Wikipedia

Geology of Reykjanes Peninsula: Difference between revisions

Browse history interactively
← Previous edit
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
further improvement to legend promoted by ‎Swinub's correction to my spelling typo
Monkbot (talk | contribs)
Bots
3,694,069 edits
m Task 20: replace {lang-??} templates with {langx|??} ‹See Tfd› (Replaced 1);
 
(13 intermediate revisions by 8 users not shown)
Line 6:
[[File:Hill near Reykjavík aerial 2018.jpg|thumb|[[Keilir (mountain)|Keilir]] subglacial cone, surrounded by lavas and other volcanic landforms of [[Holocene]] [[shield volcano]] Þráinskjóldur as well as fissures and [[Fault (geology)|faults]]]]
[[File:Bláfjöll3 002.jpg|thumb|Other subglacial volcanoes on Reykjanes Peninsula: Litla Sandfell with [[tuya]] Geitafell ([[Brennisteinsfjöll]]) behind]]
The '''Reykjanes Peninsula''' ({{lang-langx|is|Reykjanesskagi}} {{IPA-is|ˈreiːcaˌnɛːsˌskaijɪ|}}) in southwest [[Iceland]] is the continuation of the mostly submarine Reykjanes Ridge, a part of the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]], on land and reaching from [[Esjan|Esja]] in the north and [[Hengill]] in the east to [[Reykjanestá]] in the west.<ref name="P">{{cite journal|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/52483246.pdf|first1 =G.B.M.|last1 =Pedersen|first2 =P.|last2=Grosse|title =Morphometry of subaerial shield volcanoes and glaciovolcanoes from Reykjanes Peninsula, Iceland: Effects of eruption environment|journal =Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|volume =282|year=2014|pages =115-133115–133|access-date=21 August 2020|doi =10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.06.008|doi-access=free|bibcode =2014JVGR..282..115P}}</ref> Suðurnes (transl. [[Southern Peninsula (Iceland)|Southern Peninsula]]) is an administrative unit covering part of Reykjanes Peninsula.
 
A great deal of volcanic activity was occurring in the Reykjanes Peninsula in 2020 and into 2021, after nearly 800 years of inactivity. After the eruption of the Fagradalsfjall volcano on 19 March 2021, [[National Geographic]]'s experts predicted that this "may mark the start of decades of volcanic activity". The eruption was small leading to a prediction that this volcano was unlikely to threaten "any population centers".<ref name="api.nationalgeographic.com">{{cite web|url=https://api.nationalgeographic.com/distribution/public/amp/science/article/eruption-in-iceland-may-mark-start-of-decades-of-volcanic-activity|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210322200532/https://api.nationalgeographic.com/distribution/public/amp/science/article/eruption-in-iceland-may-mark-start-of-decades-of-volcanic-activity|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 22, 2021|title=Eruption in Iceland may mark the start of decades of volcanic activity|accessdate=27 March 2021}}</ref>
Line 29:
The [[Holocene]] [[shield volcano]]es represent the great bulk of magma production in this part of Iceland and form the base of many other volcanic [[landform]]s. [[Olivine]] [[tholeiite]]s constitute about 60% by volume of all post-glacial lava products on the Reykjanes Peninsula."<ref>M.A.M. Gee et al.: ''Glacioisostacy controls chemical and isotopic characteristics of tholeiites from the Reykjanes Peninsula, SW Iceland.'' / ''Earth and Planetary Science Letters 164'' (1998) 1–5</ref> The postglacial shield volcanoes are situated at the periphery of [[Fissure vent|fissure systems]]. They erupted after the Weichselian glaciation.<ref name="P" />
 
