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{{Redirect|Dovish|the economic term|Dovish (inflation)}}
{{distinguish|pacificism}}
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[[File:Peace symbol (bold).svg|thumb|upright|A [[peace sign]], which is widely associated with pacifism.]]▼
▲[[File:Peace symbol (bold).svg|thumb|upright|A [[peace sign]], which is widely associated with pacifism]]
[[File:World-Day-of-Prayer-for-Peace Assisi 2011.jpg|right|upright=1.5|thumb|alt=Large outdoor gathering|World Day of Prayer for Peace in [[Assisi]], 2011]]
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In modern times, interest was revived by [[Leo Tolstoy]] in his late works, particularly in ''[[The Kingdom of God Is Within You]]''. [[Mahatma Gandhi]] propounded the practice of steadfast [[nonviolent resistance|nonviolent opposition]] which he called "[[satyagraha]]", instrumental in its role in the [[Indian Independence Movement]]. Its effectiveness served as inspiration to [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], [[James Lawson (American activist)|James Lawson]], [[Charles and Mary Beard|Mary and Charles Beard]], [[James Bevel]],<ref>James L. Bevel, The Strategist of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement" by Randy Kryn, a paper in [[David Garrow]]'s 1989 book ''We Shall Overcome, Volume II'', Carlson Publishing Company</ref> [[Thich Nhat Hanh]],<ref name="aavw.org">"Searching for the Enemy of Man", in Nhat Nanh, Ho Huu Tuong, Tam Ich, Bui Giang, Pham Cong Thien. ''Dialogue''. Saigon: La Boi, 1965. pp. 11–20., archived on the African-American Involvement in the Vietnam War website, [http://www.aavw.org/protest/king_journey_abstract09.html King's Journey: 1964 – April 4, 1967] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061027112237/http://www.aavw.org/protest/king_journey_abstract09.html |date=27 October 2006 }}</ref> and many others in the [[civil rights movement]].
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Pacifism covers a spectrum of views, including the belief that international disputes can and should be peacefully resolved, calls for the abolition of the institutions of the military and war, opposition to any organization of society through governmental force ([[anarcho-pacifism|anarchist or libertarian pacifism]]), rejection of the use of physical violence to obtain political, economic or social goals, the obliteration of force, and opposition to violence under any circumstance, even defence of self and others. Historians of pacifism [[Peter Brock (historian)|Peter Brock]] and Thomas Paul Socknat define pacifism "in the sense generally accepted in English-speaking areas" as "an unconditional rejection of all forms of warfare".<ref>''Challenge to Mars: Essays on Pacifism from 1918 to 1945''. Edited by Brock and Socknat University of Toronto Press, 1999 {{ISBN|0802043712}} (p. ix)</ref> Philosopher [[Jenny Teichman]] defines the main form of pacifism as "anti-warism", the rejection of all forms of warfare.<ref>''Pacifism and the Just War: A Study in Applied Philosophy'' by Jenny Teichman. Basil Blackwell, 1986 {{ISBN|0631150560}}</ref> Teichman's beliefs have been summarized by [[Brian Orend]] as "... A pacifist rejects war and believes there are no moral grounds which can justify resorting to war. War, for the pacifist, is always wrong." In a sense the philosophy is based on the idea that the ends do not justify the means.<ref>''War and International Justice: a Kantian perspective'' by Brian Orend. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0889203377}} pp. 145–146</ref> The word ''[[:wikt:pacifique|pacific]]'' denotes conciliatory.<ref>{{cite web |title=pacific |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pacific |website=www.merriam-webster.com |access-date=19 June 2021}} (q.v. the [[Pacific Ocean]]</ref>
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[[File:Pacifista Arresto.jpg|thumb|upright|Anti-war activist arrested in [[San Francisco]] during the March 2003 protests against the war in Iraq]]
Pacifism may be based on [[morality|moral]] principles (a [[deontological]] view) or [[pragmatism]] (a [[consequentialist]] view). Principled pacifism holds that at some point along the spectrum from war to interpersonal physical violence, such violence becomes morally wrong. Pragmatic pacifism holds that the costs of war and interpersonal violence are so substantial that better ways of resolving disputes must be found.
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Some pacifists follow principles of [[nonviolence]], believing that nonviolent action is morally superior and/or most effective. Some however, support physical violence for emergency defence of self or others. Others support [[property damage|destruction of property]] in such emergencies or for conducting symbolic acts of resistance like pouring red paint to represent blood on the outside of military recruiting offices or entering air force bases and hammering on military aircraft.
Not all [[nonviolent resistance]] (sometimes also called [[civil resistance]]) is based on a fundamental rejection of all violence in all circumstances. Many leaders and participants in such movements, while recognizing the importance of using non-violent methods in particular circumstances, have not been absolute pacifists. Sometimes, as with the civil rights movement's march from [[Selma to Montgomery marches
==Types==
===Absolute pacifism===
An absolute pacifist is generally described by the [[BBC]] as one who believes that human life is so valuable, that a human should never be killed and war should never be conducted, even in self-defense (except for non-violence type). The principle is described as difficult to abide by consistently, due to violence not being available as a tool to aid a person who is being harmed or killed. It is further claimed that such a pacifist could logically argue that violence leads to more undesirable results than non-violence.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web |title=Ethics – War: Pacifism |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/war/against/pacifism_1.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017181207/http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/war/against/pacifism_1.shtml |archive-date=17 October 2014 |access-date=9 August 2014 |website=BBC |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref>
===Conditional pacifism===
Tapping into [[just war theory]] ''conditional pacifism'' represents a spectrum of positions departing from positions of absolute pacifism. One such conditional pacifism is the common [[pacificism]], which may allow defense but is not advocating a default [[defensivism]]<ref name="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">{{cite web | title=Pacifism | website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy | url=https://iep.utm.edu/pacifism/ | access-date=10 October 2022}}</ref> or even [[Interventionism (politics)|interventionism]].
