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{{short description|Rule of the British East India Company on the Indian subcontinent (1757–1858)}}
{{About|the rule of the East India Company on the Indian subcontinent from 1773 to 1858|rule by the British Crown from 1858 to 1947|British Raj|the history of the East India Company until 1756|East India Company}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2014}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name =
| conventional_long_name = <!--Company rule in -->India
|
|
| status = Colony and [[Princely states]]
| status_text =
| era = Early modern
| event_start = [[Battle of Plassey]]
| date_start = 23 June
| life_span = 1757/1765/1773–1858
|
| event1 =
| date_event1 =
| event2
| date_event2 =
| event3 = [[Anglo-Maratha Wars (disambiguation)|Anglo-Maratha Wars]]
|
| event4 = [[Anglo-Sikh wars (disambiguation)|Anglo-Sikh Wars]]
| date_event4 = 1845–1846, 1848–1849
| event_end = {{nowrap|[[Government of India Act 1858|Government of India Act]]}}
|
|
| event_post = Nationalisation of the Company and assumption of direct administration by the [[The Crown|British crown]]
| date_post = 2 August 1858
| image_flag =
| flag_type =
| flag_caption =
|
|
|
| image_map = India british expansion 1805a.jpg
|
| image_map_caption = Areas of [[South Asia]] under Company rule (a) 1774–1804 and (b) 1805–1858 shown in two shades of pink
| national_motto =
| government_type = Administered by the [[East India Company]] functioning as a [[Quasi-state|quasi-sovereign]] power on behalf of the [[The Crown|British Crown]] and regulated by the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]]
| empire = British Empire
| p1 = Maratha Confederacy
| p2 = Mughal Empire
| p3 = Sikh Empire
| p4 = Ahom kingdom
| p6 = Bengal Subah
| p7 = Oudh State
| p8 = Carnatic Sultanate
| p9 = Doctrine of lapse#Princely states annexed under the doctrine{{!}}''See list of other states''
| s1 = British Raj
| flag_s1 =
| today = [[India]]<br>[[Pakistan]]<br>[[Bangladesh]]
| capital = [[Calcutta]]
| official_languages = 1773–1858: English<br> 1773–1836: [[Persian language|Persian]]<ref name="Garcia2020">{{citation|last=Garcia|first=Humberto|title=England Re-Oriented: How Central and South Asian Travelers Imagined the West, 1750–1857|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o9sCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT128|year=2020|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-49564-6|page=128|quote=“Hindoostanee” was instrumental for Company rule in that Gilchrist's grammar books, dictionaries, and translations helped to standardize Urdu as an official language for lower level judicial courts and revenue administration in 1837, replacing Persian.}}</ref><ref name="Schiffman2011">{{citation|last=Schiffman|first=Harold|title=Language Policy and Language Conflict in Afghanistan and Its Neighbors: The Changing Politics of Language Choice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=52aicl9l7rwC&pg=PA11|year=2011|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-20145-3|page=11|quote=In 1837 Urdu was formally adopted by the British, in place of Persian, as the language of interaction between the Government (which from then on conducted its affairs in English) and the local population.}}</ref><br>1837–1858: primarily [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]/[[Urdu]]<ref name="Garcia2020"/><ref name="Schiffman2011"/><ref name="Everaert2009">{{citation|last=Everaert|first=Christine|title=Tracing the Boundaries between Hindi and Urdu: Lost and Added in Translation between 20th Century Short Stories|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d_J5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA253|year=2009|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-18223-3|pages=253–|quote=It was only in 1837 that Persian lost its position as official language of India to Urdu and to English in the higher levels of administration.}}</ref><ref name="BaylyBayly1999">{{citation|last=Bayly|first=Christopher Alan|author-link=Christopher Bayly|title=Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8bqEzPPp8xIC&pg=PA286|year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-66360-1|page=286|quote=Paradoxically, many British also clung to Persian. Indeed, the so-called Urdu that replaced Persian as the court language after 1837 was recognisably Persian as far as its nouns were concerned. The courtly heritage of Persian was also to exercise a constraint on the British cultivation of Hindustani/Urdu. }}</ref><br /> but also: [[Languages of South Asia]]
| currency = [[History of the rupee|Rupee]]
| representative1 = [[Warren Hastings]]
| year_representative1 = 1774–1785 <small>(first [[Bengal Presidency| Fort William]])</small>
| representative2 = [[Lord William Bentinck]]
| year_representative3 = 1857–1858 <small>(last)</small>
| representative3 = [[Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning|Charles Canning]]
| year_representative2 = 1834–1835 <small>(first India)</small>
| title_representative = [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General]]
| stat_year1 = 1858
| stat_area1 = {{convert|750,000|mi2|km2|-4|disp=number}}
| ref_area1 = <ref>{{cite book |author=John Barnhill |editor=R. W. McColl |title=Encyclopedia of World Geography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&pg=PA115 |date=14 May 2014 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7229-3 |page=115 }}</ref>
}}
'''East India Company rule in India''' (
The range of dates is taken to have commenced either in 1757 after the [[Battle of Plassey]], when the [[Nawab of Bengal]] [[Siraj ud-Daulah]] was defeated and replaced with [[Mir Jafar]], who had the support of the East India Company;<ref>{{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2004|pp=47, 53}}</ref> or in 1765, when the Company was granted the [[Dewan#Diwani in British India|''diwani'']], or the right to collect revenue, in [[Bengal]] and [[Bihar]];<ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=46}}, {{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=30}}</ref> or in 1773, when the Company abolished local rule (Nizamat) in Bengal and established a capital in [[Calcutta]], appointed its first [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General]] of [[Bengal Presidency|Fort William]], [[Warren Hastings]], and became directly involved in governance.<ref>{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=56}}</ref> The East India Company significantly expanded its influence throughout the Indian subcontinent after the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]], [[Third Anglo-Maratha War|Anglo-Maratha Wars]], and [[Second Anglo-Sikh War|Anglo-Sikh Wars]].<ref name="Naravane3">{{Cite book |last=Naravane |first=M. S. |title=Battles of the Honourable East India Company: Making of the Raj |publisher=A.P.H. Publishing Corporation |year=2014 |isbn=978-8-1313-0034-3 |location=New Delhi |pages=172–181}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Wadgaon, ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/battle-of-Wadgaon |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623110244/https://www.britannica.com/topic/battle-of-Wadgaon |archive-date=23 June 2022 |access-date=23 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="eos">{{cite web |last1=Hasrat |first=B. J. |title=Anglo-Sikh War I (1845–46) |url=http://www.learnpunjabi.org/eos/index.aspx |website=Encyclopaedia of Sikhism |publisher=Punjabi University Patiala}}</ref> [[Lord William Bentinck]] became the first Governor General of India in 1834 under the [[Government of India Act 1833]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=team |first=EduGeneral |date=2016-03-09 |title=Important Acts in India Before Independence |url=https://edugeneral.org/blog/history/important-acts-in-india-before-independence/ |access-date=2020-06-30 |website=EduGeneral |language=en-US}}</ref>
==Expansion and territory==
The [[English East India Company]] (
The company's victory under [[Robert Clive]] in the 1757 Battle of Plassey and another victory in the 1764 [[Battle of Buxar]] (in Bihar) consolidated the company's power and forced emperor [[Shah Alam II]] to appoint it the ''[[Diwan (title)|diwan]]'', or revenue collector, of [[Bengal]], Bihar, and [[Odisha|Orissa]]. The Company thus became the de facto ruler of large areas of the [[Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests|lower Gangetic plain]] by 1773. It also proceeded by degrees to expand its dominions around Bombay and Madras. The [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] (1766–1799) and the [[Anglo-Maratha Wars (disambiguation)|Anglo-Maratha Wars]] (1772–1818) left it in control of large areas of India south of the [[Sutlej River]]. With the defeat of the [[Maratha Confederacy|Marathas]], no native power represented a threat for the Company any longer.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C&dq=1818+british+india+maratha&pg=PA271|title = A History of Modern India, 1480-1950|isbn = 9781843310044|last1 = Markovits|first1 = Claude|date = February 2004| publisher=Anthem Press }}</ref>
The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the company's [[hegemony]] in return for limited internal [[autonomy]]. Since the Company operated under financial constraints, it had to set up ''political'' underpinnings for its rule.<ref name="brown-p67">{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=67}}</ref> The most important such support came from the ''[[subsidiary alliance]]s'' with Indian princes during the first 75 years of Company rule.<ref name="brown-p67"/> In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-third of India.<ref name="brown-p67"/> When an Indian ruler, who was able to secure his territory, wanted to enter such an alliance, the Company welcomed it as an economical method of indirect rule, which did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects.<ref name=brown-68>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=68}}</ref>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=240 |height=180|File:India1765and1805b.jpg|India in 1765 and 1805 showing East India Company Territories in pink.
|File:India1837to1857.jpg|India in 1837 and 1857, showing East India Company-governed territories in pink.
}}
In return, the Company undertook the "defence of these subordinate allies and treated them with traditional respect and marks of honor."<ref name="brown-68" /> Subsidiary alliances created the [[Princely States|princely states]], of the Hindu [[maharaja]]s and the Muslim [[nawab]]s. Prominent among the princely states were: [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] (1791), [[Jaipur State|Jaipur]] (1794), [[Travancore]] (1795), [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]] (1798), [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] (1799), [[Cis-Sutlej states|Cis-Sutlej Hill States]] (1815), [[Central India Agency]] (1819), [[Cutch State|Cutch]] and [[Baroda State|Gujarat Gaikwad territories]] (1807–1820), [[Rajputana]] (1818),<ref name="ludden-expansion">{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=133}}</ref> and [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]] (1833).
<!--The East India Company also concluded treaties with various Afghan rulers and with [[Ranjit Singh]] of the Punjab, to counterbalance Russia's support of [[Iran|Persian]] plans in western [[Afghanistan]]. In 1839 the Company's actions the [[First Anglo-Afghan War|First Afghan War]] (1839-42). However, as the British expanded their territory in India, so did [[Russia]] in [[Central Asia]], with the taking of [[Bukhara]] and [[Samarkand]] in 1863 and 1868 respectively, thereby setting the stage for the [[Great Game]] of [[Central Asia]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=135}}</ref>-->
==The Governors-General==
{{Gallery
|title=Coins issued by the East India Company 1787 to 1840 CE
|align=center
|width=180 |File:East India Company Silver Half Rupee 1787 Bengal Presidency Murshidabad Mint in the name of Shah Alam II Mughal Emperor.jpg| Silver Half-Rupee 1787 Bengal Presidency, Murshidabad Mint, issued in the name of Shah Alam II, Mughal Emperor
|File:East India Company Silver Rupee 1835 William IV King.jpg|Silver Rupee 1835, William IV, King
|File:East India Company Copper Half Anna 1835 William IV King.jpg|Copper Half-Anna 1835, William IV, King
|File:East India Company Silver Rupee 1840 Victoria Queen.jpg|Silver Rupee 1840, Victoria, Queen
}}
The Governors-General ([[locum tenens]]) are not included in this table unless a major event occurred during their tenure.
=== Governors-Generals of Fort William (Bengal) (1773–1834) ===
{| class="wikitable"
|- valign="bottom"
! Governor-General !! Period of Tenure!! Events
|-
| [[Warren Hastings]]||
|-
| [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Charles Cornwallis]]|| 12 September 1786 – 28 October 1793 || [[Cornwallis Code]] (1793)<br />[[Permanent Settlement]]<br /> [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] become semi-protected States under British (1791) <br />[[Third Anglo-Mysore War]] (1789–92) <br /> [[Doji bara famine|''Doji bara'' famine]] (1791–92)
|-
| [[John Shore, 1st Baron Teignmouth|John Shore]] || 28 October 1793 – March 1798|| [[#Army and civil service|East India Company Army]] re-organised and down-sized.<br /> First [[Pazhassi Raja|Pazhassi Revolt]] in [[Zamorin|Malabar]](1793–97)<br /> [[Jaipur]] (1794) & [[Travancore]] (1795) come under British protection. <br /> [[Andaman Islands]] occupied (1796)<br /> Company took control of coastal region [[Ceylon]] from [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] (1796).
|-
| [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Richard Wellesley]]|| 18 May 1798 – 30 July 1805|| [[Nizam]] of [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]] becomes first State to sign [[Subsidiary alliance]] introduced by Wellesley (1798). <br /> [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]] (1798–99)<br /> Second [[Pazhassi Raja|Pazhassi Revolt]] in [[Malabar region|Malabar]] (1800–05)<br />[[Nawab of Oudh]] cedes [[Gorakhpur division|Gorakhpur]] and [[Bareilly division|Rohilkhand]] divisions; [[Allahabad district|Allahabad]], [[Fatehpur district|Fatehpur]], [[Kanpur|Cawnpore]], [[Etawah district|Etawah]], [[Mainpuri district|Mainpuri]], [[Etah district|Etah]] districts; part of [[Mirzapur district|Mirzapur]]; and ''terai'' of [[Kumaon Kingdom|Kumaun]] (''Ceded Provinces'', 1801) <br /> [[Treaty of Bassein (1802)|Treaty of Bassein]] signed by [[Peshwa]] [[Baji Rao II]] accepting [[Subsidiary Alliance]]<br /> [[Battle of Delhi, 1803|Battle of Delhi]] (1803).<br />[[Second Anglo-Maratha War]] (1803–05) <br />Remainder of [[Doab]], [[Delhi]] and [[Agra division]], parts of [[Bundelkhand]] annexed from [[Maratha Empire]] (1805). <br /> [[Ceded and Conquered Provinces]] established (1805) Subsidiary alliances created the [[princely states]], of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs.
