Raorchestes chalazodes: Difference between revisions

| status = CRVU | status_system = IUCN3.1

'''''Raorchestes chalazodes''''' ('''chalazodesChalazodes bubble-nest frog''', '''white-spotted bush frog''', or '''Günther's bush frog''') is a species of critically endangered [[frog]] in the family [[Rhacophoridae]]. ''Raorchestes chalazode''s is a nocturnal and arboreal species found in the understorey of tropical moist evergreen forest and is [[Endemism|endemic]] to the [[Western Ghats]] of [[India]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=IUCN |date=2004-04-30 |title=Raorchestes chalazodes: S.D. Biju, Sushil Dutta, Karthikeyan Vasudevan, S.P. Vijayakumar, Chelmala Srinivasulu: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2004: e.T58829A11847257 |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/58829/0 |language=en |doi=10.2305/iucn.uk.2004.rlts.t58829a11847257.en|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=frost>{{cite web |url=http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/?action=names&taxon=Raorchestes+chalazodes |title=''Raorchestes chalazodes'' (Günther, 1876) |author=Frost, Darrel R. |year=2013 |work=Amphibian Species of the World 5.6, an Online Reference |publisher=American Museum of Natural History |access-date=14 July 2013}}</ref> The [[Specific name (zoology)|specific name]] ''chalazodes'' is composed of the Greek word χάλαζα (''chalaza'') meaning "lump" and ''-odes'' for the derived adjective, reflecting white granulation of the body.<ref>S.{{cite D.journal BIJU,| FRANKYdoi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2008.00466.x BOSSUYT,| title=Systematics and phylogeny ofofPhilautus ''PhilautusGistel''. Gistel, 1848 (Anura, Rhacophoridae) in the Western Ghats of India, with descriptions of 12 new species, ''| year=2009 | last1=Biju | first1=S. D. | last2=Bossuyt | first2=Franky | journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society'', Volume| volume=155, Issue| issue=2, February| 2009,pages=374–444 Pages| 374–444, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2008.00466.x</nowiki>access=free }}</ref> UsingIt 'chalazodes'has inbeen theobserved commonbetween name,1200 asand if1600 itmeters wereabove asea [[properlevel.<ref noun]],name=IUCN is probably a misinterpretation./>

The original holotype was collected in 1876 by Colonel Richard Henry Beddome in Travancore and given to Albert C. L. G. Günther. Before its rediscovery in 2011 in the Upper Kodayar Region in Tamil Nadu, the species was thought to be extinct. ''Raorchestes chalazodes'' make their oviposition sites in the internodes of the ''[[Ochlandra travancorica]]'' species of [[bamboo]], where the adult male will take care of the egg clutch. ''Raorchestes chalazode''s is also the only species in its genus that is reported to exhibit parental care.<ref name=":0Sayyed-2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Sayyed |first1=Amit |last2=Padhye |first2=Anand |date=2020-01-01 |title=Natural history of Ghate's Shrub Frog, Raorchestes ghatei (Rhacophoridae), from the northern Western Ghats, India |url=https://journals.ku.edu/reptilesandamphibians/article/view/14405 |journal=Reptiles & Amphibians |language=en |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=205–210 |doi=10.17161/randa.v26i3.14405 |s2cid=241036207 |issn=2332-4961|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is now considered critically endangeredvulnerable by [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]].

The overall body coloration of ''Raorchestes chalazodes'' is green with a purplish white ventral region and black-blue spots on the groin region. Some distinguishing characteristics of the species is a rounded snout, a lingual papilla on the tongue, and well-developed supernumerary tubercles. ''Raorchestes chalazodes'' also has moderate toe webbing.<ref name=":1BIJU-2009">{{Cite journal |last1=BIJU |first1=S. D. |last2=BOSSUYT |first2=FRANKY |date=2009 |title=Systematics and phylogeny of<i>''Philautus</i>''Gistel, 1848 (Anura, Rhacophoridae) in the Western Ghats of India, with descriptions of 12 new species |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2008.00466.x |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=155 |issue=2 |pages=374–444 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2008.00466.x |issn=0024-4082|doi-access=free }}</ref> One of its most unique and distinctive traits is its eye: a black iris with golden patches.<ref name=":2www.lostspeciesindia.org">{{Cite web |title=Lost Amphibians of India - www.lostspeciesindia.org - Rediscovered |url=http://www.lostspeciesindia.org/LAI2/new1_rediscovered.php |access-date=2022-11-09 |website=www.lostspeciesindia.org}}</ref>