These shields are mostly circular in form, built up from [[Lava#Pāhoehoe|pāhoehoe lavas]] and composed of a low-sloping [[lava cone]] surrounded by a lava apron;<ref name="P" /> the older shields are made from [[Picrite basalt|picrite]], the younger, bigger ones from olivine-tholeiite. They were probably formed in long-lived eruptions (years to decades).<ref name="P" /> The best known edifices are [[Selvogsheiði]] {{IPA-is|ˈsɛlˌvɔksˌheiːðɪ|}} (height 176 m, basal width 4.8&nbsp;km, summit width 0.7&nbsp;km, volume 0.64&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup>), [[Þráinskjöldur]] {{IPA-is|ˈθrauːɪnˌscœltʏr̥|}} (volume 5.2&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup>), [[Heiðin há]] (volume 6&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup>) and [[Sandfellshæð]] {{IPA-is|ˈsantˌfɛlsˌhaiːθ|}} (4.5&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup>).<ref>[https://orkustofnun.is/gogn/Greinar-starfsmanna/Arni-Hjartarson-2003-PhD/AH-06-Postglacial-lava-production-in-Iceland.pdf Árni Hjartarson: ''Postglacial lava production in Iceland.'' Okustofnun. Greinar starfsmanna. (2003)] Accessed 06 August 2020.</ref> Sandfellshæð is a very regularly constructed shield volcano and the largest in the southern part of Reykjanes Peninsula.<ref>[https://skemman.is/bitstream/1946/7449/1/Ritgerdin_lokaeintak_ias.pdf Helgi Páll Jónsson: ''Eldfjallagarður og jarðminjasvæði á Reykjanesskaga.'' Jarðvísindadeild Háskóli Íslands 2011. MS ritgerð. Leiðbeinendur Ólafur Ingólfsson.] Accessed 17 August 2020</ref> Another important shield volcano on Reykjanes Peninsula is [[Leitin]], formed around 5,000 years ago.
{{maplink|frame=yes|frame-align=right|frame-width=200|frame-height=130|frame-long=-21.7|frame-lat=63.98|zoom=7|raw=[{{Wikipedia:Map data/Askja}},{{Wikipedia:Map data/Grímsvötn}},{{Wikipedia:Map data/Öræfi volcanic belt}},{{Wikipedia:Map data/Hofsjökull}},{{Wikipedia:Map data/Katla}},{{Wikipedia:Map data/Snæfellsnes volcanic belt}},{{Wikipedia:Map data/Hengill}}]
|text=Selected post-glaciation geological features in the Reykjanes Peninsula allowing fuller context. Shading shows: {{legend-inline|#fae8c0}}fissure swarms and {{legend-inline|#d9cf90}}central volcanoes. Clicking on the image enlarges it and enables mouse-over with more detailWikipedia:Map {{legend-inline|#dbb252data/Askja/key}} calderas, {{legend-inline|#cecc90}}subglacial terrain above {{cvt|1100|m}}, {{legend-inline|#e0eda0}}seismically active areas.
}}
 