|-
| [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Charles Cornwallis]] (second term) || 30 July 1805 – 5 October 1805 || Financial strain in East India Company after costly campaigns.<br /> Cornwallis reappointed to bring peace, but dies in [[Ghazipur]].
|-
| [[George Hilario Barlow]] ([[locum tenens]]) || 10 October 1805 – 31 July 1807 || [[Vellore mutiny]] (10 July 1806)
|-
| [[Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 1st Earl of Minto|Lord Minto]] || 31 July 1807 – 4 October 1813|| [[Stamford Raffles#Java Island|Invasion of Java]]<br />[[History of Mauritius#British rule (1810–1968)|Occupation of Mauritius]]
|-
| [[Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings|Marquess of Hastings]] ||4 October 1813 – 9 January 1823 || [[Anglo-Nepal War of 1814]] <br /> Annexation of [[Kumaon division|Kumaon]], [[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]], and east [[Sikkim]].<br /> [[Cis-Sutlej states]] (1815).<br /> [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]] (1817–18) <br /> [[Rajputana Agency|States of Rajputana]] accept British [[suzerainty]] (1817).<br /> [[Founding years of modern Singapore|Singapore]] was founded (1818).<br />[[Princely State of Cutch|Cutch]] accepts British suzerainty (1818).<br /> [[Baroda State|Gaikwads of Baroda]] accept British suzerainty (1819).<br /> [[Central India Agency]] (1819).
|-
| [[William Pitt Amherst, 1st Earl Amherst|Lord Amherst]]|| 1 August 1823 – 13 March 1828|| [[First Anglo–Burmese War]] (1823–26)<br /> Annexation of [[Assam]], Manipur, [[Rakhine State|Arakan]], and [[Mon State|Tenasserim]] from Burma
|-
| [[Lord William Bentinck|William Bentinck]] || 4 July 1828 – 22 April 1834|| [[Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829]] <br /> [[Thuggee and Dacoity Suppression Acts, 1836–48]] <br /> [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore State]] goes under British administration (1831–81)<br /> [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]] accepts British Suzerainty (1833)
[[Government of India Act 1833|Government of India Act (1833)]]
|}
=== Governors-Generals of India (1834–1858) ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Governor-General
!Period of Tenure
!Events
|-
| [[Lord William Bentinck|William Bentinck]] || 22 April 1834 – 20 March 1835|| [[Coorg]] annexed (1834).
|-
| [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland|Lord Auckland]]||4 March 1836 – 28 February 1842 || [[North-Western Provinces]] established (1836) <br /> Post Offices were established (1837)<br /> [[Agra famine of 1837–1838]]<br /> [[Aden]] is captured by Company (1839)<ref>{{cite web |title=British East India Company captures Aden |url=http://www.wolframalpha.com/entities/historical_events/british_east_india_company_caputres_aden/cc/t4/n7/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501082716/https://www.wolframalpha.com/entities/historical_events/british_east_india_company_caputres_aden/cc/t4/n7/ |archive-date=1 May 2021 |access-date=15 January 2011 |website=Wolfram Alpha}}</ref> <br />[[First Anglo-Afghan War]] (1839–1842) <br /> [[Massacre of Elphinstone's army]] (1842).
|-
| [[Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough|Lord Ellenborough]]|| 28 February 1842 – June 1844 || [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] (1839–42) <br /> [[History of Sindh#Modern era|Annexation of Sindh]] (1843) <br /> [[Indian Slavery Act, 1843]]
|-
| [[Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge|Henry Hardinge]] || 23 July 1844 – 12 January 1848 || [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] (1845–46) <br /> Sikhs cede [[Jullundur Doab]], [[Hazara region|Hazara]], and [[Kashmir]] to the British under [[Treaty of Lahore]] (1846)<br /> Sale of [[Kashmir]] to [[Gulab Singh]] of [[Jammu]] under [[Treaty of Amritsar, 1846|Treaty of Amritsar]] (1846).
|-
| [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Marquess of Dalhousie]]|| 12 January 1848 – 28 February 1856 ||[[Second Anglo-Sikh War]] (1848–1849) <br /> Annexation of Punjab and [[North-West Frontier Province]] (1849–56)<br /> Construction begins on [[Indian Railways]] (1850) <br /> [[Caste Disabilities Removal Act, 1850]] <br />First [[Communications in India#Introduction of the telegraph|telegraph line]] laid in India (1851)<br />[[Second Anglo-Burmese War]] (1852–53) <br /> Annexation of [[Lower Burma]] <br /> [[Ganges Canal]] opened (1854)<br /> Annexation of [[Satara State|Satara]] (1848), [[Jaipur]] and [[Sambalpur]] (1849), [[Nagpur]] and [[Jhansi]] (1854) under [[Doctrine of lapse|Doctrine of Lapse]].<br /> Annexation of [[Berar Province|Berar]] (1853) and [[Awadh]] (1856).<br /> [[Postage stamps and postal history of India|Postage Stamps for India]] were introduced. (1854).<br /> Public Telegram services starts operation (1855).
|-
| [[Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning|Charles Canning]]||28 February 1856 – 1 November 1858 ||[[Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856|Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act]] (25 July 1856)<br /> First [[Education in India|Indian universities]] founded (January–September 1857) <br />[[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] (10 May 1857 – 20 June 1858) largely in [[North-Western Provinces]] and [[Oudh]]<br /> Liquidation of the [[English East India Company]] under [[Government of India Act 1858]]<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |date=1890–1923 |title=Official, India |url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/393/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219213715/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/393/ |archive-date=19 December 2019 |access-date=30 May 2013 |website=[[World Digital Library]]}}</ref>
|}
==Regulation of Company rule==
Until Clive's victory at [[Battle of Plassey|Plassey]], the East India Company territories in India, which consisted largely of the [[presidency]] towns of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, were governed by the mostly autonomous—and sporadically unmanageable—''town councils'', all composed of merchants.<ref name="igi-bandyo-post-clive"/> The councils barely had enough powers for the effective management of their local affairs, and the ensuing lack of oversight of the overall Company operations in India led to some grave abuses by Company officers or their allies.<ref name="igi-bandyo-post-clive">{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=76}}, {{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=14}}</ref> Clive's victory, and the award of the ''diwani'' of the rich region of Bengal, brought India into the public spotlight in Britain.<ref name="igi-bandyo-post-clive"/> The company's money management practices came to be questioned, especially as it began to post net losses even as some Company servants, the "Nabobs", returned to Britain with large fortunes, which—according to rumours then current—were acquired unscrupulously.<ref>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=14}}, {{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=35}}, {{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=76}}</ref> By 1772, the Company needed British government loans to stay afloat, and there was fear in London that the company's corrupt practices could soon seep into British business and public life.<ref name="Peers 2006 35">{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=35}}</ref> The rights and duties of the British government with regards the company's new territories also came to be examined.<ref name="marshall-207">{{Harvnb|Marshall|2007|p=207}}</ref> The British parliament then held several inquiries and in 1773, during the premiership of [[Frederick North, Lord North|Lord North]], enacted the ''[[Regulating Act of 1773|Regulating Act]]'', which established regulations, its long title stated, "for the better Management of the Affairs of the ''East India Company'', as well in ''India'' as in ''Europe''".<ref name="igi-14">{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=14}}</ref>
Although [[Lord North]] himself wanted the company's territories to be taken over by the British state,<ref name="marshall-207"/> he faced determined political opposition from many quarters, including some in the [[City of London]] and the [[Parliament of Great Britain]].<ref name="Peers 2006 35"/> The result was a compromise in which the Regulating Act—although implying the ultimate sovereignty of the [[The Crown|British Crown]] over these new territories—asserted that the company could act as a sovereign power on behalf of the Crown.<ref name="marshall-197"/> It could do this while concurrently being subject to oversight and regulation by the British government and parliament.<ref name="marshall-197">{{Harvnb|Marshall|2007|p=197}}</ref> The Court of Directors of the company were required under the Act to submit all communications regarding civil, military, and revenue matters in India for scrutiny by the British government.<ref name="bandyo-77">{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=77}}</ref> For the governance of the Indian territories, the act asserted the supremacy of the [[Bengal Presidency|Presidency of Fort William (Bengal)]] over those of [[Madras Presidency|Fort St. George (Madras)]] and [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]].<ref name="igi-iv-p14"/> It also nominated a Governor-General (Warren Hastings) and four councillors for administering the Bengal Presidency (and for overseeing the company's operations in India).<ref name="igi-iv-p14">{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=14}}, {{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=77}}</ref> "The subordinate Presidencies were forbidden to wage war or make treaties without the previous consent of the Governor-General of Bengal in Council,<ref>"in Council", i.e. in concert with the advice of the Council.</ref> except in case of imminent necessity. The Governors of these Presidencies were directed in general terms to obey the orders of the Governor-General-in-Council, and to transmit to him intelligence of all important matters."<ref name="igi-14"/> However, the imprecise wording of the Act left it open to be variously interpreted; consequently, the administration in India continued to be hobbled by disunity between the provincial governors, between members of the council, and between the Governor-General himself and his Council.<ref name="bandyo-77"/> The ''Regulating Act'' also attempted to address the prevalent corruption in India: Company servants were henceforth forbidden to engage in private trade in India or to receive "presents" from Indian nationals.<ref name="igi-14"/>
In 1783, the [[Fox–North coalition]] tried to reform colonial policy again with a bill introduced by [[Edmund Burke]] which would have transferred political power over India from the East India Company to a parliamentary commission. The bill passed the [[House of Commons of Great Britain|House of Commons]] with the enthusiastic support of Foreign Secretary [[Charles James Fox]], but was vetoed by the [[House of Lords]] under pressure from King [[George III]], who then dismissed the government and formed a [[First Pitt ministry|new ministry]] under Fox's rival [[William Pitt the Younger]]. [[Pitt's India Act]] left the East India Company in political control of India but established a [[India Board|Board of Control]] in England both to supervise the East India Company's affairs and to prevent the company's shareholders from interfering in the governance of India.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=http://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=23–34}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Travers|2007|p=211}}</ref> The Board of Control consisted of six members, which included one Secretary of State from the British cabinet, as well as the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]].<ref name="bandyo-77"/> Around this time, there was also extensive debate in the British Parliament on the issue of landed rights in Bengal, with a consensus developing in support of the view advocated by [[Philip Francis (English politician)|Philip Francis]], a member of the Bengal council and political adversary of Warren Hastings, that all lands in Bengal should be considered the "estate and inheritance of native land-holders and families".<ref name="travers-213">Quoted in {{Harvnb|Travers|2007|p=213}}</ref>
Mindful of the reports of abuse and corruption in Bengal by Company servants, the India Act itself noted numerous complaints that {{"'}}divers Rajahs, Zamindars, Talukdars, and landholders' had been unjustly deprived of 'their lands, jurisdictions, rights, and privileges{{'"}}.<ref name="travers-213"/> At the same time the company's directors were now leaning towards Francis's view that the land-tax in Bengal should be made fixed and permanent, setting the stage for the [[Permanent Settlement]] (see section [[#Revenue collection|Revenue collection]] below).<ref>{{Harvnb|Guha|1995|p=161}}</ref> The India Act also created in each of the three presidencies a number of administrative and military posts, which included: a Governor and three Councilors, one of which was the Commander in Chief of the Presidency army.<ref name="bandyo-78">{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=78}}</ref> Although the supervisory powers of the Governor-General-in-Council in Bengal (over Madras and Bombay) were extended—as they were again in the Charter Act of 1793—the subordinate presidencies continued to exercise some autonomy until both the extension of British possessions into becoming contiguous and the advent of faster communications in the next century.<ref name="igi-15">{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=15}}</ref>
Still, the new Governor-General appointed in 1786, [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]], not only had more power than Hastings, but also had the support of a powerful British cabinet minister, [[Henry Dundas]], who, as Secretary of State for the [[Home Office]], was in charge of the overall India policy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Travers|2007|p=213}}</ref> From 1784 onwards, the British government had the final word on all major appointments in India; a candidate's suitability for a senior position was often decided by the strength of his political connections rather than that of his administrative ability.<ref name="peers-36">{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=36}}</ref> Although this practice resulted in many Governor-General nominees being chosen from Britain's conservative [[landed gentry]], there were some liberals as well, such as [[Lord William Bentinck]] and [[George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]].<ref name="peers-36"/>
British political opinion was also shaped by the attempted [[Impeachment of Warren Hastings]]; the trial, whose proceedings began in 1788, ended with Hastings' acquittal, in 1795.<ref name="peers-36-37">{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|pp=36–37}}</ref> Although the effort was chiefly coordinated by Edmund Burke, it also drew support from within the British government.<ref name="peers-36-37"/> Burke accused Hastings not only of corruption, but—appealing to universal standards of justice—also of acting solely upon his own discretion, without concern for law, and of wilfully causing distress to others in India. Hastings' defenders countered that his actions were consistent with Indian customs and traditions.<ref name="peers-36-37"/> Although Burke's speeches at the trial drew applause and focused attention on India, Hastings was eventually acquitted, due in part to the revival of [[British nationalism|nationalism in Britain]] in the wake of the [[French Revolution]]. Nonetheless, Burke's effort had the effect of creating a sense of responsibility in British public life for the company's dominion in India.<ref name="peers-36-37"/>
Soon rumblings appeared amongst merchants in London that the monopoly granted to the East India Company in 1600, intended to facilitate its competition against [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] and [[French colonial empire|French]] in a distant region, was no longer needed.<ref name="igi-15"/> In response, in the [[Charter Act 1813|Charter Act of 1813]], the British Parliament renewed the company's charter but terminated its monopoly except with regard to tea and trade with China, opening India both to private investment and missionaries.<ref name="ludden-134">{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=134}}</ref> With increased British power in India, supervision of Indian affairs by the [[British Crown]] and [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] increased as well. By the 1820s British nationals could transact business or engage in missionary work under the protection of the Crown in the three presidencies.<ref name="ludden-134"/> Finally, under the terms of The [[Saint Helena Act 1833]], the British Parliament revoked the company's monopoly in the China trade and made it an agent for the administration of British India.<ref name="ludden-134"/> The [[Governor-General of Bengal]] was redesignated as the [[Governor-General of India]]. The Governor-General and his executive council were given exclusive legislative powers for the whole of British India.<ref name="igi-15"/> Since the British territories in north India had now extended up to Delhi, the Act also sanctioned the creation of a [[Presidency of Agra]].<ref name="igi-15"/> With the annexation of [[Awadh|Oudh]] in 1856, this territory was extended and eventually became the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh]].<ref name="igi-15"/> In addition, in 1854, a lieutenant-governor was appointed for the region of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha, leaving the Governor-General to concentrate on the governance of India as a whole.<ref name="igi-15"/>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=130 |File:Company rule calcutta from ftwilliam.jpg|A view of Calcutta from Fort William, 1807.
