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'''Biotechnology''' is a multidisciplinary field that involves the integration of [[natural science]]s and [[Engineering Science|engineering sciences]] in order to achieve the application of organisms and parts thereof for products and services.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Biotechnology |url=https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/B00666 |website=IUPAC Goldbook |year=2014 |doi=10.1351/goldbook.B00666 |doi-access=free |access-date=February 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120205824/https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/B00666 |url-status=live }}</ref>
The term ''biotechnology'' was first used by [[Károly Ereky]] in 1919<ref>{{cite book|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006798043|title=Biotechnologie der Fleisch-, Fett-, und Milcherzeugung im landwirtschaftlichen Grossbetriebe: für naturwissenschaftlich gebildete Landwirte verfasst|first=Karl.|last=Ereky|date=June 8, 1919|publisher=P. Parey|via=Hathi Trust|access-date=March 16, 2022|archive-date=March 5, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305023252/http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006798043|url-status=live}}</ref> to refer to the production of products from raw materials with the aid of living organisms. The core principle of biotechnology involves harnessing biological systems and organisms, such as bacteria, [[yeast]], and plants, to perform specific tasks or produce valuable substances.
Biotechnology had a significant impact on many areas of society, from medicine to agriculture to [[environmental science]]. One of the key techniques used in biotechnology is [[genetic engineering]], which allows scientists to modify the genetic makeup of organisms to achieve desired outcomes. This can involve inserting genes from one organism into another, and consequently, create new traits or modifying existing ones.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Genetic Engineering |url=https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetic-Engineering|date=2023-12-15 |access-date=2023-12-18 |publisher=National Human Genome Research Institute, US National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref>
Other important techniques used in biotechnology include tissue culture, which allows researchers to grow cells and tissues in the lab for research and medical purposes, and [[fermentation]], which is used to produce a wide range of products such as beer, wine, and cheese.
The applications of biotechnology are diverse and have led to the development of essential products like life-saving drugs, [[Biofuel|biofuels]], genetically modified crops, and innovative materials.<ref>{{Cite
Biotechnology is a rapidly evolving field with significant potential to address pressing global challenges and improve the quality of life for people around the world; however, despite its numerous benefits, it also poses ethical and societal challenges, such as questions around [[Genetic Modification|genetic modification]] and [[Intellectual Property Rights|intellectual property rights]]. As a result, there is ongoing debate and regulation surrounding the use and application of biotechnology in various industries and fields.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=O'Mathúna |first=Dónal P. |date=2007-04-01 |title=Bioethics and biotechnology |journal=Cytotechnology |volume=53 |issue=1–3 |pages=113–119 |doi=10.1007/s10616-007-9053-8 |issn=0920-9069 |pmc=2267612 |pmid=19003197}}</ref>
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{{TopicTOC-Biology}}
The concept of biotechnology encompasses a wide range of procedures for [[genetic engineering|modifying]] living [[organism]]s for human purposes, going back to [[domestication]] of animals, cultivation of
[[File:Tissue engineering english.jpg|thumb|alt=A visual representation of tissue engineering principles, demonstrating the creation of functional tissues using a combination of engineering and biological concepts|Principles of Tissue Engineering]]
Biotechnology is the [[research and development]] in the [[laboratory]] using [[bioinformatics]] for exploration, extraction, exploitation, and production from any [[living organisms]] and any source of [[biomass]] by means of [[biochemical engineering]] where high value-added products could be planned (reproduced by [[biosynthesis]], for example), forecasted, formulated, developed, manufactured, and marketed for the purpose of sustainable operations (for the return from bottomless initial investment on R & D) and gaining durable patents rights (for exclusives rights for sales, and prior to this to receive national and international approval from the results on animal experiment and human experiment, especially on the [[pharmaceutical]] branch of biotechnology to prevent any undetected side-effects or safety concerns by using the products).<ref>[https://archive.today/20130414170840/http://www.europabio.org/what-biotechnology What is biotechnology?]. Europabio. Retrieved on March 20, 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.oecd.org/science/innovationinsciencetechnologyandindustry/49303992.pdf Key Biotechnology Indicators (December 2011)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108080057/http://www.oecd.org/science/innovationinsciencetechnologyandindustry/49303992.pdf |date=November 8, 2012 }}. oecd.org</ref><ref>[http://www.oecd.org/sti/biotechnologypolicies/keybiotechnologyindicators.htm "Biotechnology policies" – Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120831071244/http://www.oecd.org/sti/biotechnologypolicies/keybiotechnologyindicators.htm |date=August 31, 2012 }}. Retrieved on March 20, 2013.</ref> The utilization of biological processes, [[organism]]s or systems to produce products that are anticipated to improve human lives is termed biotechnology.<ref>{{Cite book |title=History, scope and development of biotechnology |publisher=IOPscience |date=May 2018 |doi=10.1088/978-0-7503-1299-8ch1 |doi-access=free |language=en |last1=Goli |first1=Divakar |last2=Bhatia |first2=Saurabh |isbn=978-0-7503-1299-8 }}</ref>
