Condensed matter physics: Difference between revisions

{{Condensed matter physics}}

 

 

 

A variety of topics in physics such as [[crystallography]], [[metallurgy]], [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]], [[magnetism]], etc., were treated as distinct areas until the 1940s, when they were grouped together as ''[[solid-state physics]]''. Around the 1960s, the study of physical properties of [[liquid]]s was added to this list, forming the basis for the more comprehensive specialty of condensed matter physics.<ref name=rmp /> The [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Laboratories]] was one of the first institutes to conduct a research program in condensed matter physics.<ref name=rmp>{{cite journal|last=Kohn|first=W.|title=An essay on condensed matter physics in the twentieth century|journal=Reviews of Modern Physics|year=1999|volume=71|issue=2|url= http://nanoelectronics.unibas.ch/education/ModernPhysics/KohnCondMat.pdf |access-date=27 March 2012|doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S59|pages= S59–S77 |bibcode= 1999RvMPS..71...59K|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825164926/http://nanoelectronics.unibas.ch/education/ModernPhysics/KohnCondMat.pdf|archive-date=25 August 2013}}</ref> According to the founding director of the [[Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research]], physics professor Manuel Cardona, it was [[Albert Einstein]] who created the modern field of condensed matter physics starting with his seminal 1905 article on the [[photoelectric effect]] and [[photoluminescence]] which opened the fields of [[photoelectron spectroscopy]] and [[photoluminescence spectroscopy]], and later his 1907 article on the [[specific heat of solids]] which introduced, for the first time, the effect of lattice vibrations on the thermodynamic properties of crystals, in particular the [[specific heat]].<ref name="Cardona">{{cite arXiv |last1=Cardona |first1=Manuel |title=Einstein as the Father of Solid State Physics |eprint=physics/0508237|date=31 August 2005}}</ref> Deputy Director of the Yale Quantum Institute [[A. Douglas Stone]] makes a similar priority case for Einstein in his work on the synthetic history of [[quantum mechanics]].<ref name="Stone">{{cite book |last1=Stone |first1=A. Douglas |title=Einstein and the Quantum: The Quest of the Valiant Swabian |date=6 October 2013 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691139685 |edition=First |url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691168562/einstein-and-the-quantum |access-date=1 June 2022}}</ref>

 

==Etymology==

 

 

==History==

One of the first studies of condensed states of matter was by [[People of England|English]] [[chemist]] [[Humphry Davy]], in the first decades of the nineteenth century. Davy observed that of the forty [[chemical element]]s known at the time, twenty-six had [[metal]]lic properties such as [[lustre (mineralogy)|lustre]], [[ductility]] and high electrical and thermal conductivity.<ref name=goodstein>{{cite journal|last1=Goodstein|first1=David|author1-link=David Goodstein|last2=Goodstein|first2=Judith|author2-link=Judith R. Goodstein|title=Richard Feynman and the History of Superconductivity|journal=Physics in Perspective|year=2000|volume=2|issue=1|url=http://web.njit.edu/~tyson/supercon_papers/Feynman_Superconductivity_History.pdf|access-date=7 April 2012|doi=10.1007/s000160050035|pages=30|bibcode=2000PhP.....2...30G|s2cid=118288008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117113759/https://web.njit.edu/~tyson/supercon_papers/Feynman_Superconductivity_History.pdf|archive-date=17 November 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> This indicated that the atoms in [[John Dalton]]'s [[atomic theory]] were not indivisible as Dalton claimed, but had inner structure. Davy further claimed that elements that were then believed to be gases, such as [[nitrogen]] and [[hydrogen]] could be liquefied under the right conditions and would then behave as metals.<ref name=davy-1839>{{cite book |editor-last=Davy |editor-first = John |title=The collected works of Sir Humphry Davy: Vol. II |year=1839|publisher=Smith Elder & Co., Cornhill |url = https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_6WNKAAAAYAAJ |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_6WNKAAAAYAAJ/page/n34 22] }}</ref>{{NoteTag|Both hydrogen and nitrogen have since been liquified; however, ordinary liquid nitrogen and hydrogen do not possess metallic properties. Physicists [[Eugene Wigner]] and [[Hillard Bell Huntington]] predicted in 1935<ref name=metallic-hydrogen>{{cite journal |last=Silvera|first=Isaac F.|author2=Cole, John W. |title=Metallic Hydrogen: The Most Powerful Rocket Fuel Yet to Exist|journal=Journal of Physics|year=2010|volume=215|issue=1 |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/215/1/012194 |bibcode= 2010JPhCS.215a2194S |pages=012194 |url = http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:9569212 |doi-access=free}}</ref> that a state [[metallic hydrogen]] exists at sufficiently high pressures (over 25 [[Pascal (unit)|GPa]]), but this has not yet been observed.}}