|File:Company rule government hse fort stgeorge2.jpg|Government House, Fort St. George, Madras, the headquarters of the [[Madras Presidency]].
|File:Warren_Hastings_greyscale.jpg|[[Warren Hastings]], the first Governor-General of [[Bengal Presidency|Fort William (Bengal)]] who oversaw the Company's territories in India.
|File:Company rule trial warren hastings2.jpg|The trial of Warren Hastings in the Court of Westminster Hall, 1789.
}}
==Revenue collection==
{{main|Permanent Settlement|Zamindar|Ryotwari|Economy of India under Company rule}}
In the remnant of the [[Mughal Empire]] revenue system existing in pre-1765 Bengal, [[zamindar]]s, or "land holders", collected revenue on behalf of the Mughal emperor, whose representative, or ''[[diwan (title)|diwan]]'', supervised their activities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=20}}</ref> In this system, the assortment of rights associated with land were not possessed by a "land owner", but rather shared by the several parties with stake in the land, including the peasant cultivator, the ''zamindar'', and the state.<ref name="metcalf-78">{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=78}}</ref> The ''zamindar'' served as an intermediary who procured rent from the cultivator, and after withholding a percentage for his own expenses, made available the rest, as [[revenue]] to the state.<ref name="metcalf-78"/> Under the Mughal system, the land itself belonged to the state and not to the ''zamindar'', who could transfer only his right to collect rent.<ref name="metcalf-78"/> On being awarded the ''diwani'' or overlordship of Bengal following the [[Battle of Buxar]] in 1764, the [[Honourable East India Company|East India Company]] found itself short of trained administrators, especially those familiar with local custom and law; tax collection was consequently farmed out. This uncertain foray into land taxation by the company, may have gravely worsened the impact of a [[Bengal famine of 1770|famine that struck Bengal in 1769–70]], in which between seven and ten million people—or between a quarter and third of the presidency's population—may have died.<ref name="peers-metcalf-famine">{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=47}}, {{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=78}}</ref> However, the company provided little relief either through reduced taxation or by relief efforts,<ref name="peers-47">{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=47}}</ref> and the economic and cultural impact of the famine was felt decades later, even becoming, a century later, the subject of [[Bankim Chandra Chatterjee]]'s novel ''[[Anandamath]]''.<ref name="peers-metcalf-famine"/>
In 1772, under Warren Hastings, the East India Company took over revenue collection directly in the [[Bengal Presidency]] (then Bengal and Bihar), establishing a Board of Revenue with offices in Calcutta and [[Patna]], and moving the pre-existing Mughal revenue records from [[Murshidabad]] to Calcutta.<ref name="robb-revenue">{{Harvnb|Robb|2002|pp=126–129}}</ref>
In 1773, after [[Awadh|Oudh]] ceded the tributary state of [[Benaras]], the revenue collection system was extended to the territory with a Company [[Resident (title)#Residents in (British) Asia|Resident]] in charge.<ref name="robb-revenue"/> The following year—with a view to preventing corruption—Company ''district collectors'', who were then responsible for revenue collection for an entire district, were replaced with provincial councils at Patna, Murshidabad, and Calcutta, and with Indian collectors working within each district.<ref name="robb-revenue"/> The title, "collector", reflected "the centrality of land revenue collection to government in India: it was the government's primary function and it moulded the institutions and patterns of administration".<ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=55}}</ref>
The Company inherited a revenue collection system from the Mughals in which the heaviest proportion of the tax burden fell on the cultivators, with one-third of the production reserved for imperial entitlement; this pre-colonial system became the Company revenue policy's baseline.<ref name = peers-p45-47>{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|pp=45–47}}</ref> However, there was vast variation across India in the methods by which the revenues were collected; with this complication in mind, a Committee of Circuit toured the districts of expanded Bengal Presidency in order to make a five-year settlement, consisting of five-yearly inspections and temporary [[tax farming]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|pp=45–47}}, {{Harvnb|Robb|2002|pp=126–129}}</ref> In their overall approach to revenue policy, Company officials were guided by two goals: first, preserving as much as possible the balance of rights and obligations that were traditionally claimed by the farmers who cultivated the land and the various intermediaries who collected tax on the state's behalf and who reserved a cut for themselves; and second, identifying those sectors of the rural economy that would maximise both revenue and security.<ref name = peers-p45-47/> Although their first revenue settlement turned out to be essentially the same as the more informal pre-existing Mughal one, the company had created a foundation for the growth of both information and bureaucracy.<ref name="peers-p45-47"/>
In 1793, the new Governor-General, [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]], promulgated the permanent settlement of land revenues in the presidency, the first socio-economic regulation in colonial India.<ref name="robb-revenue" /> By the terms of the settlement rajas and taluqdars were recognised as zamindars and they were asked to collect the rent from the peasants and pay revenue to the company. It was named ''permanent'' because it fixed the land tax in perpetuity in return for landed property rights for [[zamindars]]; it simultaneously defined the nature of land ownership in the presidency, and gave individuals and families separate property rights in occupied land. Since the revenue was fixed in perpetuity, it was fixed at a high level, which in Bengal amounted to £3 million at 1789–90 prices. According to the [[Permanent Settlement]] if the zamindars failed to pay the revenue on time, the zamindari right would be taken from them.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=82}}</ref> According to one estimate, this was 20% higher than the revenue demand before 1757.<ref>{{Harvnb|Marshall|1987|pp=141, 144}}</ref> Over the next century, partly as a result of land surveys, court rulings, and property sales, the change was given practical dimension.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robb|2002|p=127}}</ref> An influence on the development of this revenue policy were the economic theories then current, which regarded agriculture as the engine of economic development, and consequently stressed the fixing of revenue demands in order to encourage growth.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guha|1995}}</ref> The expectation behind the permanent settlement was that knowledge of a fixed government demand would encourage the zamindars to increase both their average outcrop and the land under cultivation, since they would be able to retain the profits from the increased output; in addition, it was envisaged that land itself would become a marketable form of property that could be purchased, sold, or mortgaged.<ref name="peers-p45-47" /> A feature of this economic rationale was the additional expectation that the zamindars, recognising their own best interest, would not make unreasonable demands on the peasantry.<ref name="bose-ps">{{Harvnb|Bose|1993}}</ref>
However, these expectations were not realised in practice, and in many regions of Bengal, the peasants bore the brunt of the increased demand, there being little protection for their traditional rights in the new legislation.<ref name="bose-ps" /> [[Forced labour]] of the peasants by the zamindars became more prevalent as cash crops were cultivated to meet the Company revenue demands.<ref name="peers-p45-47" /> Although commercialised cultivation was not new to the region, it had now penetrated deeper into village society and made it more vulnerable to market forces.<ref name="peers-p45-47" /> The zamindars themselves were often unable to meet the increased demands that the company had placed on them;<ref>{{Harvnb|Tomlinson|1993|p=43}}</ref> consequently, many defaulted, and by one estimate, up to one-third of their lands were auctioned during the first two decades following the permanent settlement. The new owners were often [[Brahmin]] and [[Kayastha]] employees of the Company who had a good grasp of the new system, and, in many cases, some had prospered under it.<ref name="metcalf-revenue">{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp=78–79}}</ref>
Since the zamindars were never able to undertake costly improvements to the land envisaged under the Permanent Settlement, some of which required the removal of the existing farmers, they soon became rentiers who lived off the rent from their tenant farmers.<ref name="metcalf-revenue"/> In many areas, especially northern Bengal, they had to increasingly share the revenue with intermediate tenure holders, called ''jotedars'', who supervised farming in the villages.<ref name="metcalf-revenue"/> Consequently, unlike the contemporaneous [[Enclosure movement]] in Britain, agriculture in Bengal remained the province of the subsistence farming of innumerable small [[paddy field]]s.<ref name="metcalf-revenue"/>
The zamindari system was one of two principal revenue settlements undertaken by the Company in India.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roy |first=Tirthankar |author-link=Tirthankar Roy |year=2000 |title=The Economic History of India, 1857–1947 |edition=1st |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=37–42 |isbn=978-0-19-565154-6}}</ref> In [[South India|southern India]], [[Sir Thomas Munro, 1st Baronet|Thomas Munro]], who would later become Governor of Madras, promoted the ''[[ryotwari]]'' system or the Munro system, in which the government settled land-revenue directly with the peasant farmers, or ''ryots''.<ref name="peers-47" /> It was first tried in small scale by Captain Alexander Read in the areas that were taken over from the wars with Tipu Sultan. Subsequently, developed by Thomas Munro, this system was gradually extended all over South India. This was, in part, a consequence of the turmoil of the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]], which had prevented the emergence of a class of large landowners; in addition, Munro and others felt that ''ryotwari'' was closer to traditional practice in the region and ideologically more progressive, allowing the benefits of Company rule to reach the lowest levels of rural society.<ref name="peers-47" /> At the heart of the ''ryotwari'' system was a particular theory of [[economic rent]]—and based on [[David Ricardo]]'s [[Law of Rent]]—promoted by [[utilitarian]] [[James Mill]] who formulated the Indian revenue policy between 1819 and 1830. "He believed that the government was the ultimate lord of the soil and should not renounce its right to 'rent', i.e. the profit left over on richer soil when wages and other working expenses had been settled."<ref name="brown-p66">{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=66}}</ref> Another keystone of the new system of temporary settlements was the classification of agricultural fields according to soil type and produce, with average rent rates fixed for the period of the settlement.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robb|2002|p=128}}</ref> According to Mill, taxation of land rent would promote efficient agriculture and simultaneously prevent the emergence of a "parasitic landlord class".<ref name="brown-p66" /> Mill advocated ''ryotwari'' settlements which consisted of government measurement and assessment of each plot (valid for 20 or 30 years) and subsequent taxation which was dependent on the fertility of the soil.<ref name="brown-p66" /> The taxed amount was nine-tenths of the "rent" in the early 19th century and gradually fell afterwards.<ref name="brown-p66" /> However, in spite of the appeal of the ''ryotwari'' system's abstract principles, class hierarchies in southern Indian villages had not entirely disappeared—for example village headmen continued to hold sway—and peasant cultivators sometimes came to experience revenue demands they could not meet.<ref>{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=47}}, {{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=65}}</ref> In the 1850s, a scandal erupted when it was discovered that some Indian revenue agents of the company were using torture to meet the company's revenue demands.<ref name="peers-47" />
Land revenue settlements constituted a major administrative activity of the various governments in India under Company rule.<ref name="brown-p67"/> In all areas other than the Bengal Presidency, land settlement work involved a continually repetitive process of surveying and measuring plots, assessing their quality, and recording landed rights, and constituted a large proportion of the work of [[Indian Civil Service]] officers working for the government.<ref name="brown-p67"/> After the Company lost its trading rights, it became the single most important source of government revenue, roughly half of overall revenue in the middle of the 19th century;<ref name="brown-p67"/> even so, between the years 1814 and 1859, the government of India ran debts in 33 years.<ref name="brown-p67"/> With expanded dominion, even during non-deficit years, there was just enough money to pay the salaries of a threadbare administration, a skeleton police force, and the army.<ref name="brown-p67"/>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180 |File:Company rule riverside scene2 bengal1860.jpg|A riverside scene in rural east Bengal (present-day [[Bangladesh]]), 1860
|File:Lord Cornwallis.jpg|Charles Cornwallis, the Governor-General of India when Permanent Settlement was introduced
|File:Company rule kochh mandai2 woman1860.jpg|A Kochh Mandai woman of east Bengal with an agricultural knife and a freshly harvested [[jackfruit]] (1860)
|File:Company rule paddy fields madras2.jpg|Paddy fields in the [[Madras Presidency]], c. 1880. Two-thirds of the presidency fell under the ''[[Ryotwari]]'' system.