===Institutional pacifism===
Institutional pacifists object to the foundation and continued existence of [[institution]]s that enable and encourage war, similarly to those who criticise the influence of the [[military–industrial complex]]. The term may have been coined by American sociologist [[Charles A. Ellwood]], writing for the [[Fellowship of Reconciliation (United States)|Fellowship of Reconciliation]] in 1943.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/ae7e269a332ac8650a231a595faca8c3/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2041863|title=Pacifism and Social Evolution|work=The Journal of the Fellowship of Reconciliation|year=1943|first=Charles A.|last=Ellwood}}</ref> Since the 2010s, some authors have expressed a renewed interest in ''institutional pacifism'', often contrasting it with the more individually-oriented types of ''personal pacifism'', and highlighting the role of human institutions in permitting accumulation of military resources.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://journals.openedition.org/revus/1273|title=The Dilemmas of Just War and the Institutional Pacifism|work=Revus|year=2010|first=Nenad|last=Miščević}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://philarchive.org/archive/PARCAC-15|title=Conditional and contingent pacifism: the main battlegrounds|work=Critical Studies on Security|year=2018|first=Nicholas|last=Parkin}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://philarchive.org/archive/PARMTP-2|title=Moral Tragedy Pacifism|work=Journal of Moral Philosophy|year=2019|first=Nicholas|last=Parkin}}</ref> One writer suggested that institutional pacifism can be further categorised into juridicial pacifism and social pacifism,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.metabasis.it/articoli/31/31_Anta.pdf|title=The colors of pacifism between the XIX and XX centuries|work=Online International Journal of Philosophy|year=2021|first=Claudio Giulio|last=Anta}}</ref> while another attempted to cite the [[Yoshida Doctrine]] as an example of institutional pacifism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/55191015/Why_the_West_Should_Discourage_Japanese_Military_Expansion.pdf?1512373490=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DWhy_the_West_Should_Discourage_Japanese.pdf&Expires=1730737919&Signature=RzeKi1a0yDOiFTYfcUdqW2JRvQEG58HPViAfiSVIKtB7OFTQBRvJJ2mqHkQ3HCXmpCOYuTKdXHpztoah1f~c7SRL5LquOtbJjiAFdYCBxz2zD6hQJJHDtbuj9vnSdVFwvtyAIi3Ek95p-3ePhP66GQQQARnvKC1E~twMeUZFWyc9z3kkpGgY6B7lX8zkDB8kE-~0FhK01yZd7iR~Pjgaq79ZuNnvvDKa4dS92SgTga~IFFbaA10ws-Vs67unJhiLZ2yrEKEHBDz3MKYaboeHA9ibxIFkg47U3Tc~osDZvprIEpvwq3afjMvgkKF5zZKlJ8CU7o8TkrFSBsaAPuFLfw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA|title=Why the West Should Discourage Japanese Military Expansion|first=David|last=Robinson|access-date=November 5, 2024}}</ref>
==Police actions and national liberation==
Although all pacifists are opposed to war between [[nation states]], there have been occasions where pacifists have supported [[military conflict]] in the case of [[civil war]] or [[revolution]].<ref name="ffw">"When the American Civil War broke out ... both the American Peace Society and many former nonresistants argued that the conflict was not properly war but rather police action on a grand scale" Brock, Peter, ''Freedom from War: Nonsectarian Pacifism, 1814–1914'' University of Toronto Press, 1991 {{ISBN|0802058833}}, (p. 176)</ref> For instance, during the [[American Civil War]], both the [[American Peace Society]] and some former members of the [[Non-Resistance Society]] supported the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]'s military campaign, arguing they were carrying out a "[[police action]]" against the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]], whose act of [[Secession]] they regarded as criminal.<ref name="ffw" /><ref>Ziegler, Valarie H., ''The Advocates of Peace in Antebellum America''. Mercer University Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0865547262}} (p. 158).</ref> Following the outbreak of the [[Spanish Civil War]], French pacifist [[René Gérin]] urged support for the [[Second Spanish Republic|Spanish Republic]].<ref name="tpod">Ingram, Norman. ''The Politics of Dissent : Pacifism in France, 1919–1939''. University of Edinburgh, 1988. (p. 219)</ref> Gérin argued that the [[Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)|Spanish Nationalists]] were "comparable to an individual enemy" and the Republic's war effort was equivalent to the action of a domestic police force suppressing crime.<ref name="tpod" />
In the 1960s, some pacifists associated with the [[New Left]] supported [[wars of national liberation]] and supported groups such as the [[Viet Cong]] and the Algerian [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|FLN]], arguing peaceful attempts to liberate such nations were no longer viable, and war was thus the only option.<ref>''Pacifism in the Twentieth Century'', by Peter Brock and [[Nigel Young]]. Syracuse University Press, New York, 1999 {{ISBN|0815681259}} (p. 296)</ref>
==History==
===Early traditions===
[[File:1871 Vereshchagin Apotheose des Krieges anagoria.JPG|thumb|[[Vasily Vereshchagin|Vereshchagin]]'s painting ''[[The Apotheosis of War]]'' (1871) came to be admired as one of the earliest artistic expressions of pacifism.]]
Advocacy of pacifism can be found far back in history and literature.
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During the [[Warring States period]], the pacifist [[Mohist]] School opposed aggressive war between the feudal states. They took this belief into action by using their famed defensive strategies to defend smaller states from invasion from larger states, hoping to dissuade feudal lords from costly warfare. The [[Seven Military Classics]] of ancient China view warfare negatively, and as a last resort. For example, the ''[[Three Strategies of Huang Shigong]]'' says: "As for the military, it is not an auspicious instrument; it is the way of heaven to despise it", and the ''[[Wei Liaozi]]'' writes: "As for the military, it is an inauspicious instrument; as for conflict and contention, it runs counter to virtue".<ref name="Johnston">{{Cite book |last=Johnston |first=Alastair I |title=Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1998 |pages=66–67}}</ref>
The [[Taoist]] scripture "''Classic of Great Peace'' (''[[Taiping Jing|Taiping jing]]'')" foretells "the coming Age of Great Peace (''Taiping'')".<ref>{{cite web |title=''Daoist Philosophy'' – 10. "Celestial Masters Daoism" |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/daoism.htm#H10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129182005/http://iep.utm.edu/d/daoism.htm#H10 |archive-date=29 January 2009 |access-date=13 February 2009}}</ref> The ''Taiping Jing'' advocates "a world full of peace".<ref>{{cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://www.kaogu.com.cn/upload/200811191348384181.doc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120228200813/http://www.kaogu.com.cn/upload/200811191348384181.doc |archive-date=28 February 2012 |access-date=13 February 2009}}</ref>
====Lemba====
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====Moriori====
The [[
====Greece====
In [[Ancient Greece]], pacifism seems not to have existed except as a broad moral guideline against violence between individuals. No philosophical program of rejecting violence between states, or rejecting all forms of violence, seems to have existed. [[Aristophanes]], in his play [[Lysistrata]], creates the scenario of an [[Athens|Athenian]] woman's anti-war sex strike during the [[Peloponnesian War]] of 431–404 BCE, and the play has gained an international reputation for its anti-war message. Nevertheless, it is both fictional and comical, and though it offers a pragmatic opposition to the destructiveness of war, its message seems to stem from frustration with the existing conflict (then in its twentieth year) rather than from a philosophical position against violence or war. Equally fictional is the nonviolent protest of [[Hegetorides]] of [[Thasos]]. [[Euripides]] also expressed strong anti-war ideas in his work, especially ''[[The Trojan Women]]''.<ref name="fsn">"Peace, War and Philosophy" by F. S. Northedge, in [[Paul Edwards (philosopher)|Paul Edwards]], ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Volume 6, Collier Macmillan, 1967 (pp. 63–67).</ref>
In ''[[Plato's Republic]]'' [[Socrates]] makes the pacifistic argument that a just person would not harm anyone.<ref name="Purshouse 2010 p. 20">{{cite book | last=Purshouse | first=Luke | title=Plato's Republic: A Reader's Guide | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing | series=Reader's Guides | year=2010 | isbn=978-1-4411-9339-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VImxAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 | access-date=13 December 2023 | page=20}}</ref> In [[Plato]]'s earlier work [[Crito]] Socrates asserts that it is not moral to return evil with further evil, an original moral conception, according to [[Gregory Vlastos]], that undermines all justifications for war and violence.<ref name="Cady 2010 p. 5">{{cite book | last=Cady | first=Duanne | title=From Warism to Pacifism: A Moral Continuum | publisher=Temple University Press | series=UPCC book collections on Project MUSE | year=2010 | isbn=978-1-4399-0313-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lRVFs85rPuAC&pg=PA5 | access-date=13 December 2023 | page=5}}</ref>
====Roman Empire====
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====Christianity====
{{See also|Christian pacifism}}
Throughout history many have understood [[Jesus]] of Nazareth to have been a pacifist,<ref name="weidhorn">{{Cite journal |last=Weidhorn |first=Manfred |year=2004 |title=Pacifism Lost |journal=International Journal of Humanities and Peace |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=13–18}}</ref> drawing on his [[Sermon on the Mount]]. In the sermon Jesus stated that one should "not resist an evildoer" and promoted his [[turn the other cheek]] philosophy. "If anyone strikes you on the right cheek, turn the other also; and if anyone wants to sue you and take your coat, give your cloak as well ... Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who abuse you."<ref>{{cite web |title=oremus Bible Browser : Matthew 5<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Matthew+5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213511/http://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Matthew+5 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |access-date=19 October 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=oremus Bible Browser : Luke 6<!-- Bot generated title --> |url=http://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Luke+6 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303212929/http://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Luke+6 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |access-date=19 October 2006}}</ref><ref name="aqa">{{Cite book |last1=Cleave |first1=Joanne |title=GCSE Religious Studies for AQA Christianity: Christianity: Behaviour, Attitudes & Lifestyles |last2=Geddes, Gordon D. |last3=Griffiths, Jane |publisher=Heinemann Educational Publisher |year=2004 |isbn=978-0435307141 |location=Oxford |page=75}}</ref> He also believed that murder is a sin and repeated the commandment of "[[Thou shalt not kill]]".<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|5:21}} {{bibleverse|Mark|10:19}} {{bibleverse|Luke|18:20}}</ref> The New Testament story is of Jesus, besides preaching these words, surrendering himself freely to an enemy intent on having him killed and proscribing his followers from defending him.