===Reykjanes volcanic belt===
[[File:Reykjanes volcanic systems.png|thumb|Volcanic systems of the Reykjanes Peninsula (SW-Iceland): 1→[[Reykjanes]] (volcanic system), 2→[[Eldvörp–Svartsengi]], 3→[[Fagradalsfjall]], 4→[[Krýsuvík (volcanic system)|Krýsuvík]], 5→[[Brennisteinsfjöll]], 6→[[Hengill]]|alt=Summary of volcanic systems]]
Since the end of the [[Pleistocene]] glaciation (15,000–11,000 years ago in the region),<ref name="P"/> Holocene volcanoes have contributed to the basaltic lava fields of the peninsula. The Reykjanes volcanic belt (previously also known as the Reykjanes Peninsula ridge,<ref>{{cite journal|last1 =Zakharova|first1 =O.K.|last2 =Spichak|first2 =V.V.|year =2012|title =Geothermal fields of Hengill volcano, Iceland|journal =Journal of Volcanology and Seismology|volume =6|issue =1|pages=1–14|doi =10.1134/S074204631201006X|bibcode =2012JVolS...6....1Z| url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Viacheslav-Spichak/publication/257847359_Geothermal_fields_of_Hengill_Volcano_Iceland/links/54d216e80cf25ba0f042532a/Geothermal-fields-of-Hengill-Volcano-Iceland.pdf257847359 |access-date=30 December 2023}}</ref> or Reykjanes Peninsula volcanic zone<ref name=Foulger1989>{{cite journal|last1 =Foulger|first1 =G.R.|last2 =Toomey|first2 =D.R.|year =1989|title =Structure and evolution of the Hengill‐GrensdalurHengill-Grensdalur Volcanic Complex, Iceland: Geology, geophysics, and seismic tomography|journal =Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth|volume =94|issue =B12|pages =17511–17522|doi =10.1029/JB094iB12p17511|bibcode =1989JGR....9417511F}}</ref>{{rp|p=17511}}), one of the present day [[Volcanism of Iceland|volcanic zones of Iceland]], is connected to the submarine Reykjanes Ridge and consists (depending on author) of 3 to 6 or even 7 volcanic systems, arranged ''en echelon'', i.e. more or less side by side, and in an average 40° angle to the spreading direction NE–SW over the peninsula.<ref name=Sæmundsson2020>{{cite journal|last1 =Sæmundsson|first1 =K.|last2 =Sigurgeirsson|first2 =M.Á.|last3 =Friðleifsson|first3 =G.Ó.|year =2020|title =Geology and structure of the Reykjanes volcanic system, Iceland|journal =Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|volume =391|number =106501|doi =10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2018.11.022|bibcode =2020JVGR..39106501S}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis|url = https://skemman.is/bitstream/1946/30779/3/ThoraBjorgAndresdottir1983.docx.pdf |last1 =Andrésdóttir| first1 =Þóra Björg|title =Volcanic hazard and risk assessment at Reykjanes, vulnerability of infrastructure. Masters thesis|access-date = 28 December 2023|year = 2018 |publisher =University of Iceland|pages =1-891–89}}</ref> One of the reasons for the varying number of systems in the literature is that geothermal areas, magnetic anomalies, eruptive centers, and geochemistry do not all align.<ref name="P"/>
 
Within the belt is a region of transition from the mainly extensional structure of the underwater [[Reykjanes Ridge]] of the Atlantic mid-oceanic ridge to the trans-tensional plate boundary in the Reykjanes Peninsula.<ref name=Sæmundsson2020/> These volcanic systems are: [[Eldey volcanic system]] (mostly submarine), [[Reykjanes volcanic system]], [[Svartsengi volcanic system]] (often thought to be a part of Reykjanes volcanic system as geochemistry is similar),<ref name="P"/> [[Fagradalsfjall|Fagradalsfjall volcanic system]], [[Krýsuvík (volcanic system)|Krýsuvík volcanic system]], [[Brennisteinsfjöll|Brennisteinsfjöll volcanic system]], and [[Hengill|Hengill volcanic system]] (which stretches up to the north and into the [[West volcanic zone of Iceland|West volcanic zone]]).<ref>See eg. [https://skemman.is/bitstream/1946/7449/1/Ritgerdin_lokaeintak_ias.pdf Helgi Páll Jónsson: ''Eldfjallagarður og jarðminjasvæði á Reykjanesskaga.'' Jarðvísindadeild Háskóli Íslands 2011. MS ritgerð. Leiðbeinendur Ólafur Ingólfsson.] Accessed 17. ágúst 2020.</ref>
 