}}
==Army and civil service==
{{Main|Presidency armies}}
In 1772, when Hastings became the first Governor-General one of his first undertakings was the rapid expansion of the Presidency's army. Since the available soldiers, or ''[[Sepoy]]s'', from Bengal—many of whom had fought against the British in the Battle of Plassey{{spaced ndash}}were now suspect in British eyes, Hastings recruited farther west from the "major breeding ground" of India's infantry in eastern [[Awadh]] and the lands around [[Varanasi|Banaras]] including [[Bihar]].<ref name="bayly-84-86">{{Harvnb|Bayly|1987|pp=84–86}}</ref> The [[Caste system in India|high caste]] rural Hindu [[Rajput|Rajputs]] and [[Brahmins]] of this region, known as ''[[Purbiya]]s'' (Hindi, lit. "easterners"), had been recruited by Mughal Empire armies for two hundred years;<ref name="bayly-84-86"/> the East India Company continued this practice for the next 75 years, with these soldiers comprising up to eighty per cent of the Bengal army. British in Malabar also converted Thiyyar army, called as Thiyya pattalam into a special regiment centered at Thalassery called as The [[Thiyyar Regiment]] in 1904.<ref name="qq">{{cite book|last=Nagendra k.r.singh|year=2006|title=Global Encyclopedia of the South India Dalit's Ethnography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xcpa_T-7oVQC&dq=Tiyya+regiment&pg=PA230|publisher=Global Vision Pub House|page=230|isbn=9788182201675|access-date=14 September 2022|archive-date=11 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411140147/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xcpa_T-7oVQC&dq=Tiyya+regiment&pg=PA230|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>L.Krishna Anandha Krishna Iyer(Divan Bahadur) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=hOyqKkYi6McC The Cochin Tribes and Caste] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407154252/https://books.google.com/books?id=hOyqKkYi6McC |date=7 April 2023 }}'' Vol.1. Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1962. Page. 278, Google Books</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=My8DEAAAQBAJ&dq=Thiyya+regiment&pg=PT42 |title=Jumbos and Jumping Devils: A Social History of Indian Circus - Nisha P.R. - Google Books |date=12 June 2020 |isbn=978-0-19-099207-1 |access-date=2022-09-25 |last1=Nisha |first1=P. R. |publisher=Oxford University Press |archive-date=14 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414154100/https://books.google.com/books?id=My8DEAAAQBAJ&dq=Thiyya+regiment&pg=PT42 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="bayly-84-86"/> However, in order to avoid any friction within the ranks, the company also took pains to adapt its military practices to their religious requirements. Consequently, these soldiers dined in separate facilities; in addition, overseas service, considered polluting to their caste, was not required of them, and the army soon came to recognise Hindu festivals officially. "This encouragement of high caste ritual status, however, left the government vulnerable to protest, even mutiny, whenever the sepoys detected infringement of their prerogatives."<ref>{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=61}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-right:auto; margin-left:auto;"
! style="background:#ddd;" colspan="4"| East India Company armies after the Re-organisation of 1796<ref name="igi-333">{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=333}}</ref>
|-
! British troops !! colspan="3" | Indian troops
|-
! !! Bengal Presidency !! Madras Presidency !! Bombay Presidency
|-
| ||
|-
! 13,000 !! colspan="3" | Total Indian troops: 57,000
Line 174 ⟶ 207:
! colspan="4" | Grand total, British and Indian troops: 70,000
|}
The [[Bengal Army]] was used in military campaigns in other parts of India and abroad: to provide crucial support to a weak Madras army in the [[Third Anglo-Mysore War]] in 1791, and also in [[Java]] and [[Ceylon]].<ref name="bayly-84-86"/> In contrast to the soldiers in the armies of Indian rulers, the Bengal sepoys not only received high pay, but also received it reliably, thanks in great measure to the company's access to the vast land-revenue reserves of Bengal.<ref name="bayly-84-86"/> Soon, bolstered both by the new musket technology and naval support, the Bengal army came to be widely well-regarded.<ref name="bayly-84-86"/> The well-disciplined sepoys attired in red-coats and their British officers began to arouse "a kind of awe in their adversaries. In Maharashtra and in Java, the sepoys were regarded as the embodiment of demonic forces, sometimes of antique warrior heroes. Indian rulers adopted red serge jackets for their own forces and retainers as if to capture their magical qualities."<ref name="bayly-84-86"/>
In 1796, under pressure from the company's board of directors in London, the Indian troops were re-organised and reduced during the tenure of [[John Shore, 1st Baron Teignmouth|John Shore]] as Governor-General.<ref name="igi-333"/> However, the closing years of the 18th century saw, with Wellesley's campaigns, a new increase in the army strength. Thus in 1806, at the time of the [[Vellore Mutiny]], the combined strength of the three presidencies' armies stood at 154,500, making them one of the largest [[Standing army|standing armies]] in the world.<ref>{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=61}}, {{Harvnb|Bayly|1987|pp=84–86}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-right:auto; margin-left:auto;"
|-
! Presidencies !! British troops !! Indian troops !! Total
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| Bengal || style="text-align:center;"| 7,000 || style="text-align:center;"| 57,000 || style="text-align:center;"| 64,000
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| Madras || style="text-align:center;"| 11,000 || style="text-align:center;"| 53,000 || style="text-align:center;"| 64,000
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| Bombay || style="text-align:center;"| 6,500 || style="text-align:center;"| 20,000 || style="text-align:center;"| 26,500
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| Total || style="text-align:center;"| 24,500 || style="text-align:center;"| 130,000 || style="text-align:center;"| 154,500
|}
As the East India Company expanded its territories, it added irregular "local corps", which were not as well trained as the army.<ref name="igi-337">{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=337}}</ref> In 1846, after the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]], a frontier brigade was raised in the [[Cis-Sutlej states|Cis-Sutlej Hill States]] mainly for police work; in addition, in 1849, the "[[Punjab Irregular Force]]" was added on the frontier.<ref name="igi-337"/> Two years later, this force consisted of "3 light field batteries, 5 regiments of cavalry, and 5 of infantry".<ref name="igi-337"/> The following year, "a garrison company was added, ... a sixth infantry regiment (formed from the Sind Camel Corps) in 1853, and one mountain battery in 1856".<ref name="igi-337"/> Similarly, a local force was raised after the annexation of Nagpur in 1854, and the "Oudh Irregular Force" was added after Oudh was annexed in 1856.<ref name="igi-337"/> Earlier, as a result of the treaty of 1800, the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] had begun to maintain a contingent force of 9,000 horse and 6,000-foot which was commanded by Company officers; in 1853, after a new treaty was negotiated, this force was assigned to [[Berar Province|Berar]] and stopped being a part of the Nizam's army.<ref name="igi-337"/>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-right:auto; margin-left:auto;"
! style="background:#ddd;" colspan="10"| East India Company armies on the eve of the [[Indian rebellion of 1857]]<ref name="igi-338">{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=338}}</ref>
|-
! Presidencies !! colspan="4" | British troops !! colspan="5" | Indian troops
|-
! !! Cavalry !! Artillery !! Infantry !! Total !! Cavalry !! Artillery !! Sappers<br />&<br />Miners !! Infantry !! Total
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| Bengal || style="text-align:center;"| 1,366 || style="text-align:center;"| 3,063 || style="text-align:center;"| 17,003 || style="text-align:center;"| 21,432 || style="text-align:center;"| 19,288 || style="text-align:center;"| 4,734 || style="text-align:center;"| 1,497 || style="text-align:center;"| 112,052 || style="text-align:center;"| 137,571
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| Madras || style="text-align:center;"| 639 || style="text-align:center;"| 2,128 || style="text-align:center;"| 5,941 || style="text-align:center;"| 8,708 || style="text-align:center;"| 3,202 || style="text-align:center;"| 2,407 || style="text-align:center;"| 1,270 || style="text-align:center;"| 42,373 || style="text-align:center;"| 49,252
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| Bombay || style="text-align:center;"| 681 || style="text-align:center;"| 1,578 || style="text-align:center;"| 7,101 || style="text-align:center;"| 9,360 || style="text-align:center;"| 8,433 || style="text-align:center;"| 1,997 || style="text-align:center;"| 637 || style="text-align:center;"| 33,861 || style="text-align:center;"| 44,928
|-
|
|-
|
|
|Military police || || || || || || || || || style="text-align:center;"| 38,977
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| '''Total''' || style="text-align:center;"| 2,686 || style="text-align:center;"| 6,769 || style="text-align:center;"| 30,045 || style="text-align:center;"| 39,500 || style="text-align:center;"| 37,719 || style="text-align:center;"| 11,256 || style="text-align:center;"| 3,404 || style="text-align:center;"| 211,926 || style="text-align:center;"| 311,038
|-
! colspan="9" | '''Grand Total, British and Indian troops''' !! 350,538
|}
In the Indian rebellion of 1857 almost the entire Bengal army, both regular and irregular, revolted.<ref name="igi-338"/> It has been suggested that after the annexation of Oudh by the East India Company in 1856, many sepoys were disquieted both from losing their perquisites, as landed gentry, in the Oudh courts and from the anticipation of any increased land-revenue payments that the annexation might augur.<ref name=brownp88>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=88}}</ref> With British victories in wars or with annexation, as the extent of British jurisdiction expanded, the soldiers were now not only expected to serve in less familiar regions (such as in Burma in the [[Anglo-Burmese Wars]] in 1856), but also make do without the "foreign service", remuneration that had previously been their due, and this caused resentment in the ranks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=171}}, {{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2004|pp=70–72}}</ref> The Bombay and Madras armies, and the Hyderabad contingent, however, remained loyal. The Punjab Irregular Force not only did not revolt, it played an active role in suppressing the mutiny.<ref name="igi-338"/> The rebellion led to a complete re-organisation of the Indian army in 1858 in the new [[British Raj]].
===Civil service===
The reforms initiated after 1784 were designed to create an elite civil service where very talented young Britons would spend their entire careers. Advanced training was promoted especially at the [[East India Company College]] (until 1853).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Puri | first1 = B. N. | year = 1967 | title = The Training of Civil Servants under the Company | url = | journal = Journal of Indian History | volume = 45 | issue = 135| pages = 749–771 }}</ref> Haileybury emphasised the [[Anglicanism|Anglican religion]] and morality and trained students in the classical [[Languages of India|Indian languages.]] Many students held to [[Whiggism|Whiggish]], [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]], and [[Utilitarianism|Utilitarian]] convictions of their duty to represent their nation and to modernise India. At most there were about 600 of these men who managed the Raj's customs service, taxes, justice system, and its general administration.<ref>David Gilmour, ''The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj'' (2005)</ref>{{failed verification|date=December 2022}}<!-- Gilmour supports only that Haileybury trained students in the classical Indian languages (p. 39), and that Mill's history of India was used as a textbook (he was a Utilitarian) (p. 13)--><ref>Colin Newbury, "Patronage and Professionalism: Manning a Transitional Empire, 1760–1870". ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'' (2013) 42#2 pp: 193–213.</ref>{{failed verification|date=December 2022}}<!-- Newbury supports only that Indian languages were taught at Haileybury.--> The company's original policy was one of "[[Orientalism]]", that is of adjusting to the way of life and customs of the Indian people and not trying to reform them. That changed after 1813, as the forces of reform in the home country, especially evangelical religion, Whiggish political outlook, and Utilitarian philosophy worked together to make the company an agent of Anglicization and modernisation. Christian missionaries became active, but made few converts. The Raj set out to outlaw [[Sati (practice)|sati]] (widow-burning) and [[thuggee]] (ritual banditry) and upgrade the status of women. Schools would be established in which they would teach the [[English language]]. The 1830s and 1840s, however, were not times of prosperity: After its heavy spending on the military, the company had little money to engage in large-scale public works projects or modernisation programs.<ref>{{cite book|last=Philip Lawson|title=The East India Company: A History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PQOtAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA150|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|pages=149–54|isbn=9781317897651}}</ref>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180 |File:Royal artillery encampment arcot1804.jpg|A Royal Artillery encampment at [[Arcot]], [[Madras Presidency]], 1804.
|File:North Entrance Of Tippoo's Palace At Bangalore (1804).jpg|[[East India Company]] ''[[Sepoy]]s'' (Indian infantrymen) in [[Red coat (British army)|red coats]] outside [[Tipu Sultan]]'s former summer palace in [[Bangalore]], 1804
|File:Military orphan school calcutta1794.jpg|Military Orphan School for private soldiers of the East India Company, [[Howrah]], [[Bengal Presidency]], 1794.
|File:Prinsep new writerEICservice1822.jpg|A new "writer" in the East India Company Civil Service arrives in Calcutta. A [[palanquin]] transport awaits him.