There are those, however, who deny that Jesus was a pacifist<ref name="weidhorn" /> and state that Jesus never said not to fight,<ref name="aqa" /> citing examples from the New Testament. One such instance portrays an angry Jesus driving dishonest market [[Cleansing of the Temple|traders from the temple]].<ref name="aqa" /> A frequently quoted passage is Luke 22:36: "He said to them, 'But now, the one who has a purse must take it, and likewise a bag. And the one who has no sword must [[Sell your cloak and buy a sword|sell his cloak and buy one]].'" Pacifists have typically explained that verse as Jesus fulfilling prophecy, since in the next verse, Jesus continues to say: "It is written: 'And he was numbered with the transgressors'; and I tell you that this must be fulfilled in me. Yes, what is written about me is reaching its fulfillment." Others have interpreted the non-pacifist statements in the New Testament to be related to [[self-defense]] or to be metaphorical and state that on no occasion did Jesus shed blood or urge others to shed blood.<ref name="weidhorn" />
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===Modern history===
[[File:Edward Hicks - Penn's Treaty.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Penn's Treaty with the Indians|Penn's Treaty]] with the Lenape]]
Beginning in the 16th century, the [[Protestant Reformation]] gave rise to a variety of new Christian sects, including the [[Peace churches|historic peace churches]]. Foremost among them were the [[Religious Society of Friends]] (Quakers), [[Amish]], [[Mennonites]], [[Hutterites]], and [[Church of the Brethren]]. The humanist writer [[Desiderius Erasmus]] was one of the most outspoken pacifists of the [[Renaissance]], arguing strongly against warfare in his essays ''[[The Praise of Folly]]'' (1509) and ''The Complaint of Peace'' (1517).<ref name="fsn" /><ref>"Erasmus, Desiderius" by Garrett L. McAinsh, in ''The World Encyclopedia of Peace''.Edited by [[Linus Pauling]], [[Ervin László]], and [[Jong Youl Yoo]]. Oxford : Pergamon, 1986. {{ISBN|0080326854}}, (Volume 1, p. 293).</ref>
The [[Quakers]] were prominent advocates of pacifism, who as early as 1660 had repudiated violence in all forms and adhered to a strictly pacifist interpretation of [[Christianity]]. They stated their beliefs in a declaration to [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]]:
<blockquote> "We utterly deny all outward wars and strife, and fightings with outward weapons, for any end, or under any pretense whatever; this is our testimony to the whole world. The Spirit of Christ ... which leads us into all truth, will never move us to fight and war against any man with outward weapons, neither for the kingdom of Christ, nor for the kingdoms of this world.<ref>{{cite web |last=Eric Roberts |title=Quaker Traditions of Pacifism and Nonviolence |url=http://events.stanford.edu/events/352/35227/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203022623/http://events.stanford.edu/events/352/35227/ |archive-date=2013-12-03 |access-date=2013-12-02 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref></blockquote>
Throughout the many 18th century wars in which [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] participated, the Quakers maintained a principled commitment [[Conscientious objector|not to serve in the army and militia]] or even to pay the alternative £10 fine.
The English Quaker [[William Penn]], who founded the [[Province of Pennsylvania]], employed an anti-militarist public policy. Unlike residents of many of the colonies, Quakers chose to trade peacefully with the
From the 16th to the 18th centuries, a number of thinkers devised plans for an international organisation that would promote peace, and reduce or even eliminate the occurrence of war. These included the French politician [[Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully|Duc de Sully]], the philosophers [[Émeric Crucé]] and the [[Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre|Abbe de Saint-Pierre]], and the English Quakers William Penn and [[John Bellers]].<ref>''Power and the Pursuit of Peace: Theory and Practice in the History of Relations between States'', by [[Francis Harry Hinsley]], Cambridge University Press, 1967, {{ISBN|0521094488}}, (pp. 13–45).</ref><ref>"Thinking About Peace in History" by [[Charles Chatfield]], in ''The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective : Essays in Honour of Peter Brock'', edited by [[Harvey L. Dyck]]. Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1996, {{ISBN|0802007775}} (pp. 36–51).</ref>
Pacifist ideals emerged from two strands of thought that coalesced at the end of the 18th century. One, rooted in the secular [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], promoted peace as the rational antidote to the world's ills, while the other was a part of the [[Evangelicalism|evangelical religious revival]] that had played an important part in the campaign for the [[abolitionism|abolition of slavery]]. Representatives of the former included [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], in ''Extrait du Projet de Paix Perpetuelle de Monsieur l'Abbe Saint-Pierre'' (1756),<ref>Hinsley, pp. 46–61.</ref> [[Immanuel Kant]], in his ''Thoughts on Perpetual Peace'',<ref>Hinsley, pp. 62–80.</ref> and [[Jeremy Bentham]] who proposed the formation of a peace association in 1789. Representative of the latter, was [[William Wilberforce]] who thought that strict limits should be imposed on British involvement in the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] based on Christian ideals of peace and brotherhood.
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, pacifism was not entirely frowned upon throughout Europe. It was considered a political stance against costly capitalist-imperialist wars, a notion particularly popular in the [[British Liberal party|British Liberal Party]] of the twentieth century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schuyler |first=Robert Livingston |year=1922 |title=The Rise of Anti-Imperialism in England |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=440–4471 |doi=10.2307/2142146 |jstor=2142146}}</ref> However, during the eras of [[World War One]] and especially [[World War Two]], public opinion on the ideology split. Those against the Second World War, some argued, were not fighting against unnecessary wars of imperialism but instead acquiescing to the [[fascists]] of [[Germany]], [[Italy]] and [[Japan]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eller |first=Cynthia |year=1990 |title=Oral History as Moral Discourse: Conscientious Objectors and the Second World War |journal=The Oral History Review |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=45–75 |doi=10.1093/ohr/18.1.45 |jstor=3674738}}</ref>
====Peace movements====
During the period of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], although no formal [[peace movement]] was established until the end of hostilities, a significant peace movement animated by universalist ideals did emerge, due to the perception of Britain fighting in a [[reactionary]] role and the increasingly visible impact of the war on the welfare of the nation in the form of higher taxation levels and high casualty rates. Sixteen peace petitions to [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] were signed by members of the public, anti-war and anti-[[William Pitt the Younger|Pitt]] demonstrations convened and peace literature was widely published and disseminated.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ceadel, Martin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lx4xr3PsdI8C&q=freemason+hall+1843+london+peace |title=The Origins of War Prevention: The British Peace Movement and International Relations, 1730–1854 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0198226741}}</ref>
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[[Bertha von Suttner]], the first woman to be a [[Nobel Peace Prize]] laureate, became a leading figure in the peace movement with the publication of her novel, ''Die Waffen nieder!'' ("Lay Down Your Arms!") in 1889 and founded an Austrian pacifist organization in 1891.