The [[holotype]] is an adult female collected in Travancore by Colonel Richard Henry Beddome, and given to [[Albert C. L. G. Günther]], who described it.<ref name=":3Günther-1876">{{Cite journal |last=Günther |first=Albert C. L. G. |date=1876 |title=Third report on collections of Indian reptiles obtained by the British Museum |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/67162 |journal=Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London |volume=1875 |pages=567–577}}</ref> This specimen is 26 &nbsp;mm long with the hind limbs measuring 42 &nbsp;mm long. The dorsal surface is described as a uniform green, whereas the ventral surface is a yellowish-white color. The dorsal surface also has tubercles that look like white spots. These tubercles are presumed to be the reason Gunther named the species "''chalazodes''".<ref name=":1BIJU-2009" />

''Raorchestes chalazodes'' is found in the narrow region of the Western Ghats on the West Coast of peninsular India, where they are restricted to elevations over 1200 m.<ref name=":4Seshadri-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Seshadri |first1=Kadaba Shamanna |last2=Bickford |first2=David Patrick |date=2017-12-14 |title=Faithful fathers and crooked cannibals: the adaptive significance of parental care in the bush frog Raorchestes chalazodes, Western Ghats, India |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-017-2420-3 |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |language=en |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=4 |doi=10.1007/s00265-017-2420-3 |s2cid=253808316 |issn=1432-0762}}</ref> It lives in the tropical and moist evergreen forest understory. More specifically, ''Raorchestes chalazodes'' are found in the endemic understory of the ''Ochlandra travancorica'' bamboo that is found in the area.<ref name=":4Seshadri-2017" /> This bamboo forms a shrubby habitat that often forms impenetrable clumps next to stream banks, which offers protection.<ref name=":4Seshadri-2017" /> The frog cannot create its own bamboo holes and must depend on the Nilgiri palm squirrel (''[[Funambulus sublineatus]]'').<ref name=IUCN />

''Raorchestes chalazodes'' is currently classified as critically endangeredvulnerable by the most recent assessment by The [[IUCN Red List]] of Threatened Species in 20042023. ThisIt assessmenthas resultssuffered from howdeforestation theand distributionother ofhuman theencroachments. speciesScientists isthink severelythat, fragmentedlike andother howmembers theof speciesits experiencesgenus, ait continualis declinesusceptible into the extentfungus and''[[Batrachochytrium qualitydendrobatidis]]''. ofClimate itschange forestmay habitat.<refalter name=":5">{{Citethe journalbamboo |last=IUCNecology |date=2004-04-30of |title=Raorchestesthe chalazodes:area, S.Dthreatening the frog further. Biju,The Sushilfrog Dutta,also Karthikeyanfaces Vasudevan,some S.P.threat Vijayakumar,from Chelmalathe Srinivasulu:annual Thepilgrimage IUCNto RedAgasthyamala ListBiosphere ofReserve, Threatenedin Specieswhich 2004:pilgrims e.T58829A11847257leave behind |url=http://wwwlitter and collect firewood.iucnredlist.org/details/58829/0<ref |languagename=enIUCN |doi=10.2305/iucn.uk.2004.rlts.t58829a11847257.en}}</ref>

The ''Ochlandra travancorica'' species of bamboo that ''Raorchestes chalazodes'' uses for oviposition sites is often harvested for use for biofuel and the manufacturing of paper and pulp. Because of this, ''Ochlandra travancorica'' has been severely depleted in the Western Ghats.<ref name=":6SijiMol-2016">{{Cite journal |last1=SijiMol |first1=K. |last2=Dev |first2=Suma Arun |last3=Sreekumar |first3=V. B. |date=2016 |title=A Review of the Ecological Functions of Reed Bamboo, Genus Ochlandra in the Western Ghats of India: Implications for Sustainable Conservation |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/194008291600900121 |journal=Tropical Conservation Science |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=389–407 |doi=10.1177/194008291600900121 |s2cid=88928470 |issn=1940-0829|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In a study on ''Raorchestes chalazodes'' in 2018, 43 egg clutches with male guardians were found in 5 &nbsp;km²² sampling site at Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1name="Seshadri |first1=Kadaba Shamanna |last2=Bickford |first2=David Patrick |date=-2017-12-14 |title=Faithful fathers and crooked cannibals: the adaptive significance of parental care in the bush frog Raorchestes chalazodes, Western Ghats, India |url=https:"//doi.org/10.1007/s00265-017-2420-3 |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |language=en |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=4 |doi=10.1007/s00265-017-2420-3 |s2cid=253808316 |issn=1432-0762}}</ref> To help with conservation, a mapping of ''Ochlandra travancorica'' distribution to identify threatened areas that are not under protection is a vital first step of action. Additionally, there are more viable actions that can be taken to help with the conservation of ''Raorchestes chalazodes.'' Bamboo with smaller diameters can be harvested, or harvesting can be banned during the breeding season of ''Raorchestes chalazodes'' from May to November. Artificial oviposition sites that resemble those found in the wild can also be created.<ref name=":6SijiMol-2016" /><ref name=":4Seshadri-2017" />