Only the [[Hengill]] volcanic system, the most eastern system, has an additional [[central volcano]] and this volcano is complex as it is at the intersection with the [[West volcanic zone of Iceland]] and [[South Iceland seismic zone]],<ref>Thor Thordarson, Armann Hoskuldsson: Iceland. Classic geology of Europe 3. Harpenden 2002, p.14 and 63.</ref><ref name=Kristján2019>{{cite web|url =https://icelandicvolcanoes.is/?volcano=HEN|title =Catalogue of Icelandic Volcanoes - Hengill|access-date =30 December 2023| publisher =Icelandic Meteorological Office, Institute of Earth Sciences at the University of Iceland, Civil Protection Department of the National Commissioner of the Iceland Police|year=2019|first1 =Kristján|last1 =Sæmundsson}}</ref> forming the Hengill triple junction.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1= J. |last1= Decriem|first2= T. |last2= Árnadóttir|first3= A. |last3= Hooper|first4= H. |last4= Geirsson|first5= F. |last5= Sigmundsson|first6= M. |last6= Keiding|first7= B. G. |last7= Ófeigsson|first8= S. |last8= Hreinsdóttir|first9= P. |last9= Einarsson|first10= P. |last10= LaFemina|first11= R. A. |last11= Bennett|date= 2010|title= The 2008 May 29 earthquake doublet in SW Iceland|journal= [[Geophysical Journal International]]|volume= 181 | issue= 2 | pages= 1128–1146 |doi= 10.1111/j.1365-246x.2010.04565.x|bibcode= 2010GeoJI.181.1128D|doi-access= free|url= http://gfzpublic.gfz-potsdam.de/pubman/item/escidoc:240508:2/component/escidoc:240507/14826.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|p=1128}} It has some [[rhyolite]] and [[andesite]] components.<ref name=Kristján2019/> It is tectonically the current locus of accretion in the south of Iceland propagating southward at between {{cvt|3.5|-|5|cm/year}}.<ref name=Foulger1989/>{{rp|17512}}
 
Otherwise, the volcanic systems, because they are on top of a rift segment, show a tendency for basaltic fissure eruptions.<ref name=Sæmundsson2020/> There are [[tephra]] deposits from both offshore explosive [[Holocene]] eruptions, some of whom were from volcanoes of the Reykjanes volcanic system,<ref>{{cite web|url =https://icelandicvolcanoes.is/?volcano=REY|title =Catalogue of Icelandic Volcanoes - Reykjanes and Svartsengi volcanic systems |access-date =30 December 2023| publisher =Icelandic Meteorological Office, Institute of Earth Sciences at the University of Iceland, Civil Protection Department of the National Commissioner of the Iceland Police|year=2019|last1 =Sigurgeirsson|first1 =Magnús Á.|first2 =Sigmundur|last2 =Einarsson}}</ref> and the most recent Hengill eruption.<ref name=Kristján2019/>
Line 46:
==Tectonics==
[[File:Outline of Iceland Deformation and Volcanic Zones.svg|thumb|Reykjanes Volcanic Belt (RVB) within the [[Volcanism of Iceland|volcanic zones of Iceland]]|alt=Iceland deformation zones]]
As is usual within rift zones, [[tectonics]] play an important role on Reykjanes Peninsula. [[Earthquake]]s are often registered. They may reach up to [[Richter magnitude scale|magnitude]] M6, but most of the earthquakes are small.<ref>See eg.: [https://en.vedur.is/earthquakes-and-volcanism/earthquakes/reykjanespeninsula/ Reykjanes Peninsula. Icelandic Met Office]</ref> These earthquakes often take place within the volcanic systems, but there are also many faults, fractures and fissures in the N-S direction on the peninsula. Additionally, the region is influenced by the South Iceland seismic zone. This southern transform zone of Iceland is between the [[West volcanic zone of Iceland|West volcanic zone]] and the [[East volcanic zone of Iceland|East volcanic zone]]. The larger earthquakes are felt and registered on Reykjanes Peninsula, and they can also trigger medium-sized quakes in this region, as last seen in 2008 and especially in 2000.<ref>[https://notendur.hi.is/oi/Pdf%20reprint%20library/Clifton%20-%20rift%20tectonics%20Reykjanes%20ridge.pdf Clifton, A., etal.: ''Surface effects of triggered fault slip on Reykjanes Peninsula, SW Iceland. Tectonophysics 369'' (2003) 145– 154] Accessed 21 August 2020.</ref>
 
