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The abstract noun in ''[[-ism]]'' is more recent, recorded from the late 19th century (e.g. in Constance Naden, ''Induction and Deduction: A Historical and Critical Sketch of Successive Philosophical Conceptions Respecting the Relations Between Inductive and Deductive Thought and Other Essays'' (1890), p. 76: "Copernicus started from the observed motions of the planets, on which astronomers were agreed, and worked them out on the new hypothesis of Heliocentrism"), modelled after German ''Heliocentrismus'' or ''Heliozentrismus'' (c. 1870).}} (also known as the '''heliocentric model''') is a [[Superseded_theories_in_science#Astronomy and cosmology|superseded]] [[astronomical]] model in which the [[Earth]] and planets revolve around the [[Sun]] at the center of the [[universe]]. Historically, heliocentrism was opposed to [[Geocentric model|geocentrism]], which placed the Earth at the center. The notion that the Earth revolves around the Sun had been proposed as early as the third century BC by [[Aristarchus of Samos]],<ref>{{harvnb|Dreyer|1953|pp=[https://archive.org/stream/historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/n148 135–148]}}; {{harvnb|Linton|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=B4br4XJFj0MC&pg=PA38 38f.]}}. The work of Aristarchus in which he proposed his heliocentric system has not survived. We only know of it now from a brief passage in [[Archimedes]]' ''[[The Sand Reckoner]]''.</ref> who had been influenced by a concept presented by [[Philolaus of Croton]] (c. 470 – 385 BC). In the 5th century BC the Greek Philosophers [[Philolaus]] and [[Hicetas]] had the thought on different occasions that the Earth was spherical and revolving around a "mystical" central fire, and that this fire regulated the universe.<ref>{{Britannica|260027|Heliocentrism}}</ref> In medieval Europe, however, Aristarchus' heliocentrism attracted little attention—possibly because of the loss of scientific works of the [[Hellenistic period]].{{efn|According to [[Lucio Russo]], the heliocentric view was expounded in [[Hipparchus]]' work on gravity.<ref>{{cite book | last=Russo | first=Lucio | translator-last=Levy | translator-first=Silvio | title=The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why it Had to Be Reborn | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | year=2003 | isbn=978-3-540-20068-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MOTpnfz7ZuYC&pg=PA293| pages=293–296}}</ref>}}
It was not until the sixteenth century that a [[mathematical model]] of a heliocentric system was [[Copernican heliocentrism|presented]] by the [[Renaissance]]<!-- do not add a nationality claim --> mathematician, astronomer, and Catholic cleric, [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], leading to the [[Copernican Revolution]]. [[Giordano Bruno]], the only known person to defend Copernicus' heliocentrism in his time, was burned alive at the stake in 1600. In the following century, [[Johannes Kepler]] introduced [[Elliptic orbit|elliptical orbits]], and [[Galileo Galilei]] presented supporting observations made using a [[telescope]].
With the observations of [[William Herschel]], [[Friedrich Bessel]], and other astronomers, it was realized that the Sun, while near the [[barycenter]] of the [[Solar System]], was not at any center of the universe.
=== Giordano Bruno ===
[[Giordano Bruno]] (d. 1600) is the only known person to defend Copernicus' heliocentrism in his time.<ref name="Smith 1952">{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man and His Gods|date=1952|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/310 310–311]|url-access=registration}}</ref>
In 1584, Bruno published two important philosophical dialogues (''La Cena de le Ceneri'' and ''De l'infinito universo et mondi'') in which he argued against the planetary spheres ([[Christoph Rothmann]] did the same in 1586 as did [[Tycho Brahe]] in 1587) and affirmed the Copernican principle.
In particular, to support the Copernican view and oppose the objection according to which the motion of the Earth would be perceived by means of the motion of winds, clouds etc., in ''La Cena de le Ceneri'' Bruno anticipates some of the arguments of Galilei on the relativity principle.<ref>{{Citation|last = [[Alessandro De Angelis (astrophysicist)|Alessandro De Angelis]] and Catarina Espirito Santo|year = 2015|title = The contribution of Giordano Bruno to the principle of relativity|url = http://www.narit.or.th/en/files/2015JAHHvol18/2015JAHH...18..241D.pdf|journal = Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage|volume = 18|issue = 3|pages = 241–248| doi=10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2015.03.02 |arxiv = 1504.01604|bibcode = 2015JAHH...18..241D| s2cid=118420438 |access-date = 19 January 2016|archive-date = 26 January 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160126194011/http://www.narit.or.th/en/files/2015JAHHvol18/2015JAHH...18..241D.pdf|url-status = dead}}</ref> Note that he also uses the example now known as [[Galileo's ship]].<ref>Giordano Bruno, Teofilo, in La Cena de le Ceneri, "Third Dialogue", (1584), ed. and trans. by S.L. Jaki (1975).</ref>
==== Imprisonment, trial and execution, 1593–1600 ====
During the seven years of his trial in Rome, Bruno was held in confinement, lastly in the [[Tower of Nona]].