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[[File:WeFightCartoon.jpg|thumb|left|"Leading Citizens want War and declare War; Citizens Who are Led fight the War" 1910 cartoon]]
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====World War I====
[[File:The Deserter.jpg|alt=|thumb|right|''The Deserter'' (1916) by [[Boardman Robinson]]]]
Peace movements became active in the Western world after 1900, often focusing on treaties that would settle disputes through arbitration, and efforts to support the Hague conventions.<ref>Neil Hollander, ''Elusive Dove: The Search for Peace During World War I'' (2014), ch 1 [https://books.google.com/books?id=RZHLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 excerpt]</ref>
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[[File:Peace-Marcher.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A World War I-era female peace protester]]
In 1915, the [[League of Nations Society]] was formed by British [[liberalism|liberal]] leaders to promote a strong international organisation that could enforce the peaceful resolution of conflict. Later that year, the [[League to Enforce Peace]] was established in the U.S. to promote similar goals. [[Hamilton Holt]] published a 28 September 1914, editorial in his magazine the ''Independent'' called "The Way to Disarm: A Practical Proposal" that called for an international organization to agree upon the arbitration of disputes and to guarantee the territorial integrity of its members by maintaining military forces sufficient to defeat those of any non-member. The ensuing debate among prominent internationalists modified Holt's plan to align it more closely with proposals offered in Great Britain by [[James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce|Viscount James Bryce]], a former British ambassador to the United States.<ref>Herman, 56–57</ref> These and other initiatives were pivotal in the change in attitudes that gave birth to the [[League of Nations]] after the war.
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====Between the two World Wars====
[[File:Красноармейцы-пацифисты.png|thumb|The soldiers of the Red Army in Russia, who on religious grounds refused to shoot at the target (evangelicals or Baptists). Between 1918 and 1929]]
After the immense loss of nearly ten million men to [[trench warfare]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rauchensteiner |first=Manfried |title=The First World War |year=2014|publisher=Böhlau Verlag |isbn=978-3205793656 |location=Wien |doi=10.7767/boehlau.9783205793656|url=https://www.doabooks.org/doab?func=fulltext&uiLanguage=en&rid=16519 }}{{page needed|date=May 2021}}</ref> a sweeping change of attitude toward [[militarism]] crashed over Europe, particularly in nations such as Great Britain, where many questioned its involvement in the war. After World War I's official end in 1918, peace movements across the continent and the United States renewed, gradually gaining popularity among young Europeans who grew up in the shadow of Europe's trauma over the Great War. Organizations formed in this period included the [[War Resisters' International]],<ref>''Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963'' by Scott H. Bennett. New York, Syracuse University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|081563028X}}, p. 18.</ref> the [[Women's International League for Peace and Freedom]], the [[No More War Movement]], the [[Service Civil International]] and the [[Peace Pledge Union]] (PPU). The [[League of Nations]] also convened several disarmament conferences in the interbellum period such as the [[Geneva Naval Conference|Geneva Conference]], though the support that pacifist policy and idealism received varied across European nations. These organizations and movements attracted tens of thousands of Europeans, spanning most professions including "scientists, artists, musicians, politicians, clerks, students, activists and thinkers."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kramer |first=Ann |title=Conscientious Objectors of the Second World War: Refusing to Fight |year=2013 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1783469376}}{{page needed|date=May 2021}}</ref>
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Pacifism and revulsion with war were very popular sentiments in 1920s Britain. Novels and poems on the theme of the futility of war and the slaughter of the youth by old fools were published, including, [[Death of a Hero]] by [[Richard Aldington]], [[Erich Remarque]]'s translated [[All Quiet on the Western Front]] and [[Beverley Nichols]]'s expose ''Cry Havoc''. A debate at the [[University of Oxford]] in 1933 on the motion 'one must fight for King and country' captured the changed mood when the motion was resoundingly defeated. [[Hugh Richard Lawrie Sheppard|Dick Sheppard]] established the [[Peace Pledge Union]] in 1934, which totally renounced war and aggression. The idea of collective security was also popular; instead of outright pacifism, the public generally exhibited a determination to stand up to aggression, but preferably with the use of economic sanctions and multilateral negotiations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pacifism |url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Hom-c5.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203103202/http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Hom-c5.html |archive-date=3 December 2013 |access-date=2 December 2013 |publisher=[[University of Wellington]]}}</ref> Many members of the Peace Pledge Union later joined the [[Bruderhof Communities|Bruderhof]]<ref>{{Cite news |title=Learning from the Bruderhof: An Intentional Christian Community |language=en |work=ChristLife |url=https://christlife.org/blog/learning-from-the-bruderhof-an-intentional-christian-community |access-date=27 August 2018 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407004601/https://christlife.org/blog/learning-from-the-bruderhof-an-intentional-christian-community |url-status=dead }}</ref> during its period of residence in the Cotswolds, where Englishmen and Germans, many of whom were Jewish, lived side by side despite local persecution.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Randall |first1=Ian M. |title=A Christian Peace Experiment: The Bruderhof Community in Britain, 1933–1942 |last2=Wright |first2=Nigel G. |year=2018|publisher=Cascade Books |isbn=978-1532639982 |language=en}}</ref><!-- This formerly read "English, Jews and Germans", but this implies that Englishmen and Germans could not be Jewish. -->
[[File:Prats-de-Mollo Children's Home.jpg|thumb|left|Refugees from the Spanish Civil War at the [[War Resisters' International]] children's refuge in the French Pyrenees]]
The British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] had a strong pacifist wing in the early 1930s, and between 1931 and 1935 it was led by [[George Lansbury]], a Christian pacifist who later chaired the No More War Movement and was president of the PPU. The 1933 annual conference resolved unanimously to "pledge itself to take no part in war". Researcher Richard Toye writes that "Labour's official position, however, although based on the aspiration towards a world socialist commonwealth and the outlawing of war, did not imply a renunciation of force under all circumstances, but rather support for the ill-defined concept of 'collective security' under the League of Nations. At the same time, on the party's left, [[Stafford Cripps]]'s small but vocal [[Socialist League (UK, 1932)|Socialist League]] opposed the official policy, on the non-pacifist ground that the League of Nations was 'nothing but the tool of the satiated imperialist powers'."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Toye |first=R. |date=1 January 2001 |title=The Labour Party and the Economics of Rearmament, 1935–39 |journal=Twentieth Century British History |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=303–326 |doi=10.1093/tcbh/12.3.303 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10036/26952}}</ref>
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The [[League of Nations]] attempted to play its role in ensuring world peace in the 1920s and 1930s. However, with the increasingly revisionist and aggressive behaviour of Nazi Germany, [[Italian Fascism|Fascist Italy]] and [[Imperial Japan]], it ultimately failed to maintain such a world order. [[Economic sanctions]] were used against states that committed aggression, such as those against Italy when it [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|invaded Abyssinia]], but there was no will on the part of the principal League powers, Britain and France, to subordinate their interests to a multilateral process or to disarm at all themselves.