By contrast, [[bioengineering]] is generally thought of as a related field that more heavily emphasizes higher systems approaches (not necessarily the altering or using of biological materials ''directly'') for interfacing with and utilizing living things. Bioengineering is the application of the principles of [[engineering]] and natural sciences to tissues, cells, and molecules. This can be considered as the use of knowledge from working with and manipulating biology to achieve a result that can improve functions in plants and animals.<ref>[http://www.bionewsonline.com/k/what_is_bioengineering.htm What Is Bioengineering?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123084548/http://www.bionewsonline.com/k/what_is_bioengineering.htm |date=January 23, 2013 }}. Bionewsonline.com. Retrieved on March 20, 2013.</ref> Relatedly, [[biomedical engineering]] is an overlapping field that often draws upon and applies ''biotechnology'' (by various definitions), especially in certain sub-fields of biomedical or [[chemical engineering]] such as [[tissue engineering]], [[pharmaceutical engineering|biopharmaceutical engineering]], and [[genetic engineering]].{{cn|date=May 2024}}
==History==
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{{Main|History of biotechnology}}
Although not normally what first comes to mind, many forms of human-derived [[agriculture]] clearly fit the broad definition of "utilizing a biotechnological system to make products". Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise.{{cn|date=May 2024}}
[[Agriculture]] has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the [[Neolithic Revolution]]. Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best-suited crops (e.g., those with the highest yields) to produce enough food to support a growing population. As crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain, it was discovered that specific organisms and their by-products could effectively [[fertilize]], [[nitrogen fixation|restore nitrogen]], and [[pesticide|control pests]]. Throughout the history of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and [[plant breeding|breeding]] them with other plants — one of the first forms of biotechnology.{{clarify|date=February 2022}}
These processes also were included in early fermentation of [[beer]].<ref>See {{Cite book |last=Arnold |first=John P. |title=Origin and History of Beer and Brewing: From Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of Brewing Science and Technology |publisher=BeerBooks |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-9662084-1-2 |location=Cleveland, Ohio |page=34 |oclc=71834130 |name-list-style=vanc}}.</ref> These processes were introduced in early [[Mesopotamia]], [[Egypt]], [[China]] and [[India]], and still use the same basic biological methods. In [[brewing]], malted grains (containing [[enzyme]]s) convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific [[yeast]]s to produce beer. In this process, [[carbohydrate]]s in the grains broke down into alcohols, such as ethanol. Later, other cultures produced the process of [[lactic acid fermentation]], which produced other preserved foods, such as [[soy sauce]]. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce [[leavened bread]]. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until [[Louis Pasteur]]'s work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.{{cn|date=May 2024}}
Before the time of [[Charles Darwin]]'s work and life, animal and plant scientists had already used selective breeding. Darwin added to that body of work with his scientific observations about the ability of science to change species. These accounts contributed to Darwin's theory of natural selection.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cole-Turner |first=Ronald |date=2003 |title=Biotechnology |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404200058.html |journal=Encyclopedia of Science and Religion |access-date=December 7, 2014 |name-list-style=vanc |archive-date=October 25, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025010817/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404200058.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
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In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of [[microbiology]] and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, [[Chaim Weizmann]] first used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing [[corn starch]] using ''[[Clostridium acetobutylicum]],'' to produce [[acetone]], which the [[United Kingdom]] desperately needed to manufacture [[explosive]]s during [[World War I]].<ref name="Springham_biotechnology">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GY5DCr6LD4C |title=Biotechnology: The Science and the Business |vauthors=Springham D, Springham G, Moses V, Cape RE |publisher=CRC Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-90-5702-407-8 |page=1}}</ref>
Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics. In 1928, [[Alexander Fleming]] discovered the mold ''[[Penicillium]]''. His work led to the purification of the antibiotic compound formed by the mold by [[Howard Florey]], [[Ernst Boris Chain]] and [[Norman Heatley]] – to form what we today know as [[penicillin]]. In 1940, penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in humans.<ref name="Thieman" />
The field of modern biotechnology is generally thought of as having been born in 1971 when Paul Berg's (Stanford) experiments in gene splicing had early success. [[Herbert Boyer|Herbert W. Boyer]] (Univ. Calif. at San Francisco) and [[Stanley Norman Cohen|Stanley N. Cohen]] (Stanford) significantly advanced the new technology in 1972 by transferring genetic material into a bacterium, such that the imported material would be reproduced. The commercial viability of a biotechnology industry was significantly expanded on June 16, 1980, when the [[United States Supreme Court]] ruled that a [[genetic engineering|genetically modified]] [[microorganism]] could be [[patent]]ed in the case of ''[[Diamond v. Chakrabarty]]''.<ref name="DiamondvChakrabarty">"[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=447&invol=303 Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303 (1980). No. 79-139] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628191938/http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=447&invol=303 |date=June 28, 2011 }}." ''[[United States Supreme Court]].'' June 16, 1980. Retrieved on May 4, 2007.</ref> Indian-born [[Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty|Ananda Chakrabarty]], working for [[General Electric]], had modified a bacterium (of the genus ''[[Pseudomonas]]'') capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills. (Chakrabarty's work did not involve gene manipulation but rather the transfer of entire organelles between strains of the ''Pseudomonas'' bacterium).{{cn|date=May 2024}}
The [[MOSFET]]
By the mid-1980s, other BioFETs had been developed, including the [[gas sensor]] FET (GASFET), [[pressure sensor]] FET (PRESSFET), [[chemical field-effect transistor]] (ChemFET), [[ISFET|reference ISFET]] (REFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET).<ref name="Bergveld" /> By the early 2000s, BioFETs such as the [[DNA field-effect transistor]] (DNAFET), [[Genetically modified|gene-modified]] FET (GenFET) and [[Membrane potential|cell-potential]] BioFET (CPFET) had been developed.<ref name="Schoning" />