}}
==Trade==
{{main|Economy of India under Company rule}}
After gaining the right to collect revenue in Bengal in 1765, the Company largely ceased importing [[Bullion#Bullion|gold and silver]], which it had hitherto used to pay for goods shipped back to Britain.<ref name="robb-131-134">{{Harvnb|Robb|2002|pp=131–134}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Export of bullion to India, by EIC (1708–1810)<ref name="Sivramkrishna2016">{{cite book|author=Sashi Sivramkrishna|title=In Search of Stability: Economics of Money, History of the Rupee|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IDElDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA91|date=13 September 2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-99749-2|pages=91–}}</ref>
|-
! Years
!Bullion (£)
!Average per annum
|-
|1708/9-1733/4 || 12,189,147 || 420,315
|-
|1734/5-1759/60 || 15,239,115 || 586,119
|-
|1760/1-1765/6 || 842,381 || 140,396
|-
|1766/7-1771/2 || 968,289 || 161,381
|-
|1772/3-1775/6 || 72,911 || 18,227
|-
|1776/7-1784/5 || 156,106 || 17,345
|-
|1785/6-1792/3 || 4,476,207 || 559,525
|-
|1793/4-1809/10 || 8,988,165 || 528,715
|}
In addition, as under Mughal Empire rule, land revenue collected in the Bengal Presidency helped finance the company's wars in other parts of India.<ref name="robb-131-134"/> Consequently, in the period 1760–1800, Bengal's [[money supply]] was greatly diminished; furthermore, the closing of some local mints and close supervision of the rest, the fixing of [[exchange rate]]s, and the standardisation of [[coin]]age, paradoxically, added to the economic downturn.<ref name="robb-131-134"/> During the period, 1780–1860, India changed from being an exporter of processed goods for which it received payment in [[bullion]], to being an exporter of [[raw materials]] and a buyer of [[manufactured goods]].<ref name="robb-131-134"/> More specifically, in the 1750s, mostly fine cotton and silk was exported from India to markets in Europe, Asia, and Africa; by the second quarter of the 19th century, raw materials, which chiefly consisted of raw cotton, opium, and indigo, accounted for most of India's exports.<ref name="peers-48-49">{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|pp=48–49}}</ref> Also, from the late 18th century British cotton mill industry began to lobby the government to both tax Indian imports and allow them access to markets in India.<ref name="peers-48-49"/> Starting in the 1830s, British textiles began to appear in—and soon to inundate—the Indian markets, with the value of the textile imports growing from £5.2 million 1850 to £18.4 million in 1896.<ref>{{Harvnb|Farnie|1979|p=33}}</ref> The [[American Civil War]] too would have a major impact on India's cotton economy: with the outbreak of the war, [[Cotton production in the United States|American cotton]] was no longer available to [[Manufacturing in the United Kingdom|British manufacturers]]; consequently, demand for Indian cotton soared, and the prices soon quadrupled.<ref>{{Harvnb|Misra|1999|p=18}}</ref> This led many farmers in India to switch to cultivating cotton as a quick cash crop; however, with the end of the war in 1865, the demand plummeted again, creating another downturn in the agricultural economy.<ref name="peers-48-49"/>
At this time, the East India Company's trade with China began to grow as well. In the early 19th century, demand for [[Chinese tea]] had greatly increased in Britain; since the money supply in India was restricted and the company was indisposed to shipping bullion from Britain, it decided upon [[opium]], which had a large underground market in [[Qing dynasty|Qing China]] and which was grown in many parts of India, as the most profitable form of payment.<ref name="peers-49">{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=49}}</ref> However, since the Chinese authorities had banned the importation and consumption of opium, the Company engaged them in the [[First Opium War]], and at its conclusion, under the [[Treaty of Nanjing]], gained access to five Chinese ports, [[Guangzhou]], [[Xiamen]], [[Fuzhou]], Shanghai, and [[Ningbo]]; in addition, Hong Kong was ceded to the British Crown.<ref name="peers-49"/> Towards the end of the second quarter of the 19th century, opium export constituted 40% of India's exports.<ref>{{Harvnb|Washbrook|2001|p=403}}</ref>
Another major, though erratic, export item was [[indigo dye]], which was extracted from [[Indigofera tinctoria|natural indigo]], and which came to be grown in Bengal and northern Bihar.<ref name="metcalf-metcalf-76">{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=76}}</ref> In 1788, the East India Company offered advances to ten British planters to grow indigo; however, since the new (landed) property rights defined in the Permanent Settlement, did not allow them, as Europeans, to buy agricultural land, they had to in turn offer cash advances to local peasants, and sometimes coerce them, to grow the crop.<ref name="bando-125">{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=125}}</ref> In early 19th century Europe, blue clothing was favoured as a fashion, and blue uniforms were common in the military; consequently, the demand for the dye was high.<ref name="bose-jalal-57">{{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2004|p=57}}</ref> The European demand for the dye, however, proved to be unstable, and both creditors and cultivators bore the risk of the market crashes in 1827 and 1847.<ref name="metcalf-metcalf-76"/> The peasant discontent in Bengal eventually led to the ''[[Indigo rebellion]]'' in 1859–60 and to the end of indigo production there.<ref name="bando-125"/><ref name=bose-jalal-57 /> In Bihar, however, indigo production continued well into the 20th century; a centre of indigo production there, [[Champaran]] district, became an early testing ground, in 1917, for [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]]'s strategy of [[non-violent resistance]] against the [[British Raj]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2004|pp=57, 110}}</ref>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180 |File:East india company factory sonargaon2.jpg|Photograph of East India Company factory in Painam, [[Sonargaon]], a major producer of the celebrated [[Dhaka]] [[muslin]]s.
|File:West view mellor muslin mill2.jpg|"Mellor Mill" in [[Marple, Greater Manchester|Marple]], Greater Manchester, England, was constructed in 1790–1793 for manufacturing muslin cloth.
|File:Opium godown store patna2.jpg|Opium ''Godown'' (Storehouse) in [[Patna]], Bihar (c. 1814). Patna was the centre of the Company opium industry.
|File:Indigo factory bengal2.jpg|[[Indigo dye]] factory in [[Bengal]]. Bengal was the world's largest producer of [[Indigofera tinctoria|natural indigo]] in the 19th century.
}}
==Justice system==
Until the British gained control of Bengal in the mid-18th century, the system of justice there was presided over by the Nawab of Bengal himself, who, as the chief law officer, ''Nawāb Nāzim'', attended to cases qualifying for capital punishment in his headquarters, [[Murshidabad]]. His deputy, the ''Naib Nāzim'', attended to the slightly less important cases. The ordinary lawsuits belonged to the jurisdiction of a hierarchy of court officials consisting of ''faujdārs'', ''muhtasils'', and ''kotwāls''. In the rural areas, or the ''Mofussil'', the ''[[zamindar]]s''—the rural overlords with the hereditary right to collect rent from peasant farmers—also had the power to administer justice. This they did with little routine oversight, being required to report only their judgments in capital punishment cases to the ''Nawāb''.
By the mid-18th century, the British too had completed a century and a half in India, and had a burgeoning presence in the three ''presidency'' towns of Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta. During this time the successive [[Royal Charter]]s had gradually given the East India Company more power to administer justice in these towns. In the charter granted by [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in 1683, the company was given the power to establish "courts of judicature" in locations of its choice, each court consisting of a lawyer and two merchants. This right was renewed in the subsequent charters granted by [[James II of England|James II]] and [[William III of England|William III]] in 1686 and 1698 respectively. In 1726, however, the Court of Directors of the Company felt that more customary justice was necessary for European residents in the presidency towns, and petitioned the King to establish ''Mayor's Courts''. The petition was approved and Mayor's courts, each consisting of a Mayor and nine aldermen, and each having the jurisdiction in lawsuits ''between'' Europeans, were created in Fort William (Calcutta), Madras, and Bombay. Judgments handed down by a Mayor's Court could be disputed with an appeal to the respective Presidency government and, when the amount disputed was greater than [[Rs.]] 4,000, with a further appeal to the [[King-in-Council]]. In 1753, the Mayor's courts were renewed under a revised [[letters patent]]; in addition, [[Court of Requests|Courts of Requests]] for lawsuits involving amounts less than Rs. 20 were introduced. Both types of courts were regulated by the Court of Directors of the East India Company.
After its victory in the [[Battle of Buxar]], the Company obtained in 1765 the ''Diwāni'' of Bengal, the right not only to collect revenue, but also to administer civil justice in Bengal. The administration of criminal justice, the ''Nizāmat'' or ''Faujdāri'', however, remained with the ''Nawāb'', and for criminal cases the prevailing [[Sharia|Islamic law]] remained in place. However, the company's new duties associated with the ''Diwāni'' were leased out to the Indian officials who had formerly performed them. This makeshift arrangement continued—with much accompanying disarray—until 1771, when the Court of Directors of the Company decided to obtain for the company the jurisdiction of both criminal and civil cases.
Soon afterwards Warren Hastings arrived in Calcutta as the first Governor-General of the company's Indian dominions and resolved to overhaul the company's organisation and in particular its judicial affairs. In the interior, or ''Mofussil'', ''diwāni adālats'', or a [[Trial court|civil courts of first instance]], were constituted in each district; these courts were presided over by European ''Zilā'' judges employed by the company, who were assisted in the interpretation of customary Indian law by Hindu ''[[pundit (India)|pandits]]'' and Muslim ''[[Qadi|qazi]]s''. For small claims, however, Registrars and Indian commissioners, known as ''Sadr Amīns'' and ''Munsifs'', were appointed. These in their turn were supervised by provincial [[appellate court|civil courts of appeal]] constituted for such purpose, each consisting of four British judges. All these were under the authority of the ''Sadr Diwāni Adālat'', or the [[Supreme court|Chief Civil Court of Appeals]], consisting of the Governor of the Presidency and his Council, assisted by Indian officers.
Similarly for criminal cases, Mofussil ''nizāmat adālats'', or Provincial [[Criminal law|courts of criminal judicature]], were created in the interior; these again consisted of Indian court officers (''pandits'' and ''qazis''), who were supervised by officials of the company. Also constituted were [[Circuit court|Courts of circuit]] with [[appellate jurisdiction]] in criminal cases, which were usually presided over by the judges of the civil appellate courts. All these too were under a ''Sadr Nizāmat Adālat'' or a Chief Court of Criminal Appeal.
Around this time the business affairs of the East India Company began to draw increased scrutiny in the [[House of Commons of Great Britain|House of Commons]]. After receiving a report by a committee, which condemned the Mayor's Courts, the [[The Crown|Crown]] issued a charter for a new judicial system in the [[Bengal Presidency]]. The [[British Parliament]] consequently enacted the Regulating Act of 1773 under which the King-in-Council created a [[Supreme court|Supreme Court]] in the ''Presidency town'', i.e. [[Calcutta|Fort William]]. The tribunal consisted of one Chief Justice and three [[puisne judge]]s; all four judges were to be chosen from [[barrister]]s. The Supreme Court supplanted the Mayor's Court; however, it left the Court of Requests in place. Under the charter, the Supreme Court, moreover, had the authority to exercise all types of jurisdiction in the region of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, with the only caveat that in situations where the disputed amount was in excess of Rs. 4,000, their judgment could be appealed to the [[Privy Council]]. Both the Act and the charter said nothing about the relation between the [[judiciary]] (Supreme Court) and the [[executive branch]] (Governor-General); equally, they were silent on the ''Adālats'' (both ''Diwāni'' and ''Nizāmat'') created by Warren Hastings just the year before. In the new Supreme Court, the civil and criminal cases alike were interpreted and prosecuted accorded to [[English law]]; in the ''Sadr Adālats'', however, the judges and law-officers had no knowledge of English law, and were required only, by the Governor-General's order, "to proceed according to equity, justice, and good conscience, unless [[Hindu law|Hindu]] or [[Sharia|Muhammadan law]] was in point, or some Regulation expressly applied".
There was a good likelihood, therefore, that the Supreme Court and the ''Sadr Adālats'' would act in opposition to each other and, predictably, many disputes resulted. Hastings' premature attempt to appoint the Chief Justice, [[Elijah Impey|Sir Elijah Impey]], an old schoolmate from [[Winchester College|Winchester]], to the bench of the ''Sadr Diwāni Adālat'', only complicated the situation further. The appointment had to be annulled in 1781 by a parliamentary intervention with the enactment of the Declaration Act. The Act exempted the Executive Branch from the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. It recognised the independent existence of the ''Sadr Adālats'' and all subsidiary courts of the company. Furthermore, it headed off future legal turf wars by prohibiting the Supreme Court any jurisdiction in matters of revenue (''Diwāni'') or Regulations of the Government enacted by the British Parliament. This state of affairs continued until 1797, when a new Act extended the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court to the province of [[Benares]] (which had since been added to the company's dominions) and "all places for the time being included in Bengal". With the creation of the [[Ceded and Conquered Provinces]] in 1805, the jurisdiction would extend as far west as Delhi.
In the other two presidencies, [[Madras Presidency|Madras]] and [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]], a similar course of legal changes unfolded; there, however, the Mayor's Courts were first strengthened to [[Recorder's Court]]s by adding a legal president to the bench. The Supreme Courts in Madras and Bombay were finally established in 1801 and 1823, respectively. Madras Presidency was also unusual in being the first to rely on village headmen and ''[[Panchayati raj in India|panchāyats]]'' for cases involving small claims. This judicial system in the three presidencies was to survive the company's rule, the next major change coming only in 1861.
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180 |File:Thomas strange house madras1811.jpg|The house of [[Thomas Andrew Lumisden Strange|Sir Thomas Strange]], who in 1800 became the first Chief Justice of the Fort of St. George (Madras) and wrote ''Elements of Hindu Law'' (1825).
|File:Chowringheeroad adalat1833.jpg|An 1833 Lithograph of the ''Sadr Diwāni Adālat'', the Chief Civil Court for Indians, on Chowringhee Road, Calcutta.
|File:The Native Judges.jpg|Coloured engraving of the judges and officers of Hindu (top row) and Muslim (bottom row) law in the Recorder Court in Bombay, 1805.
|File:Bombay courthouse1850.jpg|The Court-House Building on Apollo Street, Bombay (third building on left, just beyond the domed Ice House) shown in 1850.