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The [[Spanish Civil War]] proved a major test for international pacifism, and the work of pacifist organisations (such as [[War Resisters' International]] and the [[Fellowship of Reconciliation]]) and individuals (such as [[José Brocca]] and [[Amparo Poch y Gascón|Amparo Poch]]) in that arena has until recently{{when|date=May 2011}} been ignored or forgotten by historians, overshadowed by the memory of the [[International Brigades]] and other militaristic interventions. Shortly after the war ended, [[Simone Weil]], despite having volunteered for service on the republican side, went on to publish ''[[The Iliad or the Poem of Force]]'', a work that has been described as a pacifist manifesto.<ref name="NYB">{{cite web |title=War and the Iliad |url=http://www.nybooks.com/shop/product?usca_p=t&product_id=4551 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501053342/http://www.nybooks.com/shop/product?usca_p=t&product_id=4551 |archive-date=1 May 2008 |access-date=29 September 2009 |publisher=The New York Review of books}}</ref> In response to the threat of fascism, some pacifist thinkers, such as [[Richard B. Gregg]], devised plans for a campaign of [[nonviolent resistance]] in the event of a fascist invasion or takeover.<ref>Lynd, Staughton. ''Nonviolence in America: a documentary history'', Bobbs-Merrill, 1966, (pps. 271–296).</ref>
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As the prospect of a second major war began to seem increasingly inevitable, much of France adopted pacifist views, though some historians argue that France felt more war anxiety than a moral objection to a second war. Hitler's spreading influence and territory posed an enormous threat to French livelihood from their neighbors. The French countryside had been devastated during World War I and the entire nation was reluctant to subject its territory to the same treatment. Though all countries in the First World War had suffered great losses, France was one of the most devastated and many did not want a second war.<ref>{{cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://paxchristi.org.uk/wp/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/The-First-World-War-in-Numbers.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206102558/http://paxchristi.org.uk/wp/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/The-First-World-War-in-Numbers.pdf |archive-date=6 December 2018 |access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref>
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{{Main|Pacifism in Germany}}
As Germany dealt with the burdens of the Treaty of Versailles, a conflict arose in the 1930s between German Christianity and German nationalism. Many Germans found the terms of the treaty debilitating and humiliating, so German nationalism offered a way to regain the country's pride. German Christianity warned against the risks of entering a war similar to the previous one. As the German depression worsened and fascism began to rise in Germany, a greater tide of Germans began to sway toward Hitler's brand of nationalism that would come to crush pacifism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Conway |first=John S. |year=2003 |title=Review of Christian Pacifism confronts German Nationalism – The Ecumenical Movement and the Cause of Peace in Germany, 1914–1933; Der Weltbund für Freundschaftsarbeit der Kirchen, 1914–1948. Eine ökumenische Friedensorganisation |journal=Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=491–497 |jstor=43751708}}</ref>
====World War II====
[[File:Berkeley, California. University of California Student Peace Strike - NARA - 532103 (cropped).tif|thumb|A peace strike rally at [[University of California, Berkeley]], April 1940]]
With the start of [[World War II]], pacifist and antiwar sentiment declined in nations affected by the war. Even the communist-controlled [[American Peace Mobilization]] reversed its antiwar activism once Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. After the [[Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor]], the [[Non-interventionism|non-interventionist]] [[America First Committee]] dropped its opposition to American involvement in the war and disbanded,<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 December 1941 |title=America First Acts to End Organization |page=22 |work=The New York Times}}</ref> but many smaller religious and socialist groups continued their opposition to war.
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[[Bertrand Russell]] argued that the necessity of defeating [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazis]] was a unique circumstance in which war was not the worst of the possible evils; he called his position ''relative pacifism''. Shortly before the outbreak of war, British writers such as [[E. M. Forster]], [[Leonard Woolf]], [[David Garnett]] and [[Storm Jameson]] all rejected their earlier pacifism and endorsed military action against Nazism.<ref>Ian Patterson, "Pacifists and Conscientious Objectors", in Adam Piette and Mark Rawlinson, ''The Edinburgh Companion to Twentieth-Century British and American War Literature'', Edinburgh University Press, 2012. {{ISBN|0748638741}} (p. 311).</ref> Similarly, [[Albert Einstein]] wrote: "I loathe all armies and any kind of violence; yet I'm firmly convinced that at present these hateful weapons offer the only effective protection."<ref>Quoted on [http://www.ppu.org.uk/learn/infodocs/people/pp-einstein2.html Albert Einstein] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009142749/http://www.ppu.org.uk//learn/infodocs/people/pp-einstein2.html |date=9 October 2007 }} at Peace Pledge Union, and but also discussed in detail in articles in Einstein, Albert (1954), ''Ideas and Opinions'', New York: Random House, {{ISBN|0517003937}}</ref> The British pacifists [[Reginald Sorensen, Baron Sorensen|Reginald Sorensen]] and [[Cecil John Cadoux|C. J. Cadoux]], while bitterly disappointed by the outbreak of war, nevertheless urged their fellow pacifists "not to obstruct the war effort."<ref>Martin Ceadel, ''Pacifism in Britain, 1914–1945 : The Defining of a Faith''. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1980. {{ISBN|0198218826}} (pp. 298–299).</ref>
Pacifists across Great Britain further struggled to uphold their anti-military values during the [[The Blitz|Blitz]], a coordinated, long-term attack by the ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' on Great Britain. As the country was ravaged nightly by German bombing raids, pacifists had to seriously weigh the importance of their political and moral values against the desire to protect their nation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Overy |first=R. |date=1 May 2013 |title=Pacifism and the Blitz, 1940–1941 |journal=Past & Present |
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Some scholars theorize that pacifism was the cause of France's rapid fall to the Germans after it was [[Invasion of France (Nazi Germany)|invaded]] by the Nazis in June 1940, resulting in a takeover of the government by the German military. Whether or not pacifism weakened French defenses against the Germans, there was no hope of sustaining a real pacifist movement after Paris fell. Just as peaceful Germans succumbed to violent nationalism, the pacifist French were muzzled by the totality of German control over nearly all of France.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hucker |first=D. |date=15 November 2007 |title=French public attitudes towards the prospect of war in 1938 1939: 'pacifism' or 'war anxiety'? |url=https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/preview/1017511/French%20Public%20Attitudes%20towards%20the%20Prospect%20of%20War%20in%201938-39.pdf |journal=French History |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=431–449 |doi=10.1093/fh/crm060}}</ref>
The French pacifists [[André and Magda Trocmé]] helped conceal hundreds of Jews fleeing the Nazis in the village of [[Le Chambon-sur-Lignon]].<ref name="pph">''Lest Innocent Blood Be Shed: The Story of Le Chambon and How Goodness Happened There'' Philip P. Hallie, (1979) New York: Harper & Row, {{ISBN|006011701X}}</ref><ref>Brock and Young, p. 220.</ref> After the war, the Trocmés were declared [[Righteous Among the Nations]].<ref name="pph" />
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Pacifists in [[Nazi Germany]] were dealt with harshly, reducing the movement into almost nonexistence; those who continued to advocate for the end of the war and violence were often sent to labor camps; German pacifist [[Carl von Ossietzky]]<ref>Brock and Young, p. 99.</ref> and [[Olaf Kullmann]], a Norwegian pacifist active during the Nazi occupation,<ref>Brock and Socknat, pp. 402–403.</ref> were both imprisoned in concentration camps and died as a result of their mistreatment there. Austrian farmer [[Franz Jägerstätter]] was executed in 1943 for refusing to serve in the [[Wehrmacht]].<ref>''[[In Solitary Witness: The Life and Death of Franz Jägerstätter]]'' by [[Gordon Zahn]].Springfield, Illinois: Templegate Publishers. {{ISBN|087243141X}}.</ref>
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After the end of the war, it was discovered that "[[The Black Book (list)|The Black Book]]" or ''Sonderfahndungsliste G.B.'', a list of Britons to be arrested in the event of a [[Operation Sealion|successful German invasion of Britain]], included three active pacifists: [[Vera Brittain]], [[Sybil Thorndike]] and [[Aldous Huxley]] (who had left the country).<ref>Reinhard R. Doerries, ''Hitler's Intelligence Chief: Walter Schellenberg'', New York. Enigma Books, 2013 {{ISBN|1936274132}} (p. 33)</ref><ref>William Hetherington, ''Swimming Against the Tide:The Peace Pledge Union Story, 1934–2009''. London; The Peace Pledge Union, {{ISBN|978-0902680517}} (p. 14)</ref>
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There were [[conscientious objectors]] and war [[tax resisters]] in both [[World War I]] and [[World War II]]. The United States government allowed sincere objectors to serve in noncombatant military roles. However, those [[draft dodgers|draft resisters]] who refused any cooperation with the war effort often spent much of the wars in federal prisons. During World War II, pacifist leaders such as [[Dorothy Day]] and [[Ammon Hennacy]] of the [[Catholic Worker Movement]] urged young Americans not to enlist in military service.