A factor influencing the biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation—and enforcement—worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products
Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy]] estimating [[ethanol]] usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeans—the main inputs into biofuels—by developing genetically modified seeds that resist pests and drought. By increasing farm productivity, biotechnology boosts biofuel production.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-technology-1/The-Recession-List---Top-10-Industries-to-Fly-and-Flop-in-2008-4076-3/ |title=The Recession List - Top 10 Industries to Fly and Flop in 2008 |date=2008-03-19 |publisher=Bio-Medicine.org |access-date=May 19, 2008 |archive-date=June 2, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080602160516/http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-technology-1/The-Recession-List---Top-10-Industries-to-Fly-and-Flop-in-2008-4076-3/ }}</ref>
==Examples==
{{further|Outline of biotechnology}}
Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non-food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g., [[biodegradable plastic]]s, [[vegetable oil]], [[biofuel]]s), and [[Natural environment|environmental]] uses.▼
▲Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non-food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g., [[biodegradable plastic]]s, [[vegetable oil]], [[biofuel]]s), and [[Natural environment|environmental]] uses.{{cn|date=May 2024}}
For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of [[microorganism]]s for the manufacture of organic products (examples include [[beer]] and [[milk]] products). Another example is using naturally present [[bacteria]] by the mining industry in [[bioleaching]]. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities ([[bioremediation]]), and also to produce [[biological warfare|biological weapons]].▼
▲For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of [[microorganism]]s for the manufacture of organic products (examples include [[beer]] and [[milk]] products). Another example is using naturally present [[bacteria]] by the mining industry in [[bioleaching]].{{cn|date=May 2024}} Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities ([[bioremediation]]), and also to produce [[biological warfare|biological weapons]].
A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:
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* Red biotechnology is the use of biotechnology in the medical and [[pharmaceutical]] industries, and health preservation.<ref name=":0" /> This branch involves the production of [[vaccine]]s and [[antibiotic]]s, regenerative therapies, creation of artificial organs and new diagnostics of diseases.<ref name=":0" /> As well as the development of [[hormones]], [[stem cells]], [[antibodies]], siRNA and [[diagnostic tests]].<ref name=":0" />
* White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to [[Manufacturing|industrial]] processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of [[enzyme]]s as industrial [[catalyst]]s to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Frazzetto G |date=September 2003 |title=White biotechnology |journal=EMBO Reports |volume=4 |issue=9 |pages=835–7 |doi=10.1038/sj.embor.embor928 |pmc=1326365 |pmid=12949582}}</ref><ref name=":4">Frazzetto, G. (2003). [http://embor.embopress.org/content/4/9/835 White biotechnology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181111024351/http://embor.embopress.org/content/4/9/835 |date=November 11, 2018 }}. March 21, 2017, de EMBOpress Sitio</ref>
* "Yellow biotechnology" refers to the use of [[biotechnology]] in food production ([[food industry]]), for example in making wine ([[winemaking]]), cheese ([[cheesemaking]]), and beer ([[brewing]]) by [[fermentation]].<ref name=":0" /> It has also been used to refer to biotechnology applied to insects. This includes biotechnology-based approaches for the control of harmful insects, the characterisation and utilisation of active ingredients or genes of insects for research, or application in agriculture and medicine and various other approaches.<ref name=":6">[https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-642-39863-6 Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719084141/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-39863-6 |date=July 19, 2018 }}, Volume 135 2013, Yellow Biotechnology I</ref>
* Gray biotechnology is dedicated to environmental applications, and focused on the maintenance of [[biodiversity]] and the remotion of pollutants.<ref name=":0" />
* Brown biotechnology is related to the management of arid lands and [[desert]]s. One application is the creation of enhanced seeds that resist extreme [[desert climate|environmental conditions]] of arid regions, which is related to the innovation, creation of agriculture techniques and management of resources.<ref name=":0" />
* Violet biotechnology is related to law, ethical and philosophical issues around biotechnology.<ref name=":0" />
* Microbial biotechnology has been proposed for the rapidly emerging area of biotechnology applications in space and microgravity (space bioeconomy)<ref name="space">{{cite journal |vauthors=Santomartino R, Averesch NJ, Bhuiyan M, Cockell CS, Colangelo J, Gumulya Y, Lehner B, Lopez-Ayala I, McMahon S, Mohanty A, Santa Maria SR, Urbaniak C, Volger R, Yang J, Zea L |title=Toward sustainable space exploration: a roadmap for harnessing the power of microorganisms |journal=Nature Communications |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1391 |date=March 2023 |pmid=36944638 |pmc=10030976 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-37070-2|bibcode=2023NatCo..14.1391S }}</ref>
* Dark biotechnology is the color associated with [[bioterrorism]] or [[biological weapons]] and biowarfare which uses microorganisms, and toxins to cause diseases and death in humans, livestock and crops.<ref>Edgar, J.D. (2004). The Colours of Biotechnology: Science, Development and Humankind. Electronic Journal of Biotechnology, (3), 01</ref><ref name=":0" />
===Medicine===
In medicine, modern biotechnology has many applications in areas such as [[pharmaceutical drug]] discoveries and production, [[pharmacogenomics]], and genetic testing (or [[Genetic testing|genetic screening]]). In 2021, nearly 40% of the total company value of pharmaceutical biotech companies worldwide were active in [[Oncology]] with [[Neurology]] and [[Rare Disease]]s being the other two big applications.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://torreya.com/publications/pharma-1000-report-update-torreya-2021-11-18.pdf |title=Top Global Pharmaceutical Company Report |work=The Pharma 1000 |date=November 2021 |access-date=29 December 2022 |archive-date=March 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315051910/https://torreya.com/publications/pharma-1000-report-update-torreya-2021-11-18.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Microarray2.gif|thumb|[[DNA microarray]] chip – some can do as many as a million blood tests at once. ]]
