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Twelfth century France witnessed the emergence of [[Catharism]], a [[dualism|dualist]] [[heresy]] that had spread from Eastern Europe through Germany. After the Cathars were accused of murdering a [[Pierre de Castelnau|papal legate]] in 1208,<ref>[[Henry Charles Lea]], 'A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages', Volume 1, (1888), p. 145, quote: "The murder of the legate Pierre de Castelnau sent a thrill of horror throughout Christendom...Of its details, however, the accounts are so contradictory that it is impossible to speak of it with precision."</ref> [[Pope Innocent III]] declared the [[Albigensian Crusade]] against them. When this turned into an "appalling massacre",<ref name="Morris">Morris, p. 214</ref> later popes instituted the first [[papal inquisition]] to prevent further massacres and to root out the remaining Cathars.<ref name="Morris"/><ref name="Vidmar144">Vidmar, pp. 144–147, quote: "The Albigensian Crusade, as it became known, lasted until 1219. The pope, Innocent III, was a lawyer and saw both how easily the crusade had gotten out of hand and how it could be mitigated. He encouraged local rulers to adopt anti-heretic legislation and bring people to trial. By 1231 a papal inquisition began, and the friars were given charge of investigating tribunals."</ref><ref name="Bokenkotter132">Bokenkotter, p. 132.</ref> Formalized under [[Pope Gregory IX|Gregory IX]], this [[Medieval Inquisition|Medieval inquisition]] found guilty an average of three people per year for heresy.<ref name="Norman93"/><ref name="Bokenkotter132"/>
 
Over time, other [[inquisition]]s were launched by secular rulers to prosecute heretics, often with the approval of Church hierarchy, to respond to the threat of [[Ottoman wars in Europe|Muslim invasion]] or for political purposes.<ref name="christopherblack">Black, pp. 200–202.</ref> [[Catholic Monarchs|King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella]] of Spain formed an inquisition in 1480, originally to deal with distrusted converts from Judaism and Islam to Catholicism.<ref name="Kamen48">Kamen, p. 48–49.</ref> Over a 350-year period, this [[Spanish Inquisition]] executed between 3,000 and 4,000 people,<ref name="Vidmar150">Vidmar, pp. 150–152.</ref> representing around two percent of those accused.<ref name="kamen203">Kamen, p. 59, p. 203.</ref> In 1482 [[Pope Sixtus IV]] condemned the excesses of the Spanish Inquisition, but Ferdinand ignored his protests.<ref name="kamen49">Kamen, p. 49</ref> Some historians argue that for centuries Protestant propaganda and popular literature exaggerated the horrors of the inquisitions in an effort to associate the Catholic Church with acts committed by secular rulers.<ref name="Norman92">Norman, p. 93</ref><ref name="McManners215">Morris, p. 215, quote: "The inquisition has come to occupy such a role in European demonology that we must be careful to keep it in proportion. ... and the surviving records indicate that the proportion of executions was not high."</ref><ref name="Vidmar146">Vidmar, p. 146.</ref> Over all, one percent of those tried by the inquisitions received death penalties, leading some scholars to consider them rather lenient when compared to the secular courts of the period.<ref name="Vidmar150"/><ref name="Peters112">Peters, p. 112</ref> Some scientists were questioned by the inquisitions. According to historian Thomas Noble, the effect of the [[Galileo affair]] was to restrict scientific development in some European countries.<ref name="Noble593">Noble, p. 582, pp. 593–595.</ref> The inquisition played a major role in the final expulsion of Islam from Sicily and Spain.<ref name="McManners187">Johns, p. 187</ref> On other social fronts, Catholic teaching turned towards the abolition of slavery in the 15th and 16th centuries, although the papacy continued to endorse Portuguese and Spanish taking of Muslim slaves.<ref name=starkslavery/>
 
 
In the 14th century, the Papacy came under French dominance, with [[Pope Clement V|Clement V]] in 1305 moving to [[Avignon]].<ref name="Duffy122">Duffy, p. 122.</ref> The [[Avignon Papacy]] ended in 1376 when the Pope returned to Rome<ref name="McManners232">Morris, p. 232.</ref><ref name="Vidmar155">Vidmar, p. 155.</ref> but was soon followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long [[Western Schism|Western schism]] with separate claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa, backed by conflicting secular rulers.<ref name="McManners232"/> The matter was finally resolved in 1417 at the [[Council of Constance]] where the three claimants either resigned or were deposed and held a new election naming [[Pope Martin V|Martin V]] Pope.<ref name="McManners240">Collinson, p. 240.</ref>
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[[Pope Gregory XVI]] challenged the power of the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs by appointing his own candidates as colonial bishops. He also condemned slavery and the slave trade in the 1839 papal bull [[In Supremo Apostolatus]], and approved the ordination of native clergy in the face of government racism.<ref name="Duffy221">Duffy, p. 221.</ref>
 
native clergy in the face of government racism.<ref name="Duffy221">Duffy, p. 221.</ref>
 