}}
==Education==
{{Further|History of education in the Indian subcontinent}}
Education of Indians had become a topic of interest among East India Company officials from the outset of the company's rule in Bengal.<ref name="robb-p137">{{Harvnb|Robb|2002|p=137}}</ref> In the last two decades of the 18th century and the first decade of the nineteenth, Company officials pursued a policy of conciliation towards the native culture of its new dominion, especially in relation to education policy.<ref name="robb-p137"/> During the 19th century, the Indian literacy rates were rumoured to be less than half of post independence levels which were 18.33% in 1951. The policy was pursued in the aid of three goals: "to sponsor Indians in their own culture, to advance knowledge of India, and to employ that knowledge in government".<ref name="robb-p137"/>
The first goal was supported by some administrators, such as Warren Hastings, who envisaged the company as the successor of a great Empire, and saw the support of vernacular learning as only befitting that role. In 1781, Hastings founded the ''[[Madrasa 'Aliya]]'', an institution in Calcutta for the study of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] languages, and [[Islamic law]]. A few decades later a related perspective appeared among the governed population, one that was expressed by the conservative Bengali reformer Radhakanta Deb as the "duty of the Rulers of Countries to preserve and Customs and the religions of their subjects".
The second goal was motivated by the concerns among some Company officials about being seen as foreign rulers. They argued that the company should try to win over its subjects by outdoing the region's previous rulers in the support of indigenous learning. Guided by this belief, the [[Government Sanskrit College|Benares Sanskrit College]] was founded in [[Varanasi]] in 1791 during the administration of Lord Cornwallis. The promotion of knowledge of Asia had attracted scholars as well to the company's service. Earlier, in 1784, the [[Asiatic Society|Asiatick Society]] had been founded in Calcutta by [[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]], a [[puisne judge]] in the newly established Supreme Court of Bengal. Soon, Jones was to advance his [[William Jones (philologist)#Scholarly contributions|famous thesis]] on the common origin of [[Indo-European languages]].
The third related goal grew out of the philosophy then current among some Company officials that they would themselves become better administrators if they were better versed in the languages and cultures of India. It led in 1800 to the founding of the [[College of Fort William]], in Calcutta by [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Lord Wellesley]], the then Governor-General. The college was later to play an important role both in the development of [[Languages of India|modern Indian languages]] and in the [[Bengal Renaissance]]. Advocates of these related goals were termed, "[[oriental studies|Orientalists]]". The Orientalist group was led by [[Horace Hayman Wilson]]. Many leading Company officials, such as [[Sir Thomas Munro, 1st Baronet|Thomas Munro]] and [[Montstuart Elphinstone]], were influenced by the Orientalist ethos and felt that the company's government in India should be responsive to Indian expectations. The Orientalist ethos would prevail in education policy well into the 1820s, and was reflected in the founding of the [[Deccan College (Pune)|Poona Sanskrit College]] in [[Pune]] in 1821 and the [[Sanskrit College|Calcutta Sanskrit College]] in 1824.
The Orientalists were, however, soon opposed by advocates of an approach that has been termed ''[[Anglicist]]''. The Anglicists supported instruction in the English language in order to impart to Indians what they considered modern Western knowledge. Prominent among them were [[evangelicalism|evangelicals]] who, after 1813—when the company's territories were opened to [[mission (Christian)|Christian missionaries]]—were interested in spreading Christian belief; they also believed in using theology to promote liberal social reform, such as the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolition of slavery]]. Among them was [[Charles Grant (British East India Company)|Charles Grant]], the Chairman of the East India Company. Grant supported state-sponsored education in India 20 years before a similar system was set up in Britain. Among Grant's close evangelical friends were [[William Wilberforce]], a prominent [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolitionist]] and member of the British Parliament, and [[John Shore, 1st Baron Teignmouth|Sir John Shore]], the Governor-General of India from 1793 to 1797. During this period, many Scottish Presbyterian missionaries also supported the British rulers in their efforts to spread English education and established many reputed colleges like [[Scottish Church College]] (1830), [[Wilson College, Mumbai|Wilson College]] (1832), [[Madras Christian College]] (1837), and [[Elphinstone College]] (1856).
However, the Anglicists also included [[utilitarians]], led by [[James Mill]], who had begun to play an important role in fashioning Company policy. The utilitarians believed in the moral worth of an education that aided the good of society and promoted instruction in ''useful knowledge''. Such ''useful'' instruction to Indians had the added consequence of making them more suitable for the company's burgeoning bureaucracy. By the early 1830s, the Anglicists had the upper hand in devising education policy in India. Many utilitarian ideas were employed in [[Thomas Babbington Macaulay]]'s ''[[English Education Act 1835#Macaulay's "Minute Upon Indian Education"|Minute on Indian Education]]'' of 1835. The ''Minute'', which later aroused great controversy, was to influence education policy in India well into the next century.
Since English was increasingly being employed as the language of instruction, Persian was abolished as the official language of the company's administration and courts by 1837. However, bilingual educations was proving to be popular as well, and some institutions such as the Poona Sanskrit College commenced teaching both Sanskrit and English. Charles Grant's son, [[Robert Grant (MP)|Sir Robert Grant]], who in 1834 was appointed Governor of the [[Bombay Presidency]], played an influential role in the planning of the first medical college in Bombay, which after his unexpected death was named [[Grant Medical College]] when it was established in 1845. During 1852–1853 some citizens of Bombay sent petitions to the British Parliament in support of both establishing and adequately funding university education in India. The petitions resulted in the [[Wood's dispatch|Education Dispatch of 1854]] sent by [[Charles Wood, 1st Viscount Halifax|Sir Charles Wood]], the [[President of the Board of Control]] of the East India Company, the chief official on Indian affairs in the British government, to [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]], the then Governor-General of India. The dispatch outlined a broad plan of state-sponsored education for India, which included:<ref>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=413}}</ref>
# Establishing a Department of Public Instruction in each [[Provinces of British India|presidency or province of British India]].
# Establishing universities modelled on the [[University of London]] (as primarily examining institutions for students studying in affiliated colleges) in each of the ''Presidency towns'' (i.e. [[Chennai|Madras]], [[Mumbai|Bombay]], and Calcutta)
# Establishing teachers-training schools for all levels of instruction
# Maintaining existing Government colleges and high-schools and increasing their number when necessary.
# Vastly increasing vernacular schools for [[Primary education|elementary education]] in villages.
# Introducing a system of [[Grant-in-aid|grants-in-aid]] for [[Independent school|private schools]].
The Department of Public Instruction was in place by 1855. In January 1857, the [[University of Calcutta]] was established, followed by the [[University of Bombay]] in June 1857, and the [[University of Madras]] in September 1857. The University of Bombay, for example, consisted of three affiliated institutions: the [[Elphinstone College|Elphinstone Institution]], the [[Grant Medical College]], and the [[Deccan College (Pune)|Poona Sanskrit College]]. The company's administration also founded high-schools ''en masse'' in the different provinces and presidencies, and the policy was continued during [[British Raj|Crown rule]] which commenced in 1858. By 1861, 230,000 students were attending public educational institutions in the four provinces (the three Presidencies and [[North-Western Provinces]]), of whom 200,000 were in primary schools.<ref name="igi-iv-p414">{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=414}}</ref> Over 5,000 primary schools and 142 secondary schools had been established in these provinces.<ref name="igi-iv-p414"/> Earlier, during the Indian rebellion of 1857, some civilian leaders, such as Khan Bhadur Khan of [[Bareilly]], had stressed the threat posed to the populace's religions by the new education programmes begun by the company; however, historical statistics have shown that this was not generally the case. For example, in [[Etawah]] district in the then North-Western Provinces (present-day [[Uttar Pradesh]]), where during the period 1855–1857, nearly 200 primary, middle-, and high-schools had been opened by the company and tax levied on the population, relative calm prevailed and the schools remained open during the rebellion.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stokes|1986}}, {{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=91}}</ref>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180 |File:Hindu college calcutta1851.jpg|A coloured-in photograph (1851) of Hindu College, Calcutta, which had been founded in 1817 by a committee headed by [[Raja Ram Mohun Roy]]. In 1855, the Government of the [[Bengal Presidency]] renamed it ''[[Presidency College, Kolkata|Presidency College]]'' and opened it to all students.
|File:Student hindoo college calcutta1844.jpg|An engraving (1844) of a youth, who according to the engraver, Emily Eden, was "a favourite and successful young student at the [[Presidency College, Kolkata|Hindu College]] in Calcutta, where scholars acquire a very perfect knowledge of English, and have a familiarity with the best English writers".
|File:Grant medical college1844.jpg|An 1844 engraving of [[Grant Medical College]] (left) and [[Grant Medical College and Sir Jamshedjee Jeejeebhoy Group of Hospitals|Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy Hospital]] (right background) in Bombay made by G. R. Sargeant the year before the medical college was formally opened.
|File:Grant med college jjhospital1855.jpg|An 1855 photograph of the same two institutions. In 1857, Grant Medical College became one of three institutions affiliated with the newly established [[University of Bombay]]. The college was funded partly by the Jeejeebhoy family and partly by the East India Company.
}}
==Social reform==
In the first half of the 19th century, the British legislated reforms against what they considered were iniquitous Indian practices. In most cases, the legislation alone was unable to change Indian society sufficiently for it to absorb both the ideal and the ethic underpinning the reform. For example, upper-caste Hindu society in the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan speaking]] regions of India had long looked askance at the remarriage of widows in order to protect both what it considered was family honour and family property. Even adolescent widows were expected to live a life of austerity and denial.<ref name="Dyson2018-20">{{citation|last=Dyson|first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8|page=20 | quote=Therefore, by the time of the Mauryan Empire the position of women in mainstream Indo-Aryan society seems to have deteriorated. Customs such as child marriage and dowry were becoming entrenched; and a young women's purpose in life was to provide sons for the male lineage into which she married. To quote the Arthashāstra: ‘wives are there for having sons’. Practices such as female infanticide and the neglect of young girls were also developing at this time. Further, due to the increasingly hierarchical nature of the society, marriage was becoming a mere institution for childbearing and the formalization of relationships between groups. In turn, this may have contributed to the growth of increasingly instrumental attitudes towards women and girls (who moved home at marriage). It is important to note that, in all likelihood, these developments did not affect people living in large parts of the subcontinent—such as those in the south, and tribal communities inhabiting the forested hill and plateau areas of central and eastern India. That said, these deleterious features have continued to blight Indo-Aryan speaking areas of the subcontinent until the present day}}</ref><ref name="Stein2010-90">{{citation|last=Stein|first=Burton|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA87|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1|page=90 | quote =Darkness can be said to have pervaded one aspect of society during the inter-imperial centuries: the degradation of women. In [[Hinduism]], the monastic tradition was not institutionalized as it was in the heterodoxies of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], where it was considered the only true path to spiritual liberation. (p. 88) Instead, Hindu men of upper castes, passed through several stages of life: that of initiate, when those of the [[Dwija|twice-born castes]] received the sacred thread; that of student, when the upper castes studied the [[Vedas]]; that of the married man, when they became householders; ... Since the Hindu man was enjoined to take a wife at the appropriate period of life, the roles and nature of women presented some difficulty. Unlike the monastic ascetic, the Hindu man was exhorted to have sons, and could not altogether avoid either women or sexuality. ... [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]] approved of child brides, considering a girl of eight suitable for a man of twenty-four, and one of twelve appropriate for a man of thirty.(p. 89) If there was no dowry, or if the groom's family paid that of the bride, the marriage was ranked lower. In this ranking lay the seeds of the curse of dowry that has become a major social problem in modern India, among all castes, classes and even religions. (p. 90) ... the widow's head was shaved, she was expected to sleep on the ground, eat one meal a day, do the most menial tasks, wear only the plainest, meanest garments, and no ornaments. She was excluded from all festivals and celebrations, since she was considered inauspicious to all but her own children. This penitential life was enjoined because the widow could never quite escape the suspicion that she was in some way responsible for her husband's premature demise. ... The positions taken and the practices discussed by Manu and the other commentators and writers of [[Dharmashastra]] are not quaint relics of the distant past, but alive and recurrent in India today – as the attempts to revive the custom of sati (widow immolation) in recent decades has shown.}}</ref><ref name="RamusackSievers1999">{{citation|last=Ramusack|first=Barbara N.|editor=Barbara N. Ramusack, Sharon L. Sievers|title=Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNi9Jc22OHsC&pg=PA27|year=1999|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-21267-7|pages=27–29|chapter=Women in South Asia|quote=The legal rights, as well as the ideal images, of women were increasingly circumscribed during the Gupta era. The Laws of Manu, compiled from about 200 to 400 C.E., came to be the most prominent evidence that this era was not necessarily a golden age for women. Through a combination of legal injunctions and moral prescriptions, women were firmly tied to the patriarchal family, ... Thus the Laws of Manu severely reduced the property rights of women, recommended a significant difference in ages between husband and wife and the relatively early marriage of women, and banned widow remarriage. Manu's preoccupation with chastity reflected possibly a growing concern for the maintenance of inheritance rights in the male line, a fear of women undermining the increasingly rigid caste divisions, and a growing emphasis on male asceticism as a higher spiritual calling.}}</ref> The [[Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856]], enacted in the waning years of Company rule, provided legal safeguards against loss of certain forms of inheritance for a remarrying Hindu widow, though not of the inheritance due her from her deceased husband. However, very few widows actually remarried. Some Indian reformers, such as [[Raja Ram Mohan Roy]], [[Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar]], even offered money to men who would take widows as brides, but these men often deserted their new wives.