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===Agriculture===
[[Genetically modified crops]] ("GM crops", or "biotech crops") are plants used in [[agriculture]], the [[DNA]] of which has been modified with [[genetic engineering]] techniques. In most cases, the main aim is to introduce a new [[trait (biology)|trait]] that does not occur naturally in the species. Biotechnology firms can contribute to future food security by improving the nutrition and viability of urban agriculture. Furthermore, the protection of intellectual property rights encourages private sector investment in agrobiotechnology.{{cn|date=May 2024}}
Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests,<ref name="news.google.co.uk">[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=A0YyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jOYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4631,1776980&hl= Genetically Altered Potato Ok'd For Crops] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731032615/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=A0YyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jOYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4631,1776980&hl= |date=July 31, 2022 }} Lawrence Journal-World – May 6, 1995</ref> diseases,<ref>{{Cite book |last=National Academy of Sciences |title=Transgenic Plants and World Agriculture |publisher=National Academy Press |year=2001 |location=Washington}}</ref> stressful environmental conditions,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ilsi.org/Documents/2011%20AM%20Presentations/CERAPaarlberg.pdf |title=Drought Tolerant GMO Maize in Africa, Anticipating Regulatory Hurdles |last=Paarlburg |first=Robert |date=January 2011 |publisher=International Life Sciences Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222081325/http://www.ilsi.org/Documents/2011%20AM%20Presentations/CERAPaarlberg.pdf |archive-date=December 22, 2014 |access-date=April 25, 2011 |name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a [[herbicide]]<ref>Carpenter J. & Gianessi L. (1999). [http://agbioforum.org/v2n2/v2n2a02-carpenter.htm Herbicide tolerant soybeans: Why growers are adopting Roundup Ready varieties] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119133446/http://www.agbioforum.org/v2n2/v2n2a02-carpenter.htm |date=November 19, 2012 }}. AgBioForum, 2(2), 65–72.</ref>), reduction of spoilage,<ref name="Haroldsen1">{{Cite journal |last1=Haroldsen |first1=Victor M. |last2=Paulino |first2=Gabriel |last3=Chi-ham |first3=Cecilia |last4=Bennett |first4=Alan B. |year=2012 |title=Research and adoption of biotechnology strategies could improve California fruit and nut crops |journal=California Agriculture |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=62–69 |doi=10.3733/ca.v066n02p62 |name-list-style=vanc|doi-access=free |url=http://calag.ucanr.edu/archive/?article=ca.v066n02p62}}</ref> or improving the nutrient profile of the crop.<ref>[http://www.irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&layout=item&id=10202&Itemid=100571&lang=en About Golden Rice] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102112216/http://www.irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&layout=item&id=10202&Itemid=100571&lang=en |date=November 2, 2012 }}. Irri.org. Retrieved on March 20, 2013.</ref> Examples in non-food crops include production of [[Plant manufactured pharmaceuticals|pharmaceutical agents]],<ref>Gali Weinreb and Koby Yeshayahou for Globes May 2, 2012. [http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000745325&fid=1725 FDA approves Protalix Gaucher treatment] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529030847/http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000745325&fid=1725 |date=May 29, 2013 }}</ref> [[biofuel]]s,<ref>Carrington, Damien (January 19, 2012) [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jan/19/gm-microbe-seaweed-biofuels GM microbe breakthrough paves way for large-scale seaweed farming for biofuels] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511010433/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jan/19/gm-microbe-seaweed-biofuels |date=May 11, 2017 }} The Guardian. Retrieved March 12, 2012</ref> and other industrially useful goods,<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=van Beilen JB, Poirier Y |s2cid=25954199 |date=May 2008 |title=Production of renewable polymers from crop plants |journal=The Plant Journal |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=684–701 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-313X.2008.03431.x |pmid=18476872|doi-access=free }}</ref> as well as for [[bioremediation]].<ref>Strange, Amy (September 20, 2011) [http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2011/0913/1224304027463.html Scientists engineer plants to eat toxic pollution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110913133755/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2011/0913/1224304027463.html |date=September 13, 2011 }} The Irish Times. Retrieved September 20, 2011</ref><ref name="Diaz">{{Cite book |editor=Diaz E |url=https://archive.org/details/microbialbiodegr0000unse |title=Microbial Biodegradation: Genomics and Molecular Biology |publisher=Caister Academic Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-904455-17-2 |url-access=registration}}</ref>
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===Environmental===