 

 

 

In 1911, three years after helium was first liquefied, Onnes working at [[University of Leiden]] discovered [[superconductivity]] in [[mercury (element)|mercury]], when he observed the electrical resistivity of mercury to vanish at temperatures below a certain value.<ref name=vanDelft2010>{{cite journal|last=van Delft|first=Dirk|author2=Kes, Peter |title=The discovery of superconductivity|journal=Physics Today|date=September 2010|volume=63|issue=9|doi=10.1063/1.3490499|url=http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/cold/DelftKes_HKO_PT.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/cold/DelftKes_HKO_PT.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=7 April 2012|bibcode= 2010PhT....63i..38V|pages=38–43|doi-access=free}}</ref> The phenomenon completely surprised the best theoretical physicists of the time, and it remained unexplained for several decades.<ref name=Slichter-AIP-supercond>{{cite web|last=Slichter|first=Charles|title=Introduction to the History of Superconductivity|url=http://www.aip.org/history/mod/superconductivity/01.html|website=Moments of Discovery|publisher=American Institute of Physics|access-date=13 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515123519/http://www.aip.org/history/mod/superconductivity/01.html|archive-date=15 May 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Albert Einstein]], in 1922, said regarding contemporary theories of superconductivity that "with our far-reaching ignorance of the quantum mechanics of composite systems we are very far from being able to compose a theory out of these vague ideas."<ref name=Schmalian-2010>{{cite journal|last=Schmalian|first=Joerg|title=Failed theories of superconductivity|year=2010|arxiv=1008.0447|bibcode= 2010MPLB...24.2679S |doi= 10.1142/S0217984910025280|journal=Modern Physics Letters B|volume=24|issue=27|pages=2679–2691|s2cid=119220454}}</ref>

 

===Advent of quantum mechanics===

 

[[File:Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg|thumb|left|A replica of the first [[point-contact transistor]] in [[Bell labs]]]]

 

 

===Modern many-body physics===

[[File:Meissner effect p1390048.jpg|thumb|left|200px|alt=A magnet levitating over a superconducting material.|A [[magnet]] [[Meissner effect|levitating]] above a [[high-temperature superconductor]]. Today some physicists are working to understand high-temperature superconductivity using the AdS/CFT correspondence.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Merali |first1= Zeeya |title= Collaborative physics: string theory finds a bench mate |journal= Nature |volume= 478 |pages= 302–304 |year= 2011 |doi= 10.1038/478302a |pmid= 22012369 |issue= 7369|bibcode= 2011Natur.478..302M|doi-access= free }}</ref>]]

[[File:Quantum Hall effect - Russian.png|thumb|right|The [[quantum Hall effect]]: Components of the Hall resistivity as a function of the external magnetic field<ref name="von Klitzing"/>{{rp|fig. 14}}]]

 

A major revolution came in the field of [[crystallography]] with the discovery of [[quasicrystal]]s by [[Daniel Shechtman]]. In 1982 Shechtman observed that certain metallic [[alloy]]s produce unusual diffractograms that indicated that their crystalline structures are ordered, but lack [[translational symmetry]]. The discovery led the [[International Union of Crystallography]] to change its definition of a crystal to account for aperiodic structures.<ref name=bloomberg>{{cite news |url = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-10-05/technion-s-shechtman-wins-chemistry-nobel-for-discovery-of-quasicrystals.html |title=Tecnion's Shechtman Wins Nobel in Chemistry for Quasicrystals Discovery |last = Gerlin |first = Andrea |date= 5 October 2011|work=Bloomberg}}</ref> The second half of the twentieth century was also important for the development of [[soft condensed matter]], in particular the [[thermodynamic equilibrium]] of several soft-matter systems such as polymers and liquid crystals due to [[Paul Flory|Flory]], [[Pierre de Gennes|de Gennes]] and others.<ref name=Cates-2004-soft>{{cite journal |last=Cates |first=M. E. |title=Soft Condensed Matter (Materia Condensata Soffice) |year=2004 |arxiv=cond-mat/0411650 |bibcode= 2004cond.mat.11650C |page = 11650 }}</ref> -->