==Post and telegraph==
===Postal services===
{{Further|Postal history of India}}
Before 1837, the East India Company's dominions in India had no universal public [[Postal administration|postal service]], one that was shared by all regions. Although [[courier service]]s did exist, connecting the more important towns with their respective seats of provincial government (i.e. the ''Presidency towns'' of Fort William ([[Calcutta]]), [[Fort St. George]] (Madras), and [[Bombay]]), private individuals were, upon payment, only sparingly allowed their use. That situation changed in 1837, when, by Act XVII of that year, a public post, run by the company's Government, was established in the company's territory in India. Post offices were established in the principal towns and postmasters appointed. The postmasters of the Presidency towns oversaw a few provincial post offices in addition to being responsible for the main postal services between the provinces. By contrast, the [[District collector]]s (originally, collectors of land-tax) directed the District post offices, including their local postal services. Postal services required payment in cash, to be made in advance, with the amount charged usually varying with weight and distance. For example, the charge of sending a letter from Calcutta to Bombay was one [[rupee]]; however, that from Calcutta to [[Agra]] was 12 [[Indian anna|annas]] (or three-quarter of a rupee) for each [[Tola (mass)|tola]] (three-eighths of an ounce).<ref>Majumdar, Mohini Lal. ''The imperial post offices of British India, 1837–1914'' (Phila Publications, 1990)</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Headrick |first=Daniel |date=2010 |title=A double-edged sword: Communications and imperial control in British India |url= |journal=Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=51–65 |doi= |jstor=20762428}}</ref>
After the recommendations of the commission appointed in 1850 to evaluate the Indian postal system were received, Act XVII of 1837 was superseded by the Indian Postal Act of 1854. Under its provisions, the entire postal department was headed by a ''Director-General'', and the duties of a ''Postmaster-General'' were set apart from those of a Presidency Postmaster; the former administered the postal system of the larger provinces (such as the [[Bombay Presidency]] or the [[North-Western Provinces]]), whereas the latter attended to the less important Provinces (such as [[Ajmer-Merwara]] and the major Political Agencies such as [[Rajputana Agency|Rajputana]]). Postage stamps were introduced at this time and the postal rates fixed by weight, dependent no longer also on the distance travelled in the delivery. The lowest inland letter rate was half anna for {{frac|1|4}} tola, followed by one anna for {{frac|1|2}} tola, and 2 annas for a tola, a great reduction from the rates of 17 years before. The [[Indian Post Office]] delivered letters, newspapers, postcards, book packets, and parcels. These deliveries grew steadily in number; by 1861 (three years after the end of Company rule), a total of 889 post offices had been opened, and almost 43 million letters and over four and a half million newspapers were being delivered annually.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rahman | first1 = Siddique Mahmudur | year = 2002 | title = Postal Services During The East India Company's Rule In Bengal | url = | journal = Bangladesh Historical Studies | volume = 19 | issue = | page = 43 }}</ref>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180 |File:General postoffice calcutta1833.jpg|Lithograph of the General Post Office on Chowringhee Street, Calcutta, 1833, four years before the India-wide postal service was established under the Indian Postal Act of 1837.
|File:India fouranna blueandred1854.jpg|Two four [[Indian anna|anna]] stamps issued in 1854. Stamps were issued for the first time for all of British India in 1854. The lowest denomination was {{frac|1|2}} anna blue, followed by 1 anna red, and 4 annas blue and red. The stamps were printed from lithographic stones at the Surveyor-General's Office in Calcutta.
|File:India fouranna blueandred inverted1854.jpg|Since the four anna stamps were composed of two colours, they required two different printings, one for Queen Victoria's head in blue, and the other for the surrounding red frame. In these, rare stamps, shown on a letter mailed from Bombay to [[Venice]], the head was accidentally oriented upside-down in relation to the frame.
|File:Semaphore telegraph bihar1823.jpg|A [[Semaphore line|semaphore]] "telegraph" signalling tower in Silwar (Bihar), 13 February 1823, thirty years before electric telegraphy was rapidly introduced into India by the East India Company.
}}
===Telegraphy===
Before the advent of [[Electrical telegraph|electric telegraphy]], the word "telegraph" had been used for [[Semaphore line|semaphore]] signalling. During the period 1820–1830, the East India Company's Government in India seriously considered constructing signalling towers ("telegraph" towers), each a hundred feet high and separated from the next by eight miles, along the entire distance from Calcutta to Bombay. Although such towers were built in Bengal and Bihar, the India-wide semaphore network never took off. By mid-century, electric telegraphy had become viable, and hand signalling obsolete.
[[William Brooke O'Shaughnessy|W. B. O'Shaughnessy]], a professor of chemistry in the [[Medical College Kolkata|Calcutta Medical College]], received permission in 1851 to conduct a trial run for a telegraph service from Calcutta to [[Diamond Harbour]] along the river [[Hooghly River|Hooghly]]. Four telegraph offices, mainly for shipping-related business, were also opened along the river that year. The telegraph receiver used in the trial was a [[galvanometer|galvanoscope]] of O'Shaughnessy's design and manufactured in India. When the experiment was deemed to be a success a year later, the Governor-General of India, [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]], sought permission from the Court of Directors of the company for the construction of [[telegraph line]]s from "Calcutta to Agra, Agra to Bombay, Agra to Peshawar, and Bombay to Madras, extending in all over 3,050 miles and including forty-one offices". The permission was soon granted; by February 1855 all the proposed telegraph lines had been constructed and were being used to send paid messages. O'Shaughnessy's instrument was used all over India until early 1857, when it was supplanted by the [[Morse code|Morse instrument]]. By 1857, the telegraph network had expanded to 4,555 miles of lines and sixty two offices, and had reached as far as the [[hill station]] of [[Ootacamund]] in the [[Nilgiri Hills]] and the port of [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] on the southwest coast of India. During the Indian rebellion of 1857, more than seven hundred miles of telegraph lines were destroyed by the rebel forces, mainly in the [[North-Western Provinces]]. The East India Company was nevertheless able to use the remaining intact lines to warn many outposts of impending disturbances. The political value of the new technology was, thus, driven home to the company, and, in the following year, not only were the destroyed lines rebuilt, but the network was expanded further by 2,000 miles.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gorman |first=Mel |author-link1= |date=October 1971 |title=Sir William O'Shaughnessy, Lord Dalhousie, and the Establishment of the Telegraph System in India |url= |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=581–601 |doi= 10.2307/3102572|jstor=3102572|s2cid=111443299 }}</ref>
O'Shaughnessy's experimental set-up of 1851–52 consisted of both overhead and underground lines; the latter included underwater ones that crossed two rivers, the [[Hooghly river|Hooghly]] and the [[Haldi River|Haldi]]. The overhead line was constructed by welding uninsulated iron rods, {{frac|13|1|2}} feet long and 3/8 inch wide, end to end. These lines, which weighed 1,250 pounds per mile, were held aloft by fifteen-foot lengths of bamboo, planted into the ground at equal intervals—200 to the mile—and covered with a layer each of coal tar and [[pitch (resin)|pitch]] for insulation. The underwater cables had been manufactured in England and consisted of [[copper wire]] covered with [[gutta-percha]]. Furthermore, in order to protect the cables from dragging [[anchor|ship anchors]], the cables were attached to the links of a {{convert|7/8|in|mm|adj=mid|-thick}} chain cable. An underwater cable of length 2,070 yards was laid across the Hooghly river at [[Diamond Harbour]], and another, 1,400 yards long, was laid across the Haldi at [[Khejuri II#Khijri|Kedgeree]].
Work on the long lines from Calcutta to [[Peshawar]] (through Agra), Agra to Bombay, and Bombay to Madras began in 1853. The conducting material chosen for these lines was now lighter, and the support stronger. The wood used for the support consisted of teak, sal, [[fir]], [[ironwood]], or blackwood (''Terminalia elata''), and was either fashioned into whole posts, or used in attachments to iron ''screw-piles'' or [[masonry]] columns. Some sections had uniformly strong support; one such was the 322-mile Bombay-Madras line, which was supported by [[granite]] [[obelisks]] sixteen feet high. Other sections had less secure support, consisting, in some cases, of sections of [[Borassus flabellifer|toddy palm]], insulated with pieces of sal wood fastened to their tops. Some of the conducting wires or rods were insulated, the insulating material being manufactured in either India or England; other stretches of wire remained uninsulated. By 1856, iron tubes had begun to be employed to provide support, and would see increased use in the second half of the 19th century all over India.
The first Telegraph Act for India was Parliament's Act XXXIV of 1854. When the public telegramme service was first set up in 1855, the charge was fixed at one rupee for every sixteen words (including the address) for every 400 miles of transmission. The charges were doubled for telegrammes sent between 6PM and 6AM. These rates would remain fixed until 1882. In the year 1860–61, two years after the end of Company rule, India had 11,093 miles of telegraph lines and 145 telegraph offices. That year telegrams totalling [[Indian Rupees|Rs.]] 500,000 in value were sent by the public, the working expense of the ''Indian Telegraph Department'' was Rs. 1.4 million, and the [[capital expenditure]] until the end of the year totalled Rs. 6.5 million.
==Railways==
{{Further|Rail transport in India#History}}
The first [[inter-city rail]]way service in England, the [[Stockton and Darlington Railway]], had been established in 1825;<ref>[[Stockton and Darlington Railway]]</ref> in the following decade other inter-city railways were rapidly constructed between cities in England. In 1845, the Court of Directors of the East India Company, forwarded to the Governor-General of India, [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]], a number of applications they had received from private contractors in England for the construction of a wide-ranging railway network in India, and requested a feasibility report. They added that, in their view, the enterprise would be profitable only if large sums of money could be raised for the construction. The Court was concerned that in addition to the usual difficulties encountered in the construction of this new form of transportation, India might present some unique problems, among which they counted floods, tropical storms in coastal areas, damage by "insects and luxuriant tropical vegetation", and the difficulty of finding qualified technicians at a reasonable cost. It was suggested, therefore, that three experimental lines be constructed and their performance evaluated.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Macpherson | first1 = W. J. | year = 1955 | title = Investment in Indian railways, 1845–1875 | journal = Economic History Review | volume = 8 | issue = 2| pages = 177–186 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.1955.tb01558.x}}</ref>
Contracts were awarded in 1849 to the [[East Indian Railway Company]] to construct a 120-mile railway from [[Howrah]]-Calcutta to [[Raniganj]]; to the [[Great Indian Peninsular Railway|Great Indian Peninsular Railway Company]] for a service from Bombay to [[Kalyan, India|Kalyan]], thirty miles away; and to the ''Madras Railway Company'' for a line from [[Chennai|Madras city]] to [[Arakkonam|Arkonam]], a distance of some thirty nine miles. Although construction began first, in 1849, on the East Indian Railways line, with an outlay of £1 million, it was the first-leg of the Bombay-Kalyan line—a 21-mile stretch from Bombay to [[Thane]]—that, in 1853, was the first to be completed (see picture below).
[[File:IndianRailways1871b.jpg|right|thumb|180px|Map of the completed and planned railway lines in India in 1871, thirteen years after the end of Company rule.]]
The feasibility of a train network in India was comprehensively discussed by Lord Dalhousie in his ''Railway minute of 1853''. The Governor-General vigorously advocated the quick and widespread introduction of railways in India, pointing to their political, social, and economic advantages. He recommended that a network of ''trunk lines'' be first constructed connecting the inland regions of each presidency with its chief port as well as each presidency with several others. His recommended trunk lines included the following ones: (i) from Calcutta, in the [[Bengal Presidency]], on the eastern coast to [[Lahore]] in the north-western region of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], annexed just three years before; (ii) from [[Agra]] in north-central India (in, what was still being called [[North-Western Provinces]]) to [[Bombay|Bombay city]] on the western coast; (iii) from Bombay to [[Chennai|Madras city]] on the southeastern coast; and (iv) from Madras to the southwestern Malabar coast (see map above). The proposal was soon accepted by the Court of Directors.
During this time work had been proceeding on the experimental lines as well. The first leg of the East Indian Railway line, a [[broad gauge]] railway, from Howrah to [[Pandua, Hooghly|Pandua]], was opened in 1854 (see picture of locomotive below), and the entire line up to Raniganj would become functional by the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857. The Great Indian Peninsular Railway was permitted to extend its experimental line to [[Poona]]. This extension required planning for the steep rise in the ''Bor Ghat'' valley in the [[Western Ghats]], a section {{frac|15|3|4}} miles long with an ascent of 1,831 feet. Construction began in 1856 and was completed in 1863, and, in the end, the line required a total of twenty five tunnels and fifteen miles of gradients (inclines) of 1 in 50 or steeper, the most extreme being the ''Bor Ghat Incline'', a distance of {{frac|1|3|4}} miles at a gradient of 1 in 37 (see picture above).
Each of the three companies (and later five others that were given contracts in 1859) was a [[joint stock]] company [[Domicile (law)|domiciled]] in England with its [[financial capital]] raised in [[pounds sterling]]. Each company was guaranteed a 5 per cent return on its capital outlay and, in addition, a share of half the profits. Although the Government of India had no [[capital expenditure]] other than the provision of the underlying land free of charge, it had the onus of continuing to provide the 5 percent return in the event of net loss, and soon all anticipation of profits would fall by the wayside as the outlays would mount.