Environmental biotechnology includes various disciplines that play an essential role in reducing environmental waste and providing [[Environmentally friendly|environmentally safe]] processes, such as [[Biofilter|biofiltration]] and [[biodegradation]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pakshirajan|first1=Kannan|last2=Rene|first2=Eldon R.|last3=Ramesh|first3=Aiyagari|date=2014|title=Biotechnology in environmental monitoring and pollution abatement|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2014|page=235472|doi=10.1155/2014/235472|issn=2314-6141|pmc=4017724|pmid=24864232|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Danso|first1=Dominik|last2=Chow|first2=Jennifer|last3=Streit|first3=Wolfgang R.|date=2019-10-01|title=Plastics: Environmental and Biotechnological Perspectives on Microbial Degradation|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|volume=85|issue=19|doi=10.1128/AEM.01095-19|issn=1098-5336|pmc=6752018|pmid=31324632|bibcode=2019ApEnM..85E1095D }}</ref> The environment can be affected by biotechnologies, both positively and adversely. Vallero and others have argued that the difference between beneficial biotechnology (e.g., [[bioremediation]] is to clean up an oil spill or hazard chemical leak) versus the adverse effects stemming from biotechnological enterprises (e.g., flow of genetic material from transgenic organisms into wild strains) can be seen as applications and implications, respectively.<ref>[[Daniel A. Vallero]], ''Environmental Biotechnology: A Biosystems Approach'', Academic Press, Amsterdam, NV; {{ISBN|978-0-12-375089-1}}; 2010.</ref> Cleaning up environmental wastes is an example of an application of [[environmental biotechnology]]; whereas [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]] or loss of containment of a harmful microbe are examples of environmental implications of biotechnology.{{cn|date=May 2024}}
Many cities have installed [[CityTrees]], which use biotechnology to filter pollutants from urban atmospheres.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-11-09 |title=Debate on robot trees looks to clear the air: What are other countries doing? |url=https://www.echolive.ie/corknews/arid-41266045.html |access-date=2024-01-17 |newspaper=The Echo |language=en}}</ref>
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{{main|Regulation of genetic engineering|Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms}}
The regulation of genetic engineering concerns approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the [[Biotechnology risk|risks]] associated with the use of [[genetic engineering]] technology, and the development and release of genetically modified organisms (GMO), including [[genetically modified crops]] and [[genetically modified fish]]. There are differences in the regulation of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Gaskell G, Bauer MW, Durant J, Allum NC |s2cid=5131870 |date=July 1999 |title=Worlds apart? The reception of genetically modified foods in Europe and the U.S. |journal=Science |volume=285 |issue=5426 |pages=384–7 |doi=10.1126/science.285.5426.384 |pmid=10411496}}{{Retracted|doi=10.1126/science.288.5472.1751a|pmid=10877693}}</ref> Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of the products of the genetic engineering. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.<ref name="PotatoPro">{{Cite web |url=http://www.potatopro.com/newsletters/20100310.htm |title=The History and Future of GM Potatoes |date=March 10, 2010 |website=Potato Pro |access-date=January 1, 2014 |archive-date=October 12, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012033805/http://www.potatopro.com/newsletters/20100310.htm }}</ref> The European Union differentiates between approval for cultivation within the EU and approval for import and processing. While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing.<ref name="Wesseler-2011">{{Cite book |title=EU Policy for Agriculture, Food and Rural Areas |vauthors=Wesseler J, Kalaitzandonakes N |publisher=Wageningen Academic Publishers |year=2011 |veditors=Oskam A, Meesters G, Silvis H |edition=2nd |location=Wageningen |pages=23–332 |chapter=Present and Future EU GMO policy |author-link=Justus Wesseler}}</ref> The cultivation of GMOs has triggered a debate about the coexistence of GM and non-GM crops. Depending on the coexistence regulations, incentives for the cultivation of GM crops differ.<ref name="Beckman-2011">{{Cite book |title=Genetically modified food and global welfare |vauthors=Beckmann VC, Soregaroli J, Wesseler J |publisher=Emerald Group Publishing |year=2011 |veditors=Carter C, Moschini G, Sheldon I |series=Frontiers of Economics and Globalization Series |volume=10 |location=Bingley, UK |pages=201–224 |chapter=Coexistence of genetically modified (GM) and non-modified (non GM) crops: Are the two main property rights regimes equivalent with respect to the coexistence value? |author-link3=Justus Wesseler}}</ref>
===Database for the GMOs used in the EU===
The [[EUginius]] (European GMO Initiative for a Unified Database System) database is intended to help companies, interested private users and competent authorities to find precise information on the presence, detection and identification of GMOs used in the [[European Union]]. The information is provided in English.{{cn|date=May 2024}}
==Learning==
[[File:Central New York Biotech Accelerator-entrance.jpg|thumb|right|Central New York Biotech Accelerator, [[State University of New York Upstate Medical University|Upstate Medical University]]]]
In 1988, after prompting from the [[United States Congress]], the [[National Institute of General Medical Sciences]] ([[National Institutes of Health]]) (NIGMS) instituted a funding mechanism for biotechnology training. Universities nationwide compete for these funds to establish Biotechnology Training Programs (BTPs). Each successful application is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed. [[Graduate students]] in turn compete for acceptance into a BTP; if accepted, then stipend, tuition and health insurance support are provided for two or three years during the course of their [[PhD]] thesis work. Nineteen institutions offer NIGMS supported BTPs.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nigms.nih.gov/Training/InstPredoc/Pages/PredocDesc-Biotechnology.aspx |title=Biotechnology Predoctoral Training Program |date=December 18, 2013 |website=National Institute of General Medical Sciences |access-date=October 28, 2014 |archive-date=October 28, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028215034/http://www.nigms.nih.gov/Training/InstPredoc/Pages/PredocDesc-Biotechnology.aspx }}</ref> Biotechnology training is also offered at the undergraduate level and in community colleges.{{cn|date=May 2024}}
==References and notes==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Nicolia2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Nicolia |first1=Alessandro |last2=Manzo |first2=Alberto |last3=Veronesi |first3=Fabio |last4=Rosellini |first4=Daniele |date=2013 |title=An overview of the last 10 years of genetically engineered crop safety research |url=https://www.pps.net/cms/lib/OR01913224/Centricity/Domain/3337/peer%20reviewed%20meta%20study%20on%20GMOs%20copy.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.pps.net/cms/lib/OR01913224/Centricity/Domain/3337/peer%20reviewed%20meta%20study%20on%20GMOs%20copy.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=Critical Reviews in Biotechnology |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=77–88 |doi=10.3109/07388551.2013.823595 |pmid=24041244 |s2cid=9836802 |quote=We have reviewed the scientific literature on GE crop safety for the last 10 years that catches the scientific consensus matured since GE plants became widely cultivated worldwide, and we can conclude that the scientific research conducted so far has not detected any significant hazard directly connected with the use of GM crops.<br /><br />The literature about Biodiversity and the GE food/feed consumption has sometimes resulted in animated debate regarding the suitability of the experimental designs, the choice of the statistical methods or the public accessibility of data. Such debate, even if positive and part of the natural process of review by the scientific community, has frequently been distorted by the media and often used politically and inappropriately in anti-GE crops campaigns.}}</ref>