 

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The 1986 discovery of [[high temperature superconductivity]] generated interest in the study of [[strongly correlated materials]].<ref name=bouvier-2010>{{cite journal|last=Bouvier|first=Jacqueline|author2=Bok, Julien |title=Electron–Phonon Interaction in the High-T_C Cuprates in the Framework of the Van Hove Scenario|journal=Advances in Condensed Matter Physics|year=2010|volume=2010|doi=10.1155/2010/472636|pages=472636}}</ref> Modern research in condensed matter physics is focused on problems in strongly correlated materials, [[quantum phase transitions]] and applications of [[quantum field theory]] to condensed matter systems. Problems of current interest include description of high temperature superconductivity, [[topological order]], and other novel materials such as [[graphene]] and [[carbon nanotube]]s.<ref name=yeh-perspective />

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In 2012, several groups released preprints which suggest that [[Samarium#Samarium hexaboride|samarium hexaboride]] has the properties of a [[topological insulator]]<ref name="Nature-1">{{cite journal|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=492|issue=7428|pages=165|title=Hopes surface for exotic insulator|author=Eugenie Samuel Reich|doi=10.1038/492165a|pmid=23235853|year=2012|bibcode=2012Natur.492..165S|doi-access=free}}</ref> in accord with the earlier theoretical predictions.<ref name="TKI">{{Cite journal| doi= 10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.106408| pmid= 20366446| volume= 104| issue= 10| pages= 106408| last= Dzero| first= V.|author2=K. Sun |author3=V. Galitski |author4=P. Coleman |title= Topological Kondo Insulators| journal= Physical Review Letters| year= 2010|arxiv= 0912.3750 |bibcode= 2010PhRvL.104j6408D| s2cid= 119270507}}</ref> Since samarium hexaboride is an established [[Kondo insulator]], i.e. a strongly correlated electron material, it is expected that the existence of a topological Dirac surface state in this material would lead to a topological insulator with strong electronic correlations.

The metallic state has historically been an important building block for studying properties of solids.<ref name="AshcroftMermin1976"/> The first theoretical description of metals was given by [[Paul Drude]] in 1900 with the [[Drude model]], which explained electrical and thermal properties by describing a metal as an [[ideal gas]] of then-newly discovered [[electron]]s. He was able to derive the empirical [[Wiedemann-Franz law]] and get results in close agreement with the experiments.<ref name=Hoddeson-1992/>{{rp|90–91}} This classical model was then improved by [[Arnold Sommerfeld]] who incorporated the [[Fermi–Dirac statistics]] of electrons and was able to explain the anomalous behavior of the [[specific heat]] of metals in the [[Wiedemann–Franz law]].<ref name=Hoddeson-1992/>{{rp|101–103}} In 1912, The structure of crystalline solids was studied by [[Max von Laue]] and Paul Knipping, when they observed the [[X-ray diffraction]] pattern of crystals, and concluded that crystals get their structure from periodic [[lattice model (physics)|lattices]] of atoms.<ref name=Hoddeson-1992/>{{rp|48}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Eckert|first=Michael|title=Disputed discovery: the beginnings of X-ray diffraction in crystals in 1912 and its repercussions|journal=Acta Crystallographica A|year=2011|volume=68|issue=1|doi=10.1107/S0108767311039985|pmid=22186281|url=http://journals.iucr.org/a/issues/2012/01/00/wx0005/index.html|bibcode= 2012AcCrA..68...30E|pages=30–39|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 1928, Swiss physicist [[Felix Bloch]] provided a wave function solution to the [[Schrödinger equation]] with a [[Periodic function|periodic]] potential, known as [[Bloch's theorem]].<ref name=han-2010>{{cite book|last=Han|first=Jung Hoon|title=Solid State Physics|year=2010|publisher=Sung Kyun Kwan University|url=http://manybody.skku.edu/Lecture%20notes/Solid%20State%20Physics.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520224858/http://manybody.skku.edu/Lecture%20notes/Solid%20State%20Physics.pdf|archive-date=2013-05-20}}</ref>

 

 

===Symmetry breaking===

{{Main|Phase transition}}

 

 