The technology of railway construction was still new and there was no [[railway engineering]] expertise in India; consequently, all engineers had to be brought in from England. These engineers were unfamiliar not only with the language and culture of India, but also with the physical aspect of the land itself and its concomitant engineering requirements. Moreover, never before had such a large and complex construction project been undertaken in India, and no pool of semi-skilled labour was already organised to aid the engineers. The work, therefore, proceeded in fits and starts—many practical trials followed by a final construction that was undertaken with great caution and care—producing an outcome that was later criticised as being "built to a standard which was far in excess of the needs to the time". The Government of India's administrators, moreover, made up in their attention to the fine details of expenditure and management what they lacked in professional expertise. The resulting delays soon led to the appointment of a Committee of the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] in 1857–58 to investigate the matter. However, by the time the Committee concluded that all parties needed to honour the spirit rather than the letter of the contracts, Company rule in India had ended.
Although, railway construction had barely begun in the last years of this rule, its foundations had been laid, and it would proceed apace for much of the next half century. By the turn of the 20th century, India would have over 28,000 miles of railways connecting most interior regions to the ports of Karachi, Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, [[Chittagong]], and [[Rangoon]], and together they would constitute the fourth-largest railway network in the world.<ref>Thorner, Daniel. "Great Britain and the development of India's railways". ''Journal of Economic History'' 1951; 11(4): 389–402. [http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0022050700085120 online]</ref>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180 |File:Railway bridge bhor ghaut incline1855.jpg|Photograph (1855) showing the construction of the Bhor Ghaut incline bridge, Bombay; the incline was conceived by George Clark, the Chief Engineer in the East India Company's Government of Bombay.
|File:Dapoorie viaduct, Poona, 1858.jpg|Photograph (1858) of the Dapoorie viaduct over the Mula River near Poona in Bombay Presidency.<ref name="Chatterjee2019">{{citation|last=Chatterjee|first=Arup|title=The Great Indian Railways: A Cultural Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LGiDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT318|year=2019|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-93-88414-23-4|pages=318–}}</ref>
|File:First locomotive india1854 photo1894.jpg|Photograph (1897) of the first locomotive, shown on the right and christened "[[List of Latin phrases (M-O)|multum in parvo]]" (barely visible on the wheel casing), which was used by the [[East Indian Railway Company]] in 1854 on its 23-mile line from [[Howrah]] to [[Pandua, Hooghly|Pandua]].
|File:India railways trunklines 1853.jpg|The trunk lines proposed by the Governor-General of India, [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]] in his ''Railway minute of 1853'' (shown in red on a 1908 railway map of India).
}}
==Canals==
The first irrigation works undertaken during East India Company's rule were begun in 1817. Consisting chiefly of extensions or reinforcements of previous Indian works, these projects were limited to the plains north of Delhi and to the river deltas of the [[Madras Presidency]].<ref name="stone2002-p13">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|p=13}}</ref> A small dam in the [[Kaveri river]] delta, built some 1,500 years before, and known as the ''Grand [[Anicut]]'', was one such indigenous work in South India. In 1835–36, Sir [[Arthur Cotton]] successfully reinforced the dam, and his success prompted more irrigation projects on the river. A little farther north, on the [[Tungabhadra river]], the 16th century [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]] ruler, [[Krishna Deva Raya]], had constructed several [[weir]]s; these too would be extended under British administration.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}
In plains above Delhi, the mid-14th century [[Sultan of Delhi]], [[Firoz Shah Tughlaq]], had constructed the 150-mile long ''Western Jamna Canal''. Taking off from the right bank of the [[Yamuna river|Jamna river]] early in its course, the canal irrigated the Sultan's territories in the [[Hisar District|Hissar]] region of [[Punjab, India|Eastern Punjab]]. By the mid-16th century, however, the fine sediment carried by the [[Himalaya]]n river had gradually choked the canal. Desilted and reopened several decades later by [[Akbar the Great]], the ''Western Jamna Canal'' was itself tapped by Akbar's grandson [[Shah Jahan]], and some of its water was diverted to Delhi. During this time another canal was cut off the river. The 129-mile ''Eastern Jamna Canal'' or ''Doab Canal'', which took off from the left bank of the Jamna, also high in its course, presented a qualitatively different difficulty. Since it was cut through steeply sloped land, its flow became difficult to control, and it was never to function efficiently. With the decline of Mughal Empire power in the 18th century, both canals fell into disrepair and closed.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} The Western Jamna Canal was repaired by [[British Army]] engineers and it reopened in 1820. The Doab Canal was reopened in 1830; its considerable renovation involved raising the embankment by an average height of 9 ft. for some 40 miles.<ref name="stone2002-p15">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|p=15}}</ref>
[[File:GangesCanal2.jpg|right|thumb|The Ganges Canal highlighted in red stretching between its headworks off the [[Ganges river]] in [[Haridwar district|Hardwar]] and its confluence with the [[Yamuna River|Jumna river]] below [[Cawnpore]] (now Kanpur).]]
Farther west in the [[Punjab region]], the 130-mile long ''Hasli Canal'', had been constructed by previous rulers.<ref name="stone2002-p13" /> Taking off from the [[Ravi river]] and supplying water to the cities of [[Lahore]] and [[Amritsar]], this left-bank canal was extended by the British in the ''[[Bari Doab]] Canal'' works during 1850–1857. The Punjab region, moreover, had much rudimentary irrigation by "inundation canals". Consisting of open cuts on the side of a river and involving no regulation, the inundation canals had been used in both the Punjab and [[Sindh]] for many centuries. The energetic administrations of the [[Sikh]] and [[Pashtun people|Pathan]] governors of Mughal West Punjab had ensured that many such canals in [[Multan]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan]], and [[Muzaffargarh]] were still working efficiently at the time of the British [[Second Anglo-Sikh War|annexation of the Punjab]] in 1849–1856 (period of tenure of the Marquess of Dalhousie Governor General).{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}
The first new British work—with no Indian antecedents—was the [[Ganges Canal]] built between 1842 and 1854.<ref name="stone2002-p16">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|p=16}}</ref>
Contemplated first by Col. [[John Russell Colvin]] in 1836, it did not at first elicit much enthusiasm from its eventual architect Sir [[Proby Thomas Cautley]], who balked at idea of cutting a canal through extensive low-lying land in order to reach the drier upland destination. However, after the [[Agra famine of 1837–38]], during which the East India Company's administration spent [[Rs.]] 2,300,000 on famine relief, the idea of a canal became more attractive to the company's budget-conscious Court of Directors.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} In 1839, the [[Governor General of India]], [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland|Lord Auckland]], with the Court's assent, granted funds to Cautley for a full survey of the swath of land that underlay and fringed the projected course of the canal. The Court of Directors, moreover, considerably enlarged the scope of the projected canal, which, in consequence of the severity and geographical extent of the famine, they now deemed to be the entire [[Doab]] region.<ref name="stone2002-pp16-17">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|pp=16–17}}</ref>
The enthusiasm, however, proved to be short lived. Auckland's successor as Governor General, [[Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough|Lord Ellenborough]], appeared less receptive to large-scale public works, and for the duration of his tenure, withheld major funds for the project.<ref name="stone2002-p17">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|p=17}}</ref> Only in 1844, when a new Governor-General, [[Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge|Lord Hardinge]], was appointed, did official enthusiasm and funds return to the Ganges canal project. Although the intervening impasse, had seemingly affected Cautely's health and required him to return to Britain in 1845 for recuperation, his European sojourn gave him an opportunity to study contemporary hydraulic works in Great Britain and Italy. By the time of his return to India even more supportive men were at the helm, both in the [[North-Western Provinces]], with [[James Thomason (British colonial governor)|James Thomason]] as Lt. Governor, and in [[British India]] with [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]] as Governor-General.<ref name="stone2002-p17-18">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|pp=17–18}}</ref> Canal construction, under Cautley's supervision, now went into full swing. A 350-mile long canal, with another 300 miles of branch lines, eventually stretched between the headworks in [[Haridwar district|Hardwar]] and—after splitting into two branches at Nanau near [[Aligarh]]—the confluence with the Ganges at [[Cawnpore]] (now Kanpur) and with the Jumna (now [[Yamuna]]) [[Mainstem (hydrology)|mainstem]] at [[Etawah]]. The Ganges Canal, which required a total capital outlay of £2.15 million, was officially opened in 1854 by Lord Dalhousie.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} According to historian Ian Stone:
{{blockquote|It was the largest canal ever attempted in the world, five times greater in its length than all the main irrigating lines of [[Lombardy]] and Egypt put together, and longer by a third than even the largest USA navigation canal, the [[Pennsylvania Canal]].<ref name="stone2002-p18">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|p=18}}</ref>}}
{{Gallery
|align=center
|width=180 |File:Ganges canal roorkee1860.jpg|Watercolor (1863) titled "The [[Ganges Canal]], [[Roorkee]], [[Saharanpur District]] ([[Uttar Pradesh|U.P.]])". The canal was the brainchild of [[Proby Cautley|Sir Proby Cautley]]; construction began in 1840, and the canal was opened by Governor-General Lord Dalhousie in April 1854
|File:GangesCanalRoorkee2008.jpg|Photograph (2008) of an East India Company-era (1854) bridge on the [[Ganges Canal]] near [[Roorkee]], Uttar Pradesh, India.
|File:Headworks ganges canal haridwar1860.jpg|Photograph (1860) of the head works of the Ganges Canal in [[Haridwar]] taken by [[Samuel Bourne]]
|File:Headworks ganges canal haridwar2008a.jpg|Photograph (2008) of the head works of the Ganges Canal in Haridwar, viewed from the opposite side.
}}
==See also==
{{Colonial India}}
{{Div col|rules=yes}}
* [[British Raj]]
* [[
* [[Economic deindustrialisation of India]]
* [[Glossary of the British Raj]] (Urdu words)
* [[
* [[Governor-General of India]]
* [[History of Bangladesh]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[History of Pakistan]]
* [[Opium Trading in Mumbai]]
* [[Secretary of State for India]]
* ''[[The History of British India]]''
{{Div col end}}
{{clear}}
==Notes==
{{reflist|
==References==
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|last= Marshman |first= John Clark
|year= 1867
|title= The History of India From the Earliest Period to the Close of Lord Dalhousie's Administration – 1867, Vol-I
|url=https://archive.org/details/historyindiafro02marsgoog
|publisher= Longmans, Green
}}
===Further reading===
* {{cite book| last = Carson | first = Penelope | title = The East India Company and Religion, 1698–1858 | publisher = The Boydell Press | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-1-84383-732-9}}
* {{cite book | editor1-last = Damodaran | editor1-first = Vinita | editor2-last = Winterbottom | editor2-first = Anna | editor3-last = Lester | editor3-first = Alan | title = The East India Company and the Natural World | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-349-49109-4}}
* {{cite book | last = Erikson | first = Emily | title = Between Monopoly and Free Trade: The English East India Company, 1600–1757 | publisher = Princeton University Press | series = Princeton Analytical Sociology Series | year = 2014 |isbn=978-0-691-15906-5 | lccn = 2014933831}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Gardner | first1 = Leigh | last2 = Roy | first2 = Tirthankar | title = The Economic History of Colonialism | publisher = Bristol University Press | year = 2020 | isbn = 978-1-5292-0763-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Nierstrasz|first=Chris|title=Rivalry for Trade in Tea and Textiles: The English and Dutch East Indian Companies (1700–1800)|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan| year = 2015|isbn = 978-1-349-57156-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kulke|first1=Hermann|last2=Rothermund|first2=Dietmar|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC|year=2004|orig-year=First published 1986|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0}}
* {{cite book | last = Ogborn | first = Miles | title = Indian Ink: Script and Print in the Making of the English East India Company | publisher = University of Chicago Press | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-226-62041-1}}
* {{cite book | last = Roy | first = Tirthankar | title = Monsoon Economies: India's History in a Changing Climate | series = History for a Sustainable Future series | publisher = The MIT Press | isbn = 9780262543583| lccn = 2021033921 | year = 2022}}
* {{cite book | last = Roy | first = Tirthankar | title = An Economic History of Early Modern India | publisher = Routledge | year = 2013 | isbn = 978-0-415-69063-8}}
* {{cite book | last = Roy | first = Tirthankar | title = India in the World Economy: From Antiquity to the Present | publisher = Cambridge University Press | series = New Approaches to Asian History series| year = 2012 | isbn = 978-1-107-00910-3}}
* {{ cite book | last = Vaughn | first = James M. | title = The Politics of Empire at the Accession of George III: The East India Company and the Crisis and Transformation of Britain's Imperial State | publisher = Yale University Press | series = The Lewis Walpole Series in Eighteenth-Century Culture and History | year = 2019 | isbn = 978-0-300-20826-9}}
* {{cite book | last = Winterbottom | first = Anna | title = Hybrid Knowledge in the Early East India Company World | series = Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | year = 2016 | isbn = 978-1-349-56318-0}}
==External links==
* {{Country study}}
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/intoc.html India] from Congress
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pktoc.html Pakistan] from Congress
{{Wikiquote}}
{{South Asian topics}}
[[Category:1757 establishments in British India]]
[[Category:1858 disestablishments in British India|Company rule]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1757|India]]
[[Category:British East India Company]]
[[Category:Former countries in South Asia|India]]
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