===Industrial age===
In response to the social challenges of the [[Industrial Revolution]], [[Pope Leo XIII]] published the encyclical ''[[Rerum Novarum]]''. It set out [[Catholic social teaching]] in terms that rejected socialism but advocated the regulation of working conditions, the establishment of a living wage and the right of workers to form trade unions.<ref name="Duffy240">Duffy, p. 240.</ref> Although the [[infallibility of the Church]] in doctrinal matters had always been a Church dogma, the [[First Vatican Council]], which convened in 1870, affirmed the doctrine of [[papal infallibility]] when exercised under specific conditions.<ref name="Leith">Leith, p. 143.</ref><ref name="Duffy232">Duffy, p. 232.</ref> This decision gave the pope "enormous moral and spiritual authority over the worldwide" Church.<ref name="Pollard8">Pollard, pp. 7–8.</ref> Reaction to the pronouncement resulted in the breakaway of a group of mainly German churches which subsequently formed the [[Old Catholic Church]].<ref name="Fahlbusch">Fahlbusch, p. 729.</ref> The loss of the [[papal states]] to the [[Italian unification]] movement created what came to be known as the [[Roman Question]],<ref name="Bokenkotter307">Bokenkotter, pp. 306–307.</ref> a territorial dispute between the papacy and the Italian government that was not resolved until the 1929 [[Lateran Treaty]] granted sovereignty to the Holy See over Vatican City.<ref name="Bokenkotter387">Bokenkotter, pp. 386–387.</ref> At the end of the 19th century, Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa and built schools, hospitals, monasteries and churches.<ref name="Has398">Hastings, pp. 397–410.</ref>
 