<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/Y5160E/y5160e10.htm#P3_1651The |title=State of Food and Agriculture 2003–2004. Agricultural Biotechnology: Meeting the Needs of the Poor. Health and environmental impacts of transgenic crops |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |access-date=August 30, 2019 |quote=Currently available transgenic crops and foods derived from them have been judged safe to eat and the methods used to test their safety have been deemed appropriate. These conclusions represent the consensus of the scientific evidence surveyed by the ICSU (2003) and they are consistent with the views of the World Health Organization (WHO, 2002). These foods have been assessed for increased risks to human health by several national regulatory authorities (inter alia, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, the United Kingdom and the United States) using their national food safety procedures (ICSU). To date no verifiable untoward toxic or nutritionally deleterious effects resulting from the consumption of foods derived from genetically modified crops have been discovered anywhere in the world (GM Science Review Panel). Many millions of people have consumed foods derived from GM plants – mainly maize, soybean and oilseed rape – without any observed adverse effects (ICSU). |archive-date=January 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109114119/http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/Y5160E/y5160e10.htm#P3_1651The |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Ronald2011">{{Cite journal |last=Ronald |first=Pamela |date=May 1, 2011 |title=Plant Genetics, Sustainable Agriculture and Global Food Security |journal=Genetics |volume=188 |issue=1 |pages=11–20 |doi=10.1534/genetics.111.128553 |pmc=3120150 |pmid=21546547 |quote="There is broad scientific consensus that genetically engineered crops currently on the market are safe to eat. After 14 years of cultivation and a cumulative total of 2 billion acres planted, no adverse health or environmental effects have resulted from commercialization of genetically engineered crops (Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Committee on Environmental Impacts Associated with Commercialization of Transgenic Plants, National Research Council and Division on Earth and Life Studies 2002). Both the U.S. National Research Council and the Joint Research Centre (the European Union's scientific and technical research laboratory and an integral part of the European Commission) have concluded that there is a comprehensive body of knowledge that adequately addresses the food safety issue of genetically engineered crops (Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health and National Research Council 2004; European Commission Joint Research Centre 2008). These and other recent reports conclude that the processes of genetic engineering and conventional breeding are no different in terms of unintended consequences to human health and the environment (European Commission Directorate-General for Research and Innovation 2010)."}}</ref>
<ref name="Also"><p>But see also:</p><p>{{Cite journal |last1=Domingo |first1=José L. |last2=Bordonaba |first2=Jordi Giné |date=2011 |title=A literature review on the safety assessment of genetically modified plants |url=http://gaiapresse.ca/images/nouvelles/28563.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://gaiapresse.ca/images/nouvelles/28563.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=Environment International |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=734–742 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2011.01.003 |pmid=21296423 |bibcode=2011EnInt..37..734D |quote=In spite of this, the number of studies specifically focused on safety assessment of GM plants is still limited. However, it is important to remark that for the first time, a certain equilibrium in the number of research groups suggesting, on the basis of their studies, that a number of varieties of GM products (mainly maize and soybeans) are as safe and nutritious as the respective conventional non-GM plant, and those raising still serious concerns, was observed. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that most of the studies demonstrating that GM foods are as nutritional and safe as those obtained by conventional breeding, have been performed by biotechnology companies or associates, which are also responsible of commercializing these GM plants. Anyhow, this represents a notable advance in comparison with the lack of studies published in recent years in scientific journals by those companies.}}</p><p>{{Cite journal |last=Krimsky |first=Sheldon |s2cid=40855100 |date=2015 |title=An Illusory Consensus behind GMO Health Assessment |journal=Science, Technology, & Human Values |volume=40 |issue=6 |pages=883–914 |doi=10.1177/0162243915598381 |quote=I began this article with the testimonials from respected scientists that there is literally no scientific controversy over the health effects of GMOs. My investigation into the scientific literature tells another story.}}</p><p>And contrast:</p><p>{{Cite journal |last1=Panchin |first1=Alexander Y. |last2=Tuzhikov |first2=Alexander I. |s2cid=11786594 |date=January 14, 2016 |title=Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons |journal=Critical Reviews in Biotechnology |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=213–217 |doi=10.3109/07388551.2015.1130684 |issn=0738-8551 |pmid=26767435 |quote=Here, we show that a number of articles some of which have strongly and negatively influenced the public opinion on GM crops and even provoked political actions, such as GMO embargo, share common flaws in the statistical evaluation of the data. Having accounted for these flaws, we conclude that the data presented in these articles does not provide any substantial evidence of GMO harm. <br /><br /> The presented articles suggesting possible harm of GMOs received high public attention. However, despite their claims, they actually weaken the evidence for the harm and lack of substantial equivalency of studied GMOs. We emphasize that with over 1783 published articles on GMOs over the last 10 years it is expected that some of them should have reported undesired differences between GMOs and conventional crops even if no such differences exist in reality.