Ashurbanipal: Difference between revisions

Tales of Ashurbanipal survived in the cultural memory of the Near East for centuries after the decline of Assyrian power in the region. He is almost certainly identifiable with the figure "Asnappar", mentioned in the Biblical [[Book of Ezra]] ([[Ezra 4#Verse 10|4:10]]).{{Sfn|Rosa|2019|p=328}} It is also either [[Esarhaddon]] or Ashurbanipal who is the "king of Assyria" mentioned in the [[Book of 2 Chronicles]] ([[2 Chronicles 33#Verse 11|33:11]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2021/02/12/king-manasseh-an-archaeological-biography/ |title=King Manasseh: An Archaeological Biography|date=12 February 2021 }}</ref> Ashurbanipal has also been most commonly identified as the Assyrian king, "[[Book of Judith#Identification of Nebuchadnezzar with Ashurbanipal|Nebuchadnezzar]]", in the [[Book of Judith]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.studylight.org/commentaries/eng/hcc/judith.html |title=Introduction to the Book of Judith by Rev. George Leo Haydock}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.drbo.org/chapter/18001.htm |title=Douay-Rheims Bible Book of Judith Chapter 1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=KSpRAAAAcAAJ&pg=GBS.PA338&hl=en|title=Commentaire littéral sur tous les livres de l'ancien et du nouveau testament by Antoine Augustin Calmet - Sur Le Livre De Judith|date=1712 |publisher=Pierre Emery }}</ref> Ashurbanipal and other ancient Assyrian kings and figures continued to appear in the folklore and literary tradition of northern Mesopotamia.{{Sfn|Kalimi|Richardson|2014|p=5}} The most prominent later legend concerning Ashurbanipal was the long-lived Greco-Roman Sardanapalus legend. The Sardanapalus of legend was accordingAccording to the Assyriologist Maria de Fátima Rosa, the Sardanapalus of legend was conceived as "more [[Effeminacy|effeminate]] than a woman, a lascivious and idle man, a governor who loathed all expressions of militarism and war". This view stemmed from ancient Greek views on Mesopotamia in general; ancient Mesopotamian kings were typically seen by the Greeks as effeminate and dull despots incapable of securing the welfare for the people of their empires. The earliest known reference to Sardanapalus comes from the 5th-century BCE ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' of [[Herodotus]], which includes a reference to the riches of Sardanapalus, king of Nineveh. Legendary tales in [[Aramaic]], based on the civil war between Ashurbanipal ("Sarbanabal") and Shamash-shum-ukin ("Sarmuge"), are attested from the 3rd century BC.{{Sfn|Rosa|2019|pp=328–330}}

The most elaborate and lengthy ancient text concerning Sardanapalus comes from the 1st-century BCE ''[[Bibliotheca historica]]'' of [[Diodorus Siculus]]. Siculus's portrayal of Sardanapalus was endowed with ancient Greek [[orientalism]]; the king was stated to have lived among women, dressed like them, used a soft voice and engaged in other activities viewed as unnatural for Greek men. In Siculus's account, Sardanapalus's [[satrap]] of Media, [[Arbaces]], saw him mingling with women in the palace and quickly revolted, assaulting Nineveh together with the Babylonian priest [[Belesys]]. After failing to urge his soldiers to defend the city, Sardanapalus locked himself in his palace chamber, with treasures and concubines, and lit up a pyre, burning down the entire capital city and ending the Assyrian Empire. It is clear from the narrative that Siculus's Sardanapalus is based not only on Ashurbanipal, but also on Shamash-shum-ukin and Sinsharishkun.{{Sfn|Rosa|2019|pp=330–331}}

The Greek account of ancient Assyria transformed historical perception of the ancient empire and set the image of it in Western Europe for centuries. Since concrete evidence of Assyria and Babylonia was lacking, authors and artists during the [[Renaissance]] and [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] based their interpretations of ancient Mesopotamia on classical Greco-Roman writings. In late 17th-century Italy, the composer Domenico Freschi wrote and performed the opera ''Sardanapalo'', a [[comedic tragedy]] wherein Sardanapalus was portrayed as a woman-like and sex-eager king. In the opera, Sardanapalus, after watching Nineveh crumble, decides to light fire to his palace so that the Assyrian Empire did not fall without a show. In 1821, [[Lord Byron]] launched the historical tragedy play ''[[Sardanapalus (play)|Sardanapalus]]'', which pairs Sardanapalus with the legendary character [[Myrrah]], often Sardanapalus's counterpart in later tales as well. MyrrahIn wasByron's instory, theMyrrah storywas a female Greek slave and loyal supporter of Sardanapalus. In Byron's version, it was Myrrah who lit the palace on fire after Sardanapalus gave his last words, "Adieu, Assyria! I loved thee well!". Many operas, inspired by Byron, included similar storylines. It was typical to portray the fall of Nineveh and Assyria as a consequence of Assyria's supposed lack of moral values, combined with its ostentation and pomp.{{Sfn|Rosa|2019|pp=328, 331–332}}

The North Palace of Nineveh, constructed by Ashurbanipal, was rediscovered by the British-funded Assyrian archaeologist [[Hormuzd Rassam]] in December 1853.{{Sfn|Reade|2018|p=292}} Rassam's excavations were a somewhat strange episode in Assyriology, as his efforts were also marked by an intense rivalry with the French archaeologist [[Victor Place]]; despite agreements as to who should excavate where, Ashurbanipal's palace was found by Rassam during the night, when he sent out a team of excavators under the cover of darkness to dig in the French portion of the Nineveh excavation.{{Sfn|Trolle Larsen|2017|p=|pp=588–590}} Excavations were conducted in the palace in 1853–1854. Among other discoveries, Rassam recovered the reliefs making up the ''[[Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal]]'', which were taken from the palace and transported to the [[British Museum]], reaching England in March 1856.{{Sfn|Reade|2018|p=294}} Because of scholarly disagreements and rivalries, as well as issues of funding, studies and publications of the finds from Ashurbanipal's palace were produced slowly, with the first detailed analyses and studies not being published until the 1930s and 1940s.{{Sfn|Reade|2018|p=298}}