==Volcano-tectonic situation in modern times==
Line 52:
The Reykjanes Peninsula lies within a transtensional rift zone. The rate of spread is about {{cvt|1.8|cm/yr}}.<ref name=Sæmundsson2020/> The spreading that occurs generates NE-SE trending fissure swarm faulting and connects the area with the other surrounding rift zones. The stress that is accumulated through the volcanism is released every 800-1000 years through the fissure eruptions. The fissure swarms are the origin of underground near vertical dykes. The Reykjanes' dykes travel near vertically through Quaternary and Tertiary sediments. These dykes generate permeability in rock that would otherwise be impermeable. This increased permeability creates the potential for geothermal extraction at an economic level. The dykes underground reach up to 300 meters to the surface. Every tens of years, microearthquakes move the strike-slip plate boundaries.<ref name=Sæmundsson2020/>
 
Since Iceland's settlement in the 9th century CE, the peninsula has undergone two periods of prolonged volcanism. The first, from 950 to 1240, culminated in the lengthy series of eruptions between 1210–1240 called the [[Reykjanes Fires]] that deposited substantial amounts of lava and tephra across the peninsula. The volcanoes in the region were subsequently dormant for nearly 800 years.<ref name="Andrews 2023">{{cite web | last=Andrews | first=Robin George | title=Volcanoes don’tdon't just erupt on schedule—but they have been in Iceland | website=Premium | date=2023-08-21 | url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/premium/article/volcanoes-dont-erupt-on-schedule-have-been-in-iceland | access-date=2024-02-10}}</ref> The second episode began in 2020 and has been dubbed the "New Reykjanes Fires" in recognition of the similarity with the previous episode.<ref name="Casey 2024">{{cite web | last=Casey | first=Kathryn Armstrong & Ian | title=State of emergency declared in Iceland after volcanic eruption | website=BBC News | date=2024-02-08 | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-68237327 | access-date=2024-02-09}}</ref>
 
===Tectonic precursors (2020-21)===
Line 64:
A volcanic eruption began at Fagradalsfjall on the evening of 19 March 2021.<ref>[https://www.ruv.is/frett/2021/03/18/helstu-tidindi-eldgos-hafid-i-fagradalsfjalli Helstu tíðindi: Eldgos hafið í Fagradalsfjalli]. RÚV. ruv.is Accessed 20 March 2021</ref> The eruption was small and effusive, from a 500–800 m long fissure; National Geographic predicted that this volcano was unlikely to threaten "any population centers".<ref name="api.nationalgeographic.com"/>
 
The next small fissure eruption in the Fagradalsfjall volcanic system started in the Meradalir valleys on 1 August 2022 and ceased on 22 August 2022.<ref>See eg. {{cite webjournal | title=Trace element composition in olivine from the 2022 Meradalir eruption of the Fagradalsfjall Fires, SW-Iceland (Short Communication) by Krmicek L., etal. | website=Czech Polar Reports, Vol.12,No.2| date=2022 | doi=10.5817/CPR2022-2-16| url=https://journals.muni.cz/CPR/article/view/33531 | access-date=2023-11-19| doi-access=free}}</ref>
 
On 10 July 2023 at 16:40 UTC, a fissure eruption began adjacent to the summit of [[Litli-Hrútur]] and ended by the beginning of August 2023.<ref>{{cite web | title=Latest news on the volcanic eruption on the Reykjanes PeninulaPeninsula | website=Icelandic Meteorological office | date=2023-07-10 | url=https://en.vedur.is/about-imo/news/earthquake-activity-in-fagradalsfjall-area | access-date=2023-07-13}}</ref>
 
===Sundhnúkur eruptions (2023-24)===
[[File:2023 Grindavik eruption.jpg|thumb|Lava flows and fire fountains at Sundhnúkur in January 2024]]<!--when considering changing this image note that it has been a Featured Picture on Wikipedia.-->
{{further|2023-2024 Sundhnúkur eruptions}}
 
{{As of April|June 2024}}, there have so far been fourfive eruptions immediately north of [[Grindavík]], with one partly occurring within the town's limits.
 