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[[File:Vietnamdem.jpg|thumb|A demonstrator offers a flower to military police at an [[Opposition to Vietnam War|anti-Vietnam War protest]], 1967.]]
[[File:Massale vredesdemonstratie in Bonn tegen de modernisering van kernwapens in West, Bestanddeelnr 253-8611.jpg|thumb|Protest against the deployment of [[Pershing II]] missiles in Europe, Bonn, West Germany, 1981]]
[[Baptist]] [[Minister of religion|minister]] [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] led a [[civil rights movement]] in the U.S., employing [[Gandhism|Gandhian]] [[nonviolent resistance]] to repeal laws enforcing racial segregation and to work for integration of schools, businesses and government. In 1957, his wife [[Coretta Scott King]], along with [[Albert Schweitzer]], [[Benjamin Spock]] and others, formed the Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy (now [[Peace Action]]) to resist the [[nuclear arms race]]. In 1958 British activists formed the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]] with Bertrand Russell as its president.
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On 1 December 1948, President [[José Figueres Ferrer]] of Costa Rica abolished the [[military of Costa Rica|Costa Rican military]].<ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2019.htm "Costa Rica"] . U.S. Department of State.</ref> In 1949, the abolition of the military was introduced in Article 12 of the Costa Rican constitution. The budget previously dedicated to the military is now dedicated to providing healthcare services and education.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/07/opinion/07kristof.html?_r=1 "The Happiest People"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224163549/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/07/opinion/07kristof.html?_r=1 |date=24 December 2016}}. ''The New York Times''. 6 January 2010.</ref>
Within the halls of academe, several philosophers endeavored to demonstrate that the theoretical principles underlying secular pacifism could be successfully applied in order to resolve several unique forms of international conflict which emerged as the 20th century came to a close. Included in this group is [[Robert L. Holmes]], who illustrates that four principles of "moral personalism" can be utilized within the context of both [[nuclear war]] and [[terrorism]] in order to promote an ethically viable outcome.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2185583.pdf | jstor=2185583 | last1=Meyers | first1=Diana T. | title=Reviewed work: On War and Morality, Robert L. Holmes | journal=The Philosophical Review | date=1992 | volume=101 | issue=2 | pages=481–484 | doi=10.2307/2185583 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1961738.pdf | jstor=1961738 | last1=Rock | first1=Stephen R. | title=Reviewed work: On War and Morality, Robert L. Holmes; Paths to Peace: Exploring the Feasibility of Sustainable Peace, Richard Smoke, Willis Harman | journal=The American Political Science Review | date=1989 | volume=83 | issue=4 | pages=1447–1448 | doi=10.2307/1961738 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2216042.pdf | jstor=2216042 | last1=Lee | first1=Steven | title=Reviewed work: On War and Morality., Robert L. Holmes | journal=Noûs | date=1992 | volume=26 | issue=4 | pages=559–562 | doi=10.2307/2216042 }}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=yGx-2-maackC ''The Ethics of Nonviolence: Essay by Robert L. Holmes'' - Book blurb on google.books.com]</ref> He further argues that waging war in the modern era is unjustifiable when considered in its totality and that by transcending the particular perceptions of injustice in a conflict it is possible to be a "pragmatic pacifist".<ref>[https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/pacificism-a-philosophy-of-nonviolence/ ''Pacifism A Philosophy of Nonviolence''. Holmes, Robert L. Bloomsbury, London, 2017 pp.265-266, "Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews" - "Pacifism A Philosophy of Nonviolence" Book review presented by Cheyney Ryan, the University of Oxford 6/7/2017 archived at the University of Notre Dame on ndpr.nd.edu]</ref>
==== Antiwar literature of the 20th century ====▼
* Edmund Blunden's ''[[Undertones of War]]'' (1928).
* Robert Graves's ''[[Good-Bye
* Erich Marie Remarque's ''[[All Quiet on the Western Front]]'' (1929).
* Beverley Nichols's ''Cry Havoc!'' (1933).
* A.A. Milne's ''[[Peace with Honor|Peace with Honour]]'' (1934).
* Aldous Huxley's ''[[Ends and Means]]'' (1937).
* [[Robert L. Holmes]]', ''On War and Morality'' (1989).<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=ti%3A%22On%20War%20and%20Morality.%22 "On War and Morality". Holmes, Robert L. Princeton University Press 1989 Robert L. Holmes on JSTOR.org]</ref>
==Religious attitudes{{anchor|Pacifism and religion}}==
{{see also|Religion and peacebuilding}}
{{Redirect|Religion of peace|peace in Islam, often called the ''religion of peace''|Pacifism in Islam}}
===Baháʼí Faith===
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[[Ahimsa]] (do no harm), is a primary virtue in Buddhism (as well as other Indian religions such as Hinduism and Jainism).<ref name="Baroni2002">{{Cite book |last=Helen Josephine Baroni |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smNM4ElP3XgC&pg=PA3 |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism |year= 2002 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-0823922406 |page=3}}</ref> This leads to a misconception that Buddhism is a religion based solely on peace; however, like all religions, there is a long history of violence in various Buddhist traditions and many examples of prolonged violence in its 2,500-year existence. Like many religious scholars and believers of other religions, many Buddhists disavow any connection between their religion and the violence committed in its name or by its followers, and find various ways of dealing with problematic texts.<ref>''Buddhist Warfare'' by Michael Jerryson and [[Mark Juergensmeyer]] / Oxford University Press 2010, p.[https://books.google.com/books?id=AEw124lzC8wC&pg=PT12 3]–14 {{ISBN|978-0195394849}}</ref>
Notable pacifists or peace activists within Buddhist traditions include [[Thích Nhất Hạnh]] who advocated for peace in response to the Vietnam War, founded the [[Plum Village Tradition]], and helped popularize [[engaged Buddhism]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Schedneck|first=Brooke|title=Thich Nhat Hanh, the Buddhist monk who introduced mindfulness to the West, prepares to die|url=http://theconversation.com/thich-nhat-hanh-the-buddhist-monk-who-introduced-mindfulness-to-the-west-prepares-to-die-111142|access-date=10 July 2021|website=The Conversation|date=18 March 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Thich Nhat Hanh|url=https://plumvillage.org/about/thich-nhat-hanh/|access-date=10 July 2021|website=Plum Village}}</ref> [[Robert Baker Aitken]] and [[Anne Hopkins Aitken]] who founded the [[Buddhist Peace Fellowship]],<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=https://buddhistpeacefellowship.org/history/|access-date=10 July 2021|website=Buddhist Peace Fellowship|archive-date=10 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710163458/https://buddhistpeacefellowship.org/history/|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Cheng Yen]] founder of the [[Tzu Chi Foundation]],<ref>{{Cite news|last=Abdoolcarim|first=Zoher|date=21 April 2011|title=The 2011 Time 100 – Time|language=en-US|magazine=Time|url=http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2066367_2066369_2066393,00.html|access-date=10 July 2021|issn=0040-781X
===Christianity===
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====Other denominations====
[[File:Peace Poppy Wreath.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Photograph|A Peace poppy [[wreath]], made of Peace poppies, with a [[CND]] symbol inside at a British [[Remembrance Day]] event]]
The [[Peace Pledge Union]] is a pacifist organisation from which the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship (APF) later emerged within the Anglican Church. The APF succeeded in gaining ratification of the pacifist position at two successive [[Lambeth Conferences]], but many Anglicans would not regard themselves as pacifists. South African Bishop [[Desmond Tutu]] is the most prominent Anglican pacifist. [[Rowan Williams]] led an almost united Anglican Church in Britain in opposition to the 2003 [[Iraq War]]. In Australia [[Peter Carnley]] similarly led a front of bishops opposed to the [[Government of Australia]]'s involvement in the invasion of Iraq.
