, in the section labeled "The Academic Rank of a JD" and the quoted material from Pappas immediately preceding it.
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110104317/https://www.law.yale.edu/studying-law-yale/degree-programs/graduate-programs/llm-program/llm-admission
|url-status=live
}}</ref> and the [[Doctor of Juridical Science]] (S.J.D./J.S.D.), which ordinarily requires the LL.M. as a prerequisite.<ref name="law.yale.edu"/>
 
However, the [[American Bar Association]], which accredits US law schools, has issued a Council Statement stating:<ref>{{cite web
Line 1,192 ⟶ 1,190:
}}</ref> <blockquote>''WHEREAS, the acquisition of a Doctor of Jurisprudence degree requires from 84 to 90 semester hours of post baccalaureate study and the Doctor of Philosophy degree usually requires 60 semester hours of post baccalaureate study along with the writing of a dissertation, the two degrees shall be considered as equivalent degrees for educational employment purposes.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publications/misc/legal_education/Standards/2013_2014_council_statements.pdf |access-date=2022-09-23 |website=www.americanbar.org |title=Archived copy |archive-date=23 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220923235252/https://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publications/misc/legal_education/Standards/2013_2014_council_statements.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>''</blockquote>
 
Accordingly, while most law professors are required to conduct original writing and research in order to be awarded tenure, the majority have a J.D. as their highest degree and are qualified to teach and supervise LL.M. and J.S.D candidates. However, research in 2015 showed an increasing trend toward hiring professors with both a J.D. and Ph.D. in a field that confers Ph.D. degrees, particularly at more highly ranked schools.<ref>
{{cite news
|first=Orin |last=Kerr
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|pages=21–22
|publisher=Cambria Press
|isbn=9781621969594978-1-62196-959-4
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jOyVvAPtTcwC&pg=PA21
}}
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|page=27
|publisher=Cambria Press
|isbn=9781621969594978-1-62196-959-4
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jOyVvAPtTcwC&pg=PA27 |via=Google Books
}}
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}}</ref>
 
In the late 1960s, the rising number of American law schools awarding JDs led to debate over whether lawyers could ethically use the title '"doctor'". Initial informal ethics opinions, based on the ''Canons of Professional Ethics'' then in force, came down against this.<ref>
{{cite journal
|title=Summaries of informal opinions of the Standing Committee on Professional Ethics
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|page=72
|publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]]
|isbn=9781439122693978-1-4391-2269-3
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3mjxg9iNAQUC&pg=PA72
|via=Google Books
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|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]
|department=National
|url=httphttps://articleswww.latimes.com/2009archives/la-xpm-2009-feb/-02/nation/-na-dr-jill-biden2-story.html
|quote=Newspapers, including [[The Los Angeles Times|the Times]], generally do not use the honorific 'Dr.' unless the person in question has a medical degree.
|access-date=2 May 2017
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