During the 20th century, the Church had to content with the rise of various [[authoritarian]] and politically [[radical]] governments. For instance in Mexico, following secularist laws enacted by a predominantly Grand Orient led government, the [[Cristero War]] took place which included anti-Catholic killings and religious desecration.<ref name="Chadwick264">Chadwick, Owen, pp. 264–265.</ref><ref name="Scheina">Scheina, p. 33.</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Van Hove|first=Brian|title=Blood Drenched Altars|publisher=EWTN Global Catholic Network|year=1994|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/FR94204.TXT |dateformat=dmy|accessdate=9 March 2008}}</ref> Similarly in the [[Soviet Union]] after the [[Bolshevik Revolution]], well into the 1930s,<ref>Riasanovsky 617</ref> execution of clergy and laity, as well as closure and confiscation of church property was common.<ref name="Riasanovsky 634">Riasanovsky 634</ref> Along with republican Spain in which [[Red Terror (Spain)|violence]] was also directed against the Church,<ref name="Alonso">{{cite book |title= The New Catholic Encyclopedia |last=Fernandez-Alonso |first=J |year=2002 |publisher=Catholic University Press/Thomas Gale|isbn=0-7876-4017-4|pages=395–396| volume 13}}</ref> these regimes were dubbed the ''[[Terrible Triangle]]'' by [[Pope Pius XI]] and the lack of intervention a ''[[Conspiracy of Silence (Church persecutions)|Conspiracy of Silence]]''. The hierarchy supported [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] and the national forces during the [[Spanish Civil War]],<ref name="payne">{{cite book |title= Franco and Hitler: Spain, Germany and World War II. |last=Payne |first=Stanley G |year=2008 |publisher=Yale University Press| isbn=0300122829|page=13}}</ref> which although authoritarian—like [[António de Oliveira Salazar|Salazar]] in [[Portugal]] and [[Engelbert Dollfuss|Dollfuss]] in [[Austria]]—were friendly to the Church and tried to imploment Catholic social teaching into their programs. Following violations of a [[Reichskonkordat|treaty]] signed between the two,<ref name="Coppa132">Coppa, p. 132-7</ref><ref name="Rhodes182">Rhodes, p. 182-183</ref> relations with the [[German Third Reich]] were more strained. [[Pope Pius XI]] issued an encyclical ''[[Mit brennender Sorge]]''<ref name="Coppa132"/><ref name="Rhodes197">Rhodes, p. 197</ref><ref name = "Shirer235">Shirer, p. 235.</ref><ref name="McGonigle172">McGonigle, p. 172 </ref> criticising curtailment of the Church, as well as the [[paganism]] and [[scientific racialism]] in the political program.<ref name="McGonigle172"/><ref name="Bokenkotter389">Bokenkotter, pp. 389–392</ref><ref name="Rhodes204">Rhodes, p. 204-205</ref><ref name="Vidmar327">Vidmar, p. 327</ref> Following the start of the [[Second World War]] in 1939, the Church condemned the invasion of Catholic [[Poland]] and other acts of aggression.<ref name="Cook983">Cook, p. 983</ref>
<!--Following paragraph includes text copied from the article on the [[Terrible Triangle]] -->
The 20th century saw the rise of various politically [[radical]] and [[anti-clerical]] governments. The 1926 [[Calles Law]] separating church and state in Mexico led to the [[Cristero War]]<ref name="Chadwick264">Chadwick, Owen, pp. 264–265.</ref> in which over 3,000&nbsp;priests were exiled or assassinated,<ref name="Scheina">Scheina, p. 33.</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Van Hove|first=Brian|title=Blood Drenched Altars|publisher=EWTN Global Catholic Network|year=1994|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/FR94204.TXT |dateformat=dmy|accessdate=9 March 2008}}</ref> churches desecrated, services mocked, nuns raped and captured priests shot.<ref name="Chadwick264"/> In the Soviet Union following the 1917 [[Bolshevik Revolution]], persecution of the Church and Catholics continued well into the 1930s.<ref>Riasanovsky 617</ref> In addition to the execution and exiling of clerics, monks and laymen, the confiscation of religious implements and closure of churches was common.<ref name="Riasanovsky 634">Riasanovsky 634</ref> During the 1936–39 [[Spanish Civil War]], the Catholic hierarchy supported [[Francisco Franco]]'s rebel [[Spanish State|Nationalist]] forces against the [[Popular Front (Spain)|Popular Front]] government,<ref name="payne">{{cite book |title= Franco and Hitler: Spain, Germany and World War II. |last=Payne |first=Stanley G |year=2008 |publisher=Yale University Press| isbn=0300122829|page=13}}</ref> citing [[Red Terror (Spain)|Republican violence]] directed against the Church.<ref name="Alonso">{{cite book |title= The New Catholic Encyclopedia |last=Fernandez-Alonso |first=J |year=2002 |publisher=Catholic University Press/Thomas Gale|isbn=0-7876-4017-4|pages=395–396| volume 13}}</ref> [[Pope Pius XI]] referred to these three countries as a "[[Terrible Triangle]]" and the failure to protest in Europe and the United States as a [[Conspiracy of Silence (Church persecutions)|Conspiracy of Silence]].
 
After violations of the 1933 [[Reichskonkordat]] which had guaranteed the [[Catholic Church and Nazi Germany|Church in Nazi Germany]] some protection and rights,<ref name="Rhodes182">Rhodes, p. 182-183</ref> [[Pope Pius XI]] issued the 1937 encyclical ''[[Mit brennender Sorge]]''<ref name="Rhodes197">Rhodes, p. 197</ref><ref name = "Shirer235">Shirer, p. 235.</ref><ref name="McGonigle172">McGonigle, p. 172 </ref> which publicly condemned the Nazis' persecution of the Church and their ideology of neopaganism and racial superiority.<ref name="McGonigle172"/><ref name="Bokenkotter389">Bokenkotter, pp. 389–392</ref><ref name="Rhodes204">Rhodes, p. 204-205</ref><ref name="Vidmar327">Vidmar, p. 327</ref> After the Second World War began in September 1939, the Church condemned the invasion of Poland and subsequent 1940 Nazi invasions.<ref name="Cook983">Cook, p. 983</ref> In the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]], [[Pope Pius XII]] directed the Church hierarchy to help [[Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust|protect Jews from the Nazis]].<ref>Bokenkotter p. 192 </ref> While Pius XII has been credited with helping to save hundreds of thousands of Jews by some historians,<ref name="Deák">Deák, p. 182.</ref> the Church has also been accused of encouraging centuries of [[Christianity and antisemitism|antisemitism]] and Pius himself of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.<ref>{{cite news| last =Eakin| first =Emily| title =New Accusations Of a Vatican Role In Anti-Semitism; Battle Lines Were Drawn After Beatification of Pope Pius IX| work =The New York Times| date =1 September 2001| url =http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B04E3DF1130F932A3575AC0A9679C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all|accessdate=9 March 2008}}</ref><ref name="Phayer">Phayer, pp. 50–57</ref> Debate over the validity of these criticisms continues to this day.<ref name="Deák">Deák, p. 182.</ref><ref name="Bokenkotter481">Bokenkotter, pp. 480–481</ref><ref>Dalin, p. 10</ref> In 2000 [[Pope John Paul II]] on behalf of all people, apologized to Jews by inserting a prayer at the [[Western Wall]].<ref>{{cite web| last =Randall| first = Gene| title = Pope Ends Pilgrimage to the Holy Land| publisher =CNN| date =26 March 2000| url =http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0003/26/bn.02.html| dateformat=dmy|accessdate=9 June 2008}}</ref>{{failedverification}}
 