[[File:Relief Bruno Campo dei Fiori n1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The trial of Giordano Bruno by the Roman Inquisition. Bronze relief by Ettore Ferrari, [[Campo de' Fiori]], Rome.]]
Bruno defended himself as he had in Venice, insisting that he accepted the Church's dogmatic teachings, but trying to preserve the basis of his cosmological views. In particular, he held firm to his belief in the plurality of worlds, although he was admonished to abandon it. His trial was overseen by the Inquisitor Cardinal [[Robert Bellarmine|Bellarmine]], who demanded a full recantation, which Bruno eventually refused. On 20 January 1600, [[Pope Clement VIII]] declared Bruno a heretic, and the Inquisition issued a sentence of death. According to the correspondence of [[Caspar Schoppe|Gaspar Schopp]] of [[Breslau]], he is said to have made a threatening gesture towards his judges and to have replied:<ref>{{harvnb|Singer|1968|loc=ch. 7}}</ref>
<blockquote>''Maiori forsan cum timore sententiam in me fertis quam ego accipiam'' ("Perhaps you pronounce this sentence against me with greater fear than I receive it").<ref>{{harvnb|Singer|1968|loc=ch. 7}}: "A gloating account of the whole ritual is given in a letter written on the very day by a youth named Gaspar Schopp of Breslau, a recent convert to Catholicism to whom Pope Clement VIII had shown great favor, creating him Knight of St. Peter and Count of the Sacred Palace. Schopp was addressing Conrad Rittershausen. He recounts that because of his heresy Bruno had been publicly burned that day in the Square of Flowers in front of the Theatre of Pompey. He makes merry over the belief of the Italians that every heretic is a Lutheran. It is evident that he had been present at the interrogations, for he relates in detail the life of Bruno and the works and doctrines for which he had been arraigned, and he gives a vivid account of Bruno's final appearance before his judges on 8 February. To Schopp we owe the knowledge of Bruno's bearing under judgement. When the verdict had been declared, records Schopp, Bruno with a threatening gesture addressed his judges: "Perchance you who pronounce my sentence are in greater fear than I who receive it." Thus he was dismissed to the prison, gloats the convert, "and was given eight days to recant, but in vain. So today he was led to the funeral pyre. When the image of our Savior was shown to him before his death he angrily rejected it with averted face. Thus my dear Rittershausen is it our custom to proceed against such men or rather indeed such monsters."</ref></blockquote>
He was turned over to the secular authorities. On 17 February 1600, in the [[Campo de' Fiori]] (a central Roman market square), naked, with his "tongue imprisoned because of his wicked words", he was [[Death by burning|burned alive at the stake]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Fitzgerald|first=Timothy|title=Discourse on Civility and Barbarity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b67p1VdF_OoC&pg=PA239|access-date=11 May 2017|date= 2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-804103-0|page=239}}</ref><ref>"Il Sommario del Processo di Giordano Bruno, con appendice di Documenti sull'eresia e l'inquisizione a Modena nel secolo XVI", edited by Angelo Mercati, in ''Studi e Testi'', vol. 101; the precise terminology for the tool used to silence Bruno before burning is recorded as ''una morsa di legno'', or "a vise of wood", and not an iron spike as sometimes claimed by other sources.</ref> His ashes were thrown into the [[Tiber]] river.
=== Johannes Kepler ===
* {{cite book |title=The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary |year=2007 |edition=6th |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=Oxford University Press |ref=soed |isbn=978-0-19-920687-2}}
* {{cite book |title=Galileo: Decisive Innovator |last=Sharratt |first=Michael |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1994 |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-56671-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Singer |first=Dorothea Waley |title=Giordano Bruno: His Life and Thought |year=1968 |orig-year=1950 |place=New York |publisher=Greenwood Press, Publishers |url=https://archive.org/details/giordanobrunohis0000sing_x8a1 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |title=Galileo's Inquisition Trial Revisited |first=Jules |last=Speller |year=2008 |location=Frankfurt am Main |publisher=Peter Lang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jviElHq-kEcC |isbn=978-3-631-56229-1}}
* {{Citation |title=Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton |editor1-first=René |editor1-last=Taton |editor2-first=Curtis |editor2-last=Wilson |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1989 |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-24254-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkQKU-wfPYMC |access-date=2009-11-06}}
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