The [[Catholic Worker Movement]] is concerned with both social justice and pacifist issues, and voiced consistent opposition to the [[Spanish Civil War]] and World War II. Many of its early members were imprisoned for their opposition to [[conscription]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Catholic Worker Movement |url=http://www.catholicworker.org/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131054149/http://www.catholicworker.org/ |archive-date=31 January 2016 |access-date=30 January 2016}}</ref> Within the Roman Catholic Church, the [[Pax Christi]] organisation is the premier pacifist lobby group. It holds positions similar to APF, and the two organisations are known to work together on ecumenical projects. Within Roman Catholicism there has been a discernible move towards a more pacifist position through the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Popes [[Pope Benedict XV|Benedict XV]], [[Pope John XXIII|John XXIII]] and [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] were all vocal in their opposition to specific wars. By taking the name [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]], some suspected that [[Pope Benedict XVI|Joseph Ratzinger]] would continue the strong emphasis upon nonviolent conflict resolution of his predecessor. However, the Roman Catholic Church officially maintains the legitimacy of Just War, which is rejected by some pacifists.
In the twentieth century, there was a notable trend among prominent Roman Catholics towards pacifism. Individuals such as [[Dorothy Day]] and [[Henri Nouwen]] stand out among them. The monk and mystic [[Thomas Merton]] was noted for his commitment to pacifism during the [[Vietnam War]] era. Murdered Salvadoran Bishop [[Óscar Romero]] was notable for using non-violent resistance tactics and wrote meditative sermons focusing on the power of prayer and peace. [[School of the Americas Watch]] was founded by Maryknoll Fr. Roy Bourgeois in 1990 and uses strictly pacifist principles to protest the training of Latin American military officers by United States Army officers at the School of the Americas in the state of Georgia.
The [[Southern Baptist Convention]] has stated in the [[Baptist Faith and Message]], "It is the duty of Christians to seek peace with all men on principles of [[righteousness]]. In accordance with the spirit and teachings of Christ they should do all in their power to put an end to war."<ref>{{cite web |title=SBC, " Baptist Faith and Message 2000" |url=http://www.sbc.net/bfm/bfm2000.asp#xvi |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303000119/http://www.sbc.net/bfm/bfm2000.asp#xvi |archive-date=3 March 2009 |access-date=22 January 2008}}</ref>
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{{Main|Ahimsa}}
The precepts of Ahimsa under Hinduism require that war must be avoided, with sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, its method lawful.<ref name=balkaran2012/><ref name=robinson2003/> While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must continue.<ref name=balkaran2012/><ref name=klos1996/>
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====Ahmadiyya====
{{Further|Ahmadiyya view on Jihad}}
According to the [[Ahmadiyya]] understanding of Islam, pacifism is a strong current, and jihad is one's personal inner struggle and should not be used violently for political motives. Violence is the last option only to be used to protect religion and one's own life in extreme situations of persecution. [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]], the founder of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, said that in contrary to the current views, Islam ''does not allow the use of sword in religion, except in the case of defensive wars, wars waged to punish a tyrant, or those meant to uphold freedom''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jihad the True Islamic Concept |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/articles/Jihad-Brochure.pdf |access-date=9 September 2010}}</ref>
Ahmadiyya claims its objective to be the peaceful propagation of [[Islam]] with special emphasis on spreading the true message of Islam by the pen. Ahmadis point out that as per prophecy, who they believe was the promised messiah, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, rendered the concept of violent jihad unnecessary in modern times. They believe that the answer of hate should be given by love.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jihad of the Pen |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/links/00000064.html |access-date=9 September 2010}}</ref> Many Muslims consider Ahmadi Muslims as either ''[[kafir]]s'' or [[
===Jainism===
[[Ahimsa in Jainism|Absolute Non-violence and compassion for all life]] is central to [[Jainism]]. Human life is valued as a unique, rare opportunity to reach enlightenment. Killing any person or living creature seen or unseen, no matter what crime may have committed, is considered unimaginably terrible. It is a religion that requires monks, from all its sects and traditions, to be [[
===Judaism===
Although [[Judaism]] is not a pacifist religion, it does believe that peace is highly desirable. Most Jews will hope to limit or minimise conflict and violence but they accept that, given human nature and the situations which arise from time to time in the world, there will be occasions when violence and war may be justified.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/znpykqt/revision/7 |title=What does pacifism mean in Judaism? – War and peace – GCSE Religious Studies Revision – BBC Bitesize |publisher=Bbc.com |date= |accessdate=5 March 2022 |archive-date=12 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712063354/https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/znpykqt/revision/7 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Jewish Peace Fellowship is a New-York based [[nonprofit]], [[Jewish denominations|nondenominational]] organization set up to provide a [[Judaism|Jewish]] voice in the [[peace movement]]. The organization was founded in 1941 in order to support Jewish [[conscientious objectors]] who sought exemption from combatant military service.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jewish Peace Fellowship |url=http://www.jewishpeacefellowship.org/index.php?p=about |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205030508/http://www.jewishpeacefellowship.org/index.php?p=about |archive-date=5 December 2010 |access-date=15 September 2010}}</ref> It is affiliated to the [[International Fellowship of Reconciliation]].<ref>{{cite web |title=IFOR Members |url=http://www.ifor.org/members.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130423022546/http://www.ifor.org/members.htm |archive-date=23 April 2013 |access-date=15 September 2010}}</ref> The
▲Although [[Judaism]] is not a pacifist religion, it does believe that peace is highly desirable. Most Jews will hope to limit or minimise conflict and violence but they accept that, given human nature and the situations which arise from time to time in the world, there will be occasions when violence and war may be justified.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/znpykqt/revision/7 |title=What does pacifism mean in Judaism? – War and peace – GCSE Religious Studies Revision – BBC Bitesize |publisher=Bbc.com |date= |accessdate=5 March 2022 |archive-date=12 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712063354/https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/znpykqt/revision/7 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Jewish Peace Fellowship is a New-York based [[nonprofit]], [[Jewish denominations|nondenominational]] organization set up to provide a [[Judaism|Jewish]] voice in the [[peace movement]]. The organization was founded in 1941 in order to support Jewish [[conscientious objectors]] who sought exemption from combatant military service.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jewish Peace Fellowship |url=http://www.jewishpeacefellowship.org/index.php?p=about |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205030508/http://www.jewishpeacefellowship.org/index.php?p=about |archive-date=5 December 2010 |access-date=15 September 2010}}</ref> It is affiliated to the [[International Fellowship of Reconciliation]].<ref>{{cite web |title=IFOR Members |url=http://www.ifor.org/members.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130423022546/http://www.ifor.org/members.htm |archive-date=23 April 2013 |access-date=15 September 2010}}</ref> The small [[Neturei Karta]] group of anti-Zionist, ultra-orthodox Jews, supposedly take a pacifist line, saying that "Jews are not allowed to dominate, kill, harm or demean another people and are not allowed to have anything to do with the Zionist enterprise, their political meddling and their wars."<ref>{{cite web |title=What is the Neturei Karta? |url=http://www.nkusa.org/aboutus/index.cfm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513010541/http://www.nkusa.org/AboutUs/index.cfm |archive-date=13 May 2011 |access-date=16 September 2010}}</ref> However, the Neturei Karta group do support groups such as [[Hezbollah]] and [[Hamas]] that are violent towards Israel.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Anti-Zionist ultra-Orthodox Jews celebrate Sabbath in Gaza |newspaper=Haaretz |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/anti-zionist-ultra-orthodox-jews-celebrate-sabbath-in-gaza-1.265558 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606174420/http://www.haaretz.com/news/anti-zionist-ultra-orthodox-jews-celebrate-sabbath-in-gaza-1.265558 |archive-date=6 June 2011 |access-date=4 January 2012}}</ref> The [[Hebrew Bible]] is full of examples when Jews were told to go and war against enemy lands or within the Israelite community as well as instances where God, as destroyer and protector, goes to war for non-participant Jews.<ref>Niditch, Susan, ''War in the Hebrew Bible'' (Oxford University Press ed. 1993)</ref>
==Government and political movements==
[[File:1933-may-10-berlin-book-burning.JPG|thumb|[[Erich Maria Remarque|Remarque]]'s anti-war novel ''[[All Quiet on the Western Front]]'' was banned and burned by war-glorifying Nazis.]]