Postwar Communist governments in Eastern Europe severely restricted religious freedoms.{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}} Even though some clerics collaborated with the Communist regimes,<ref>{{cite news|last=Smith|first=Craig|title=In Poland, New Wave of Charges Against Clerics|work=The New York Times|date=10 January 2007|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/10/world/europe/10poland.html|accessdate=23 May 2008}}</ref> the Church's resistance and the leadership of Pope John Paul II have been credited with hastening the downfall of communist governments across Europe in 1991.<ref name="communist">{{cite news|title=Pope Stared Down Communism in Homeland&nbsp;– and Won|work=CBC News|date=April 2005|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/obit/pope/communism_homeland.html|accessdate=31 January 2008}}</ref> The [[Chinese Civil War|rise to power]] of the Communists in China in 1949 led to the expulsion of all foreign missionaries.<ref name="Bokenkotter357">Bokenkotter, pp. 356–358.</ref> The new government also created the [[Patriotic Church]] whose unilaterally appointed bishops were initially rejected by Rome before many of them were accepted.<ref name="Bokenkotter357"/><ref name="Chadwick259">Chadwick, Owen pp. 259–260.</ref><ref>"''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7005927.stm China installs Pope-backed bishop]''", BBC News 21 Sept 2007, retrieved 08 Sept 2009</ref> The [[Cultural Revolution]] of the 1960s led to the closure of all religious establishments. When Chinese churches eventually reopened they remained under the control of the Patriotic Church. Many Catholic pastors and priests continued to be sent to prison for refusing to renounce allegiance to Rome.<ref name="Chadwick259"/>
 
===Contemporary===
The [[Second Vatican Council]] initiated in 1962,<ref name="Duffy272">Duffy, pp. 270–276.</ref> described by advocates as an "opening of the windows", led to changes in liturgy within the Latin Church, focus of its mission and a redefinition of [[ecumenism]].<ref name="Duffy272"/> Promoting [[Ecumenism|Christian unity]] became a greater priority,<ref name="Duffy274">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 274.</ref> particularly dialogue with [[Protestantism|Protestants]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox]]—it has led to the creation of an [[Anglicanorum Coetibus|ordinate]] for [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]] to enter communion with the Church.<ref>{{cite news | last =Ivereigh | first = Austen| title =Rome's new home for Anglicans | work =The Washington Post | date =21 October 2009 | url =http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith/panelists/austen_ivereigh/2009/10/romes_new_home_for_anglicans.html | accessdate =7 December 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Roman Catholic–Eastern Orthodox Dialogue|publisher=Public Broadcasting Service|date=14 July 2000|url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/week346/feature.html|accessdate=16 February 2008}}</ref> Reception of the council has formed the basis of multifaceted internal positions within the Catholic Church since then. A so-called [[Spirit of Vatican II|spirit of the times]] followed the council, influenced by exponents of ''[[Nouvelle Théologie]]'' such as [[Karl Rahner]]. Some dissident liberals such as [[Hans Küng]] even claimed Vatican II had not gone far enough.<ref>Bauckham, p. 373.</ref> On the other hand, [[Traditionalist Catholics|traditionalists]], represented by figures such as [[Marcel Lefebvre|Archbishop Lefebvre]] strongly criticized the council arguingcouncil—arguing that itthe council defiled the sanctity of the [[Latin Mass]], promoted religious indifferentism towards "false religions", and compromised orthodox Catholic dogma and tradition. A group positioned in between, represented by theologians such as ''[[Communio]]'' including [[Pope Benedict XVI]], hold that the council was ultimately positive, but there were abuses in interpretation. ▼
The [[Second Vatican Council]] initiated in 1962 was described by its advocates as an "opening of the windows".<ref name="Duffy272">Duffy, pp. 270–276.</ref> It led to changes in liturgy within the Latin Church, focus of its mission and a redefinition of [[ecumenism]], particularly dialogue with the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and [[Protestantism|Protestants]].<ref name="Duffy272"/><ref name="Duffy274">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 274.</ref>
 