Beginning in late October 2023, an intense series of earthquakes in and around Grindavík prompted the evacuation of the town, as a large underground magmatic intrusion indicated that an eruption in the area was imminent.<ref name="Vedur">{{Cite web |title=Magma intrusion possibly extending beneath Grindavík {{!}} News |url=https://en.vedur.is/about-imo/news/a-seismic-swarm-started-north-of-grindavik-last-night |access-date=11 November 2023 |website=Icelandic Meteorological office |language=en |archive-date=11 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111043942/https://en.vedur.is/about-imo/news/a-seismic-swarm-started-north-of-grindavik-last-night |url-status=live }}</ref> The eruption began on 18 December at 10pm local time, north–east of Grindavík at the [[Sundhnúkur]] crater row.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Darren |date=2023-12-18 |title=Eruption on Reykjanes Peninsula - RÚV.is |url=https://www.ruv.is/english/2023-12-18-eruption-on-reykjanes-peninsula-399922/ |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=RÚV}}</ref>
 
Further brief effusive eruptions with a very rapid outflow of large quantities of lava took place on 14 January and 8 February 2024, damaging the outskirts of Grindavik and other infrastructure in the area. On 16 March 2024 a fourth eruption began north–east of Hagafell. This eruption was expected by some by analogy to be similarly short-lived but has continued at a reduced level for over a month.,<ref>{{cite web|title=One month since the start of the eruption at the Sundhnúkur crater row Second longest eruption in the Reykjanes peninsula since 2021|website=Icelandic Meteorological office |language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416202618/https://en.vedur.is/about-imo/news/one-month-since-the-start-of-the-eruption-at-the-sundhnukur-crater-row|archive-date=16 April 2024|url=https://en.vedur.is/about-imo/news/one-month-since-the-start-of-the-eruption-at-the-sundhnukur-crater-row|access-date=17 April 2024}}</ref> but was only declared over on the 9th May.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Engin virkni í gígnum. Þessu eldgosi lokið {{!}} Fréttir |url=https://www.vedur.is/um-vi/frettir/jardhraeringar-grindavik |access-date=2024-05-09 |website=Veðurstofa Íslands |language=is|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509195723/https://www.vedur.is/um-vi/frettir/jardhraeringar-grindavik|archive-date =9 May 2024}}</ref> An eruption that started on 29th May finished on 22nd June 2024.<ref>{{cite web|url =https://www.vedur.is/um-vi/frettir/jardhraeringar-grindavik|title=Eldgosið sem hófst 29. maí er lokið {{!}} Hættumat uppfært|access-date=2024-06-24|website=Veðurstofa Íslands |language=is|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240624145849/https://www.vedur.is/um-vi/frettir/jardhraeringar-grindavik|archive-date =24 June 2024}}</ref>An eruption started on 22 August 2024.<ref >{{Cite web |date=25 October 2023 |title=Volcanic eruption has started at Sundhnúks crater row |url=https://en.vedur.is/about-imo/news/volcanic-unrest-grindavik |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=24 August 2024 |website=[[Icelandic Meteorological Office]] |language=en}}</ref>
 
{{clear}}
 
Line 102 ⟶ 103:
 
==External links==
*[https://www.visitreykjanes.is/en/inspiration/towns/town/index/index/geosites Geotourism on Reykjanes Peninsula. Visit Reykjanes. Official website.]{{Dead link|date=May 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*[https://www.ruv.is/frett/2020/10/20/enn-likur-a-skjalfta-allt-ad-65-ad-staerd Geologist Páll Einarsson explains the geology of Reykjanes as well as the 2020 earthquake series]. [[RÚV]]. 20 October 2020. (in Icelandic)
 
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_Reykjanes_Peninsula"