In [[quantum phase transition]]s, the temperature is set to [[absolute zero]], and the non-thermal control parameter, such as pressure or magnetic field, causes the phase transitions when order is destroyed by [[quantum fluctuation]]s originating from the [[Heisenberg uncertainty principle]]. Here, the different quantum phases of the system refer to distinct [[ground state]]s of the [[Hamiltonian matrix]]. Understanding the behavior of quantum phase transition is important in the difficult tasks of explaining the properties of rare-earth magnetic insulators, high-temperature superconductors, and other substances.<ref name=Vojta2003/>

==Experimental==

Experimental condensed matter physics involves the use of experimental probes to try to discover new properties of materials. Such probes include effects of [[electric field|electric]] and [[magnetic field]]s, measuring [[response function]]s, [[transport theory (statistical physics)|transport properties]] and [[thermometry]].<ref name=exptcm>{{cite book|last=Richardson|first=Robert C.|title=Experimental methods in Condensed Matter Physics at Low Temperatures|year=1988|publisher=Addison-Wesley|isbn=978-0-201-15002-5}}</ref> Commonly used experimental methods include [[spectroscopy]], with probes such as [[X-ray spectroscopy|X-rays]], [[infrared spectroscopy|infrared light]] and [[inelastic neutron scattering]]; study of thermal response, such as [[specific heat]] and measuring transport via thermal and heat [[conduction (heat)|conduction]].

 

===Scattering===

In experimental condensed matter physics, external [[magnetic field]]s act as [[thermodynamic variable]]s that control the state, phase transitions and properties of material systems.<ref name=iupap-report>{{cite web |last=Committee on Facilities for Condensed Matter Physics|title=Report of the IUPAP working group on Facilities for Condensed Matter Physics : High Magnetic Fields |url=http://archive.iupap.org/wg/wg3/hmff/file_50963.pdf |publisher=International Union of Pure and Applied Physics|year=2004 |quote=The magnetic field is not simply a spectroscopic tool but a thermodynamic variable which, along with temperature and pressure, controls the state, the phase transitions and the properties of materials.|access-date=2016-02-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222151520/http://www.iupap.org/wg/wg3/hmff/file_50963.pdf|archive-date=2014-02-22|url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) is a method by which external [[magnetic fields]] are used to find resonance modes of individual nuclei, thus giving information about the atomic, molecular, and bond structure of their environment. NMR experiments can be made in magnetic fields with strengths up to 60 [[Tesla (unit)|tesla]]. Higher magnetic fields can improve the quality of NMR measurement data.<ref name="StatesAstronomy2013"/>{{rp|69}}<ref>{{cite book|title=High Magnetic Fields|chapter=Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in Solids at very high magnetic fields|author1=Moulton, W. G. |author2=Reyes, A. P. |editor=Herlach, Fritz |series=Science and Technology|publisher=World Scientific|year=2006|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tN8CbCHzBmcC&pg=PA185|isbn=978-981-277-488-0}}</ref>{{rp|185}} [[Quantum oscillations]] is another experimental method where high magnetic fields are used to study material properties such as the geometry of the [[Fermi surface]].<ref name=doiron-leyraud2007>{{cite journal|last=Doiron-Leyraud|first=Nicolas|title=Quantum oscillations and the Fermi surface in an underdoped high-Tc superconductor|journal=Nature|year=2007|volume=447|pages=565–568|doi=10.1038/nature05872|arxiv= 0801.1281 |bibcode= 2007Natur.447..565D|issue=7144|pmid=17538614 |s2cid=4397560|display-authors=etal}}</ref> High magnetic fields will be useful in experimental testing of the various theoretical predictions such as the quantized [[magnetoelectric effect]], image [[magnetic monopole]], and the half-integer [[quantum Hall effect]].<ref name="StatesAstronomy2013">{{cite book|author=Committee to Assess the Current Status and Future Direction of High Magnetic Field Science in the United States; Board on Physics and Astronomy; Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences; National Research Council|title=High Magnetic Field Science and Its Application in the United States: Current Status and Future Directions|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog/18355/high-magnetic-field-science-and-its-application-in-the-united-states|date=25 November 2013|publisher=National Academies Press|isbn=978-0-309-28634-3|doi=10.17226/18355}}</ref>{{rp|57}}

 

 

===Cold atomic gases===

[[File:Fullerene Nanogears - GPN-2000-001535.jpg|thumb|right|Computer simulation of ''nanogears'' made of [[fullerene]] molecules. It is hoped that advances in nanoscience will lead to machines working on the molecular scale.]]

 

 

 

 

== See also ==

 

{{Condensed matter physics topics}}

{{Physics-footer}}

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