While many governments have tolerated pacifist views and even accommodated pacifists' refusal to fight in wars, others at times have outlawed pacifist and anti-war activity. In 1918, The United States Congress passed the [[Sedition Act of 1918]]. During the periods between World Wars I and World War II, pacifist literature and public advocacy was banned in Italy under [[Benito Mussolini]], Germany after the rise of [[Adolf Hitler]],<ref name="bz">Benjamin Ziemann, "Pacifism" in ''World Fascism:An Encyclopedia'', edited by Cyprian P. Blamires. ABC-CLIO Ltd, 2006. {{ISBN|1576079406}} (pp. 495–496)</ref> [[Francoist Spain|Spain]] under [[Francisco Franco]],<ref>Brock and Young, pp. 96–97, 311.</ref> and the [[Soviet Union]] under [[Joseph Stalin]].<ref name="nsleu">''Notes sur l'anarchisme en U.R.S.S : De 1921 à nos jours''. Les Cahiers du Vent du Chemin. Paris, 1983.</ref> In these nations, pacifism was denounced as cowardice; indeed, Mussolini referred to pacifist writings as the "propaganda of cowardice".<ref name="bz" />
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{{Main|Anarcho-pacifism}}
[[File:Benjamin D. Maxham - Henry David Thoreau - Restored - greyscale - straightened.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[Henry David Thoreau]], early proponent of anarcho-pacifism]]
Anarcho-pacifism is a form of [[anarchism]] which completely rejects the use of violence in any form for any purpose. The main precedent was [[Henry David Thoreau]] who through his work [[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Civil Disobedience]] influenced the advocacy of both Leo Tolstoy and Mahatma Gandhi for [[nonviolent resistance]].<ref name="ppu.org.uk">{{cite web |title=The pacifist and anarchist tradition by Geoffrey Ostergaard |url=http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad8.html#anarch%20and%20violence |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514052437/http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad8.html#anarch%20and%20violence |archive-date=14 May 2011 |access-date=1 March 2010}}</ref> As a global movement, anarcho-pacifism emerged shortly before [[World War II]] in the Netherlands, Great Britain and the United States and was a strong presence in the subsequent campaigns for [[nuclear disarmament]].
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[[Hermann Göring]] described, during an interview at the [[Nuremberg Trials]], how denouncing and outlawing pacifism was an important part of the Nazis' seizure of power: "The people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. That is easy. All you have to do is tell them they are being attacked and denounce the pacifists for lack of patriotism and exposing the country to danger. It works the same way in any country."<ref>[[q:Hermann Göring#Nuremberg Diary (1947)]]</ref>
Some commentators on the most nonviolent forms of pacifism, including [[Jan Narveson]], argue that such pacifism is a self-contradictory doctrine. Narveson claims that everyone has rights and corresponding responsibilities not to violate others' rights. Since pacifists give up their ability to protect themselves from violation of their right not to be harmed, then other people thus have no corresponding responsibility, thus creating a paradox of rights. Narveson said that "the prevention of infractions of that right is precisely what one has a right to when one has a right at all." Narveson then discusses how rational persuasion is a good but often inadequate method of discouraging an aggressor. He considers that everyone has the right to use any means necessary to prevent deprivation of their civil liberties, and force could be necessary.<ref>Narveson, January 1965. "Pacifism: A Philosophical Analysis." ''Ethics'', LXXV: 4, pp. 259–271.</ref> [[Peter Gelderloos]] criticizes the idea that nonviolence is the only way to fight for a better world. According to Gelderloos, pacifism as an ideology serves the interests of the state and is hopelessly caught up psychologically with the control schema of patriarchy and white supremacy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gelderloos |first=Peter |title=How Nonviolence Protects the State |publisher=South End Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0896087729 |location=Cambridge, MA |page=128}}</ref> [[Anne Appelbaum]] has argued that advocating pacifism in response to the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]] overlooks the lessons of history, as surrendering territory and principles enables atrocities, and early military support for Ukraine might have deterred the invasion, revealing that misguided pacifism can sometimes lead to greater conflict.<ref>Appelbaum, Anne. [https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2024/10/russia-ukraine-democracy-applebaum/680318/ "The West Has to Believe That ...."] ''The Atlantic''. 20 October 2024. 21 October 2024.</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Peace
}}{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Ahimsa]]
* [[Antimilitarism]]
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* [[Christian pacifism]]
* [[Christian Peacemaker Teams]]
* [[Criticism of the War on Terror]]▼
* [[Conscientious objector]]
* [[Counter-recruitment]]
▲* [[Criticism of the War on Terror]]
* [[Defencism]]
* [[Defensivism]]
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* Henderson, Gavin B. "The Pacifists of the Fifties" ''Journal of Modern History'' 9#3, (1937), pp. 314–341 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1898869 online] 1850s in Britain
* {{cite encyclopedia |last= Higgs|first= Robert |author-link=Robert Higgs |editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapter= Peace and Pacifism|chapter-url=https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n230.xml|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |year=2008 |publisher= [[SAGE Publishing|Sage]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location= Thousand Oaks, CA <!-- |doi= 10.4135/9781412965811.n230 -->|isbn= 978-1412965804 |<!-- oclc=750831024| lccn = 2008009151 | -->pages=373–377 }}
* [[Robert L. Holmes|Holmes, Robert L.]] and Gan, Barry L. editors. ''Nonviolence in Theory and Practice'' 3rd, edition. (Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press, 2012).
* Huxley, Aldous. ''An encyclopaedia of pacifism'' (1937) [https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.12367 online]
* Ingram, Norman. ''The politics of dissent: pacifism in France 1919–1939'' (1991) [https://archive.org/details/politicsofdissen0000ingr online]
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