Wikipedia

Gandhara: Difference between revisions

Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Reverted 1 edit by Zenithxxx (talk): See talk -- per WP:ONUS you need to explain how is your heavily edited version is better
Tags: Twinkle Undo Mobile edit Mobile web edit
Zenithxxx (talk | contribs)
318 edits
Added changes to vocabulary based on talk discussion
Tags: Reverted Visual edit
Line 1:
{{Short description|Ancient regionIndo-Aryan incivilization Southof AsiaSapta Sindhu}}
{{About||the historical kingdom proper|Gandhāra (kingdom)|the kingdom in Epics|Gandhara Kingdom|other uses|}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=AugustMarch 20232024}}
 
{{Infobox Former Subdivision
| native_name = Gandhara
Line 11 ⟶ 10:
| nation =
| era = [[Ancient history|Antiquity]]
| capital = [[Kapisi]] ([[Bagram]])<br/>[[Pushkalavati|Puṣkalavati]] ([[Charsadda]])<br/>[[Peshawar|Puruṣapura]] ([[Peshawer]])<br/>[[Takshashila]] ([[Taxila]])<br/>[[Hund (village)|Udabhandapura]] (Hund)
| title_leader = King[[Raja]]
| year_leader1 = {{circa|550 BCE}}
| leader1 = [[Pushkarasarin]]
| year_leader2 = {{circa|330 BCE}}
| leader2 = [[Taxiles]]
| year_leader3 = {{circa|321 BCE}}
| leader3 = [[Chandragupta Maurya]]
| image_map = {{Location map+
|Pakistan
Line 68:
}}
 
'''GandhāraGandhara''' ({{IAST3|Gandhāra}}) was an ancient [[Indo-Aryan people|Indo-Aryan]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bryant |first=Edwin Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3UWFPwAACAAJ |title=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-565361-8 |language=en|page=138}}</ref> civilization centeredcentred in the present-day north-west [[Pakistan]] and north-east [[Afghanistan]], roughly in the [[Northwestern South Asia|northwestern part]] of [[South Asia]].<ref name="auto1">{{Cite book |last1=Kulke |first1=Professor of Asian History Hermann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C&pg=PA53 |title=A History of India |last2=Kulke |first2=Hermann |last3=Rothermund |first3=Dietmar |date=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-32919-4 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite book |last=Warikoo |first=K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NsdvkRtAtusC&pg=PA73 |title=Bamiyan: Challenge to World Heritage |date=2004 |publisher=Third Eye |isbn=978-81-86505-66-3 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite book |last=Hansen |first=Mogens Herman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8qvY8pxVxcwC&pg=PA377 |title=A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation |date=2000 |publisher=Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab |isbn=978-87-7876-177-4 |language=en}}</ref> The core of the region of Gandhara was the [[Peshawar valley|Peshawar]] and [[Swat valley]]s, thoughextending theas culturalfar influence of "Greater Gandhara" extendedeast acrossas the [[IndusPothohar riverPlateau]] to thein [[TaxilaPunjab]], regionthough inthe [[Potoharcultural Plateau]]influence andof Greater Gandhara extended westwards into the [[Kabul|Kabul valley]] in Afghanistan, and northwards up to the [[Karakoram]] range.{{sfn|Neelis, Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks|2010|p=232}}{{sfn|Eggermont, Alexander's Campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan|1975|pp=175–177}}<ref>{{citation |first=ErnstThe |last=Badianregion |title=Alexanderwas ata Peucelaotiscentral |journal=Thelocation Classicalfor Quarterlythe |volume=37[[Silk |pages=117–128Road |number=1transmission of Buddhism|year=1987spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and East Asia]] with many Chinese [[Buddhism|jstor=639350|doi=10Buddhist]] pilgrims visiting the region.1017<ref>[http:/S0009838800031712/www.washington.edu/uwpress/search/books/SALANC.html |s2cid=246878679"UW }}Press: Ancient Buddhist Scrolls from Gandhara"]. Retrieved April 2018.</ref>
 