}}</p><p>and</p>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Y.T. |last2=Chen |first2=B. |date=2016 |title=Governing GMOs in the USA: science, law and public health |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=96 |issue=4 |pages=1851–1855 |doi=10.1002/jsfa.7523 |pmid=26536836 |bibcode=2016JSFA...96.1851Y |quote=It is therefore not surprising that efforts to require labeling and to ban GMOs have been a growing political issue in the USA ''(citing Domingo and Bordonaba, 2011)''. Overall, a broad scientific consensus holds that currently marketed GM food poses no greater risk than conventional food... Major national and international science and medical associations have stated that no adverse human health effects related to GMO food have been reported or substantiated in peer-reviewed literature to date.<br /><br />Despite various concerns, today, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the World Health Organization, and many independent international science organizations agree that GMOs are just as safe as other foods. Compared with conventional breeding techniques, genetic engineering is far more precise and, in most cases, less likely to create an unexpected outcome.}}</ref>
<ref name="AAAS2012">{{Cite web |url=http://www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/AAAS_GM_statement.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/AAAS_GM_statement.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Statement by the AAAS Board of Directors On Labeling of Genetically Modified Foods |date=October 20, 2012 |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |access-date=August 30, 2019 |quote="The EU, for example, has invested more than €300 million in research on the biosafety of GMOs. Its recent report states: "The main conclusion to be drawn from the efforts of more than 130 research projects, covering a period of more than 25 years of research and involving more than 500 independent research groups, is that biotechnology, and in particular GMOs, are not per se more risky than e.g. conventional plant breeding technologies." The World Health Organization, the American Medical Association, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the British Royal Society, and every other respected organization that has examined the evidence has come to the same conclusion: consuming foods containing ingredients derived from GM crops is no riskier than consuming the same foods containing ingredients from crop plants modified by conventional plant improvement techniques."}}<br /><br />{{Cite web |url=https://www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/AAAS_GM_statement.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/AAAS_GM_statement.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=AAAS Board of Directors: Legally Mandating GM Food Labels Could "Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers" |last=Pinholster |first=Ginger |date=October 25, 2012 |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |access-date=August 30, 2019}}</ref>
<ref name="ECom2010">{{Cite book |url=http://ec.europa.eu/research/biosociety/pdf/a_decade_of_eu-funded_gmo_research.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ec.europa.eu/research/biosociety/pdf/a_decade_of_eu-funded_gmo_research.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=A decade of EU-funded GMO research (2001–2010) |date=2010 |publisher=Directorate-General for Research and Innovation. Biotechnologies, Agriculture, Food. European Commission, European Union. |isbn=978-92-79-16344-9 |doi=10.2777/97784 |access-date=August 30, 2019|author1=European Commission. Directorate-General for Research }}</ref>
<ref name="AMA2001">{{Cite web |url=https://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/htm/articles/Position/ama.htm |title=AMA Report on Genetically Modified Crops and Foods |date=January 2001 |publisher=American Medical Association |access-date=August 30, 2019 |via=International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications |archive-date=April 2, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402230422/http://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/htm/articles/Position/ama.htm |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |url=http://www.ama-assn.org/resources/doc/csaph/a12-csaph2-bioengineeredfoods.pdf |title=Report 2 of the Council on Science and Public Health (A-12): Labeling of Bioengineered Foods |date=2012 |publisher=American Medical Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907023039/http://www.ama-assn.org/resources/doc/csaph/a12-csaph2-bioengineeredfoods.pdf |archive-date=September 7, 2012 |access-date=August 30, 2019 }}</ref>
<ref name="LoC2015">{{Cite web |url=http://www.loc.gov/law/help/restrictions-on-gmos/usa.php#Opinion |title=Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms: United States. Public and Scholarly Opinion |date=June 30, 2015 |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=August 30, 2019 |quote="Several scientific organizations in the US have issued studies or statements regarding the safety of GMOs indicating that there is no evidence that GMOs present unique safety risks compared to conventionally bred products. These include the National Research Council, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American Medical Association. Groups in the US opposed to GMOs include some environmental organizations, organic farming organizations, and consumer organizations. A substantial number of legal academics have criticized the US's approach to regulating GMOs." |archive-date=December 30, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230064111/http://www.loc.gov/law/help/restrictions-on-gmos/usa.php#Opinion |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="NAS2016">{{Cite book |last1=National Academies Of Sciences |first1=Engineering |url=http://www.nap.edu/read/23395/chapter/7#149 |title=Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects |last2=Division on Earth Life Studies |last3=Board on Agriculture Natural Resources |last4=Committee on Genetically Engineered Crops: Past Experience Future Prospects |date=2016 |publisher=The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (US) |isbn=978-0-309-43738-7 |page=149 |doi=10.17226/23395 |pmid=28230933 |quote="''Overall finding on purported adverse effects on human health of foods derived from GE crops:'' On the basis of detailed