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{{Main|Actoprotector}}
Actoprotectors or synthetic adaptogens are compounds that enhance an organism's resilience to physical stress without increasing heat output. Actoprotectors are distinct from other doping compounds in that they increase physical and psychological resilience via non-exhaustive action. Actoprotectors such as [[bemethyl]] and [[bromantane]] have been used to prepare athletes and enhance performance in Olympic competition.<ref>{{Cite journal |
=== Nootropics ===
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== History ==
While the use of PEDs has expanded in recent times, the practice of using substances to improve performance has been around since the [[Ancient Olympic Games]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Prendergast HM, Bannen T, Erickson TB, Honore KR | title = The toxic torch of the modern Olympic Games | journal = Veterinary and Human Toxicology | volume = 45 | issue = 2 | pages = 97–102 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12678299 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12678299 }}</ref> In the Olympic Games of 668 BC, [[List of Olympic winners of the Stadion race|Charmis]] had consumed a diet consisting of dried figs which was a significant factor in winning the 200-yard stade race.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Holt RI, Erotokritou-Mulligan I, Sönksen PH | title = The history of doping and growth hormone abuse in sport | journal = Growth Hormone & IGF Research | volume = 19 | issue = 4 | pages = 320–326 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19467612 | doi = 10.1016/j.ghir.2009.04.009 }}</ref><ref name="Breenfeldt2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Breenfeldt Andersen |first1=Andreas |last2=Nordsborg |first2=Nikolai Baastrup |last3=Bonne |first3=Thomas Christian |last4=Bejder |first4=Jacob |date=2022-12-26 |title=Contemporary blood doping—Performance, mechanism, and detection |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/sms.14243 |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports |pages=sms.14243 |language=en |doi=10.1111/sms.14243 |pmid=36229224 |s2cid=252898039 |issn=0905-7188}}</ref> Ancient Greek athletes at the time also incorporated stimulants such as wine and brandy into their training routines.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Conti AA | title = Doping in sports in ancient and recent times | journal = Medicina Nei Secoli | volume = 22 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 181–190 | date = 2010 | pmid = 21560989 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21560989 }}</ref> Stimulants derived from plants (e.g., [[Cola nitida|Cola Nitida]], [[Bufotenin|Bufotein]], etc.) were used by the [[Gladiator|Roman Gladiators]] to overcome injuries and fatigue.<ref name=":7" />
In the late 19th century as [[Medicine|modern medicine]] and [[pharmacology]] were developing, PEDs saw an increase in use.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Baron DA, Martin DM, Abol Magd S | title = Doping in sports and its spread to at-risk populations: an international review | journal = World Psychiatry | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages = 118–123 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 18235871 | pmc = 2219897 }}</ref> Supplements were now exclusively being used to enhance muscular work capacity.<ref name=":0" /> The main stimulants being used included [[alcoholic drink]]s, caffeine, and mixtures created by the athletic trainers (e.g., [[strychnine]] tablets made of cocaine and [[brandy]]).<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Knechtle B, Nikolaidis PT | title = Physiology and Pathophysiology in Ultra-Marathon Running | journal = Frontiers in Physiology | volume = 9 | pages = 634 | date = 2018 | pmid = 29910741 | pmc = 5992463 | doi = 10.3389/fphys.2018.00634 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Testosterone was also a commonly taken stimulant, however, it was more difficult to obtain.<ref name=":1" /> In 1889, a three-week program began where an athlete injected themselves with blood from the testicular veins, [[semen]], and fluids from the testicles of a dog or guinea pig.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Eidelsberg J | title = Testosterone pellet implantation | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 6 | pages = 423–425 | date = June 1946 | issue = 6 | pmid = 20988415 | doi = 10.1210/jcem-6-6-423 }}</ref> By 1895, it had been assessed that testicular extracts did in fact improve athletic performance by increasing muscular strength.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wagner JC | title = Enhancement of athletic performance with drugs. An overview | journal = Sports Medicine | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 250–265 | date = October 1991 | pmid = 1686120 | doi = 10.2165/00007256-199112040-00004 | s2cid = 22967695 }}</ref>
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