▲Reception of the council has formed the basis of multifaceted internal positions within the Church since then. A so-called [[Spirit of Vatican II]] followed the council, influenced by exponents of ''[[Nouvelle Théologie]]'' such as [[Karl Rahner]]. Some dissident liberals such as [[Hans Küng]] claimed Vatican II had not gone far enough.<ref>Bauckham, p. 373.</ref> On the other hand, [[Traditionalist Catholics]] represented by figures such as [[Marcel Lefebvre|Archbishop Lefebvre]] strongly criticized the council arguing that it defiled the sanctity of the [[Latin Mass]], promoted religious indifferentism towards "false religions" and compromised orthodox Catholic dogma and tradition. A group positioned in between, represented by theologians such as ''[[Communio]]'' including [[Pope Benedict XVI]], hold that the council was ultimately positive but there were abuses in interpretation.
The Church has consistently continued to uphold its [[Catholic teachings on sexual morality|own moral positions]],{{fact}} contrary to those propagated by the [[sexual revolution]] and [[moral relativism]], especially prevalent in western society since the 1960s.{{fact}} Various teachings of the popes, such as the encyclicals ''[[Humanae Vitae]]'' and ''[[Evangelium Vitae]]'', have opposed [[contraception]]<ref name="humanae">{{cite web|last=Paul VI|first=Pope|title=Humanae Vitae|publisher=Vatican|year=1968|url=http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_en.html|accessdate=2 February 2008}}</ref> and [[abortion]] respectively, describing them as part of a "[[Culture of life#"Culture of death"|culture of death]]".<ref name="Bokenkotter493">Bokenkotter, p. 27, p. 154, pp. 493–494.</ref> SinceEspecially in the end ofWest, the twentiethnews century,media has begun to emphasise coverage of [[Catholic sex abuse cases|sex abuse by Catholic clergycases]] hasinvolving beena the subjectminority of mediathe coverage, legal action, and public debateclergy.<ref name="Bruni336">Bruni, p. 336.</ref> The papacy of [[Pope John Paul II]] was particularly high profile and long. He criticised the emergence of [[liberation theology]] among some clergy in South America, asserting that the Church should champion the poor unconnected to radicalism and violence.<ref>{{cite web|title=Liberation Theology|publisher=BBC|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/beliefs/liberationtheology.shtml|dateformat=dmy|accessdate=12 September 2008}}</ref><ref name="brazil">{{cite news|last=Rohter|first=Larry|title=As Pope Heads to Brazil, a Rival Theology Persists|work=The New York Times|date=7 May 2007|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/07/world/americas/07theology.html|accessdate=21 February 2008}}</ref> John Paul II canonised many saints and made [[Opus Dei]] his [[personal prelature]]. The Popepope, sincecurrently 2005represented by [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict, XVI]],remains an important leader who regularly receives heads of state from around the world.<ref>{{cite web | last =Saul | first =Michael | title =President Obama, Pope Benedict XVI meet for first time in Rome | work = New York Daily News| date =10 July 2009 | url =http://www.nydailynews.com/news/politics/2009/07/10/2009-07-10_president_obama_has_first_meeting_with_pope_benedict_xvi.html | accessdate =28 February 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title =Pope Benedict XVI meets with Shimon Peres, then with Saudi FM | work = The Jerusalem Post| url =http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=74528 | accessdate =28 February 2010 }}</ref> and asAs the representative of the [[Holy See]], which has [[Activities of the Holy See within the United Nations system|permanent observer status at the United Nations]].<ref>{{cite, bookhe |occasionally last1addresses =Ringthe |[[United first1Nations =TrudyGeneral |last2Assembly]].<ref>{{cite =Salkin | first2 =Robert M | last3 =La Boda | first3 =Sharonnews | title = InternationalPope Dictionaryurges ofglobal Historicunity Placeson Volumecrises 3: Southern Europe| publisher =FitzroyBBC News Dearborn| date =19 1996|April location =Chicago2008 | pageurl =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7354023.stm 590| isbn accessdate=27 978-1884964022 August 2008}}</ref>
 
==Beliefs==
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