[[Gandhari language|Gāndhārī]], an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]] written in the [[Kharosthi script]], acted as the lingua franca of the region though through [[Buddhism]], the language spread as far as [[China]] based on [[Gandhāran Buddhist texts]].<ref>[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gandhari-language ''GĀNDHĀRĪ LANGUAGE'', Encyclopædia Iranica]</ref> Famed for its unique [[Gandhara art|Gandharan style of art]] which is influenced by, the classical Hellenistic styles, Gandhararegion attained its height from the 1st century to the 5th century CE under the [[Kushan Empire,]] whowhich had their capital at [[Peshawar]] (''[[Puruṣapura]]''), andushering ushered athe period of relative peace known as ''[[Pax Kushana]].''. Gandhara<ref name="flourishedAADC">{{cite atbook the|last1=Di crossroadsCastro of|first1=Angelo India,Andrea Central|last2=Hope Asia,|first2=Colin andA. the|chapter=The MiddleBarbarisation East,"of connectingBactria [[Silk Road|tradetitle=Cultural routes]]Interaction andin absorbingAfghanistan culturalc influences300 fromBCE diverseto civilizations;300 BuddhismCE thrived|date=2005 until|publisher=Monash theUniversity 8thPress or|location=Melbourne 9th|isbn=978-1876924393 centuries|pages=1-18, whenmap [[Islam]]visible firstonline beganpage to2 gain sway in the region.<ref>Kurt A. Behrendt (2007),of [httpshttp://bookswww.googleascs.comorg.au/books?id=MJ3eCZVlT48Cnews/ascs33/DI%20CASTRO.pdf TheHestia, Arta ofTabula GandharaIliaca inand thePoseidon's Metropolitan Museum of Arttrident], pp.4–5,91}}</ref>▼
The ''Gandhara tribe'', after which it is named, is attested in the [[Rigveda]] ({{circa|1500|1200 BCE}}),<ref name="sacred-texts.com">{{cite web | url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv01126.htm | title= Rigveda 1.126:7, English translation by Ralph TH Griffith}}</ref><ref name="Macdonell1997">{{cite book|author=Arthur Anthony Macdonell|title=A History of Sanskrit Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8wM-dNOa7fMC&pg=PA130|year=1997|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0095-3|pages=130–}}</ref> while the region is mentioned in the Zoroastrian [[Avesta]] as ''Vaēkərəta'', the [[Avestan geography|seventh most beautiful place]] on earth created by [[Ahura Mazda]]. It was one of the 16 ''[[Mahajanapadas|Great Realms]]'' of the [[second urbanisation]].<ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto2"/> Gandhara is frequently mentioned in the [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]].<ref>* Schmidt, Karl J. (1995). [https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ ''An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History''], p.120: "In addition to being a center of religion for Buddhists, as well as Hindus, Taxila was a thriving center for art, culture, and learning."
* Srinivasan, Doris Meth (2008). "Hindu Deities in Gandharan art", in [https://books.google.com/books?id=lHBEAQAAIAAJ ''Gandhara, The Buddhist Heritage of Pakistan: Legends, Monasteries, and Paradise''], pp.130–143: "Gandhara was not cut off from the heartland of early Hinduism in the Gangetic Valley. The two regions shared cultural and political connections and trade relations and this facilitated the adoption and exchange of religious ideas. [...] It is during the Kushan Era that flowering of religious imagery occurred. [...] Gandhara often introduced its own idiosyncratic expression upon the Buddhist and Hindu imagery it had initially come in contact with."
* Blurton, T. Richard (1993). [https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC ''Hindu Art''], Harvard University Press: "The earliest figures of Shiva which show him in purely human form come from the area of ancient Gandhara" (p.84) and "Coins from Gandhara of the first century BC show Lakshmi [...] four-armed, on a lotus." (p.176)</ref>
 
The history of Gandhara originates with the [[Gandhara grave culture]], characterized by a distinctive burial practice. Subsequently, during the [[Vedic period]] Gandhara garnered recognition as one of the [[Mahajanapadas|sixteen Mahajanapadas]], or 'great realms', within [[South Asia]] playing a role in the [[Kurukshetra War]]. In the 6th century BCE, King [[Pushkarasarin|Pukkusāti]] governed the region and was most notable for defeating the [[Kingdom of Avanti]] and supposedly acting as a bulwark against [[Achamenian]] expansion,<ref name="Prakash" /> although Gandhara eventually succumbed as a tributary.<ref name=":0" /> During the [[Wars of Alexander the Great]], the region was split into two factions with [[Taxiles]], the king of [[Taxila]], allying with [[Alexander the Great]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=3 alexander and his successors in central asia |url=https://fr.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/default/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_II%20silk%20road_alexander%20and%20his%20successors%20in%20central%20asia.pdf |page=72 |quote=Three local chiefs had their reasons for supporting him. One of these, Sisicottus, came from Swat and was later rewarded by an appointment in this locality. Sangaeus from Gandhara had a grudge against his brother Astis, and to improve his chances of royalty, sided with Alexander. The ruler of Taxila wanted to satisfy his grudge against Porus.}}</ref> while the Western Gandharan tribes, exemplified by the [[Aśvaka]] around the [[Swat valley]], resisted the expansion.<ref>{{Cite web |title=3 alexander and his successors in central asia |url=https://fr.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/default/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_II%20silk%20road_alexander%20and%20his%20successors%20in%20central%20asia.pdf |pages=74–77}}</ref> Following the Macedonian downfall, Gandhara became part of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan Empire]], as [[Chandragupta Maurya]], who had received education in [[Taxila]], assumed control with the support of [[Chanakya]], his advisor who also hailed from Gandhara.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rajkamal Publications Limited |first=New Delhi |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.189620 |title=Chandragupta Maurya And His Times |date=1943 |page=16 |quote=Chanakya, who is described as a resident of the city of Taxila, returned to his native city with the boy and had him educated for a period of 7 or 8 years at that famous seat of learning where all the ' sciences and arts ' of the times were taught, as we know from the Jatakas.}}</ref> Subsequently, Gandhara witnessed successive annexations by the [[Indo-Greeks]], [[Indo-Scythians]], and [[Indo-Parthians]] yet a regional Gandharan kingdom, known as the [[Apracharajas]], retained governance during this period until the ascent of the [[Kushan Empire]]. The zenith of Gandhara's cultural and political influence transpired during Kushan rule, before succumbing to devastation during the [[Hunnic Invasion]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Samad |first=Rafi U. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PMEd8Cqh-YQC&dq=Gandhara+destroyed+by+huns&pg=PA138 |title=The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys |date=2011 |publisher=Algora Publishing |isbn=978-0-87586-860-8 |pages=138 |language=en}}</ref> However, the region experienced a resurgence under the [[Turk Shahis]] and [[Hindu Shahis]].
The [[Iron Age in India|Iron Age]] [[Gandhāra (kingdom)|Gandhara kingdom]] emerged as a major imperial power during the reign of King [[Pushkarasarin]] in {{circa|550 BCE}}.<ref name="Prakash"/> Gandhara was [[Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley|conquered by Cyrus I]] in the 6th century BCE and [[Alexander the Great]] in 327 BCE. It later became part of the [[Maurya Empire]] before being a centre of the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]. The region was a major centre for [[Greco-Buddhism]] under the Indo-Greeks and [[Gandharan Buddhism]] under later dynasties, including [[Indo-Scythians]], [[Indo-Parthians]] and [[Kushan Empire|Kushans]]. Gandhara was also a central location for the [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and East Asia]].<ref>[http://www.washington.edu/uwpress/search/books/SALANC.html "UW Press: Ancient Buddhist Scrolls from Gandhara"]. Retrieved April 2018.</ref>
 
==Etymology==▼
▲[[Gandhari language|Gāndhārī]], an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]] written in [[Kharosthi script]], acted as lingua franca of the region.<ref>[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gandhari-language ''GĀNDHĀRĪ LANGUAGE'', Encyclopædia Iranica]</ref> Famed for its unique [[Gandhara art|Gandharan style of art]] which is influenced by the classical Hellenistic styles, Gandhara attained its height from the 1st century to the 5th century CE under the Kushan Empire, who had their capital at [[Peshawar]] (''[[Puruṣapura]]'') and ushered a period of relative peace known as ''[[Pax Kushana]]''. Gandhara "flourished at the crossroads of India, Central Asia, and the Middle East," connecting [[Silk Road|trade routes]] and absorbing cultural influences from diverse civilizations; Buddhism thrived until the 8th or 9th centuries, when [[Islam]] first began to gain sway in the region.<ref>Kurt A. Behrendt (2007), [https://books.google.com/books?id=MJ3eCZVlT48C The Art of Gandhara in the Metropolitan Museum of Art], pp.4–5,91</ref>
 
Gandhara was known in [[Sanskrit]] as ''{{IAST|Gandhāra}}''Gandhāraḥ ({{lang|sa|[[wikt:गन्धारगन्धारः|गन्धारगन्धारः]]}}), and in [[Avestan]] as ''{{lang|ae|Vaēkərəta}}'',. inIn [[Old Persian]] as ''[[Gadāra'']] (Old Persian cuneiform: [[:Wikt:𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼|𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼]], ''[[Gadāra]]'', also transliterated as ''Ga<sup>n</sup>dāra'' since the nasal "n" before consonants waswere omitted in the Old Persian script, and simplified as ''Gandara''),.<ref name="Old Persian">Some sounds are omitted in the writing of Old Persian, and are shown with a raised letter.[https://archive.org/stream/OldPersian#page/n177/mode/2up/ Old Persian p.164][https://archive.org/stream/OldPersian#page/n23/mode/2up/ Old Persian p.13]. In particular Old Persian nasals such as "n" were omitted in writing before consonants [https://archive.org/stream/OldPersian#page/n27/mode/2up/ Old Persian p.17][https://archive.org/stream/OldPersian#page/n35/mode/2up/ Old Persian p.25]</ref> inIn [[AkkadianChinese languageLanguage