examination of comparisons of currently commercialized GE with non-GE foods in compositional analysis, acute and chronic animal toxicity tests, long-term data on health of livestock fed GE foods, and human epidemiological data, the committee found no differences that implicate a higher risk to human health from GE foods than from their non-GE counterparts." |access-date=August 30, 2019 |archive-date=November 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211116025318/https://www.nap.edu/read/23395/chapter/7#149 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="WHOFAQ">{{Cite web |url=https://www.who.int/foodsafety/areas_work/food-technology/faq-genetically-modified-food/en/ |title=Frequently asked questions on genetically modified foods |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=August 30, 2019 |quote=Different GM organisms include different genes inserted in different ways. This means that individual GM foods and their safety should be assessed on a case-by-case basis and that it is not possible to make general statements on the safety of all GM foods.<br /><br />GM foods currently available on the international market have passed safety assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health. In addition, no effects on human health have been shown as a result of the consumption of such foods by the general population in the countries where they have been approved. Continuous application of safety assessments based on the Codex Alimentarius principles and, where appropriate, adequate post market monitoring, should form the basis for ensuring the safety of GM foods. |archive-date=November 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104021737/https://www.who.int/foodsafety/areas_work/food-technology/faq-genetically-modified-food/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Haslberger2003">{{Cite journal |last=Haslberger |first=Alexander G. |date=2003 |title=Codex guidelines for GM foods include the analysis of unintended effects |journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=739–741 |doi=10.1038/nbt0703-739 |pmid=12833088 |s2cid=2533628 |quote=These principles dictate a case-by-case premarket assessment that includes an evaluation of both direct and unintended effects.}}</ref>
<ref name="BMA2004">Some medical organizations, including the [[British Medical Association]], advocate further caution based upon the [[precautionary principle]]:<br /><br />{{Cite web |url=http://www.argenbio.org/adc/uploads/pdf/bma.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.argenbio.org/adc/uploads/pdf/bma.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Genetically modified foods and health: a second interim statement |date=March 2004 |publisher=British Medical Association |access-date=August 30, 2019 |quote=In our view, the potential for GM foods to cause harmful health effects is very small and many of the concerns expressed apply with equal vigour to conventionally derived foods. However, safety concerns cannot, as yet, be dismissed completely on the basis of information currently available.<br /><br />When seeking to optimise the balance between benefits and risks, it is prudent to err on the side of caution and, above all, learn from accumulating knowledge and experience. Any new technology such as genetic modification must be examined for possible benefits and risks to human health and the environment. As with all novel foods, safety assessments in relation to GM foods must be made on a case-by-case basis.<br /><br />Members of the GM jury project were briefed on various aspects of genetic modification by a diverse group of acknowledged experts in the relevant subjects. The GM jury reached the conclusion that the sale of GM foods currently available should be halted and the moratorium on commercial growth of GM crops should be continued. These conclusions were based on the precautionary principle and lack of evidence of any benefit. The Jury expressed concern over the impact of GM crops on farming, the environment, food safety and other potential health effects.<br /><br />The Royal Society review (2002) concluded that the risks to human health associated with the use of specific viral DNA sequences in GM plants are negligible, and while calling for caution in the introduction of potential allergens into food crops, stressed the absence of evidence that commercially available GM foods cause clinical allergic manifestations. The BMA shares the view that there is no robust evidence to prove that GM foods are unsafe but we endorse the call for further research and surveillance to provide convincing evidence of safety and benefit.}}</ref>
<ref name="PEW2015">{{Cite web |url=http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/01/29/public-and-scientists-views-on-science-and-society/ |title=Public and Scientists' Views on Science and Society |last1=Funk |first1=Cary |last2=Rainie |first2=Lee |date=January 29, 2015 |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=August 30, 2019 |quote=The largest differences between the public and the AAAS scientists are found in beliefs about the safety of eating genetically modified (GM) foods. Nearly nine-in-ten (88%) scientists say it is generally safe to eat GM foods compared with 37% of the general public, a difference of 51 percentage points. |archive-date=January 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109232405/http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/01/29/public-and-scientists-views-on-science-and-society/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Marris2001">{{Cite journal |last=Marris |first=Claire |date=2001 |title=Public views on GMOs: deconstructing the myths |journal=EMBO Reports |volume=2 |issue=7 |pages=545–548 |doi=10.1093/embo-reports/kve142 |pmc=1083956 |pmid=11463731}}</ref>
<ref name="PABE">{{Cite web |url=http://csec.lancs.ac.uk/archive/pabe/docs/pabe_finalreport.doc |title=Public Perceptions of Agricultural Biotechnologies in Europe |last=Final Report of the PABE research project |date=December 2001 |publisher=Commission of European Communities |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525042822/http://csec.lancs.ac.uk/archive/pabe/docs/pabe_finalreport.doc |archive-date=2017-05-25 |access-date=August 30, 2019}}</ref>
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==External links==
{{Commonscat}}
{{Wikiversity department}}
* [http://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/ What is Biotechnology? – A curated collection of resources about the people, places and technologies that have enabled biotechnology]
{{Biotechnology|state=expanded}}
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[[Category:Biotechnology| ]]
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