''Raorchestes chalazodes'' mainly consumes invertebrates such as insects and spiders, but have also been observed to eat other invertebrates such as molluscs. Specifically, ''Raorchestes chalazodes'' was observed consuming ''[[Satiella dekkanensis]]'', a type of snail that does not possess a hard shell. Before the breeding season, adult male frogs will forage for large prey such as ''Satiella dekkanensis'' to prepare for the long period of caregiving.<ref name=":7SHAMANNA-2020">{{Cite journal |last=SHAMANNA |first=SESHADRI |date=2020 |title=Natural History Notes |url=https://ssarherps.org/herpetological-review-pdfs/ |journal=Herpetological Review |volume=51 |issue=3}}</ref>

The [[breeding season]] of ''Raorchestes chalazodes'' is between the months of May and November.<ref name=":4Seshadri-2017" /> During this breeding season, males will find an internode in ''Ochlandra travancorica'' bamboo that has an opening and will vocalize inside the internode to attract females.<ref name=":8Seshadri-2015">{{Cite journal |last=Seshadri |first=Kadaba |date=2015 |title=Breeding in bamboo: a novel anuran reproductive strategy discovered in Rhacophorid frogs of the Western Ghats, India |url=https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article-lookup/doi/10.1111/bij.12388 |access-date=2022-11-09 |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=114 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1111/bij.12388|doi-access=free }}</ref> Because males stay near one internode, females are presumed to be polyandrous and move from one internode to the next with amplexus occurring inside the internode.<ref name=":8Seshadri-2015" /> After the mating season ends, which is the months of November to December, the males will stop vocalizing and vacate the oviposition sites inside the internodes of the bamboo.<ref name=":4Seshadri-2017" />

In ''Raorchestes chalazodes'', there is direct parental care of offspring and in this species, the males are the sole providers of parental care. Males will have varied behavior to try to take care of egg clutches. Some of these strategies include egg attendance, egg guarding, and aggressive behavior to defend the oviposition site or itself. In egg attendance, the adult male frog will remain at a particular oviposition site regardless of time. In egg guarding, the adult male frog will be perched in front of the eggs in the internode presumably to deter a perceived threat. The adult male frog will also exhibit aggressive behavior such as aggressive vocalization or lunging at threats such as conspecific males and arthropods such as [[katydids]] and cockroaches[[cockroach]]es entering the internode. During the day, the adult male frog will sleep near the egg clutch with its eyes half closed and limbs brought close to its body. During the time period of parental care, the caregiver may not forage or feed.<ref name=":4Seshadri-2017" />

This parental care serves as a way to protect the clutch from the many threats the eggs face. The mortality rate of unattended eggs is much higher than those of attended eggs, and the main source of egg mortality is from predation. The main cause of predation is cannibalism from conspecific males who are thought to be unsuccessful in finding a mate and defending their own oviposition site. As a male providing care regularly vocalizes which could signal territory ownership, a lack of vocalization may lead to these cannibalistic males attempting to take of the oviposition site and eating the nutrient rich eggs in the clutch. Egg parasitism from flies and [[oophagy]] from ants are also predation issues, but the male caregiver may eat the intruding ants and flies, which serves as a form of sustenance. Another cause of egg mortality is fungal infection.<ref name=":4Seshadri-2017" />

Nests are made in the internodes of the ''Ochlandra travancorica'' species of bamboo. The adult frogs can get in through a small opening near the base of the internode. It is hypothesized that if the internode has an opening at the top, water could collect inside and drown the froglets.<ref name=":8Seshadri-2015" /> The insides of the oviposition sites have lower temperature and higher humidity compared to the outside. This higher humidity benefits the frog eggs by reducing water loss from evaporation.<ref name=":4Seshadri-2017" /> The eggs laid are also attached to the inner wall of the bamboo through a [[mucilaginous]] strand. Inside the bamboo, these eggs will undergo direct development without water.<ref name=":8Seshadri-2015" />

The eggs of ''Raorchestes chalazodes'' are spherical and transparent and are connected to the inner walls of the bamboo internode through a mucilaginous strand. The eggs have a creamy white yolk where the ratio of egg yolk to outer jelly is rather small.<ref name=":8Seshadri-2015" /> After hatching, the froglets will remain inside the internode where they will vacate the oviposition site between 3 toand 34 days after the first froglet emerging .<ref name=":4Seshadri-2017" /><ref name=":9Seshadri-2015-2">{{Cite journal |last=Seshadri |first=Kadaba |date=2015 |title=Rhacophorid Frogs Breeding in Bamboo: Discovery of a Novel Reproductive Mode from Western Ghats |url=https://www.amphibians.org/resources/library/froglog/ |journal=FrogLog |volume=23 |issue=116 |pages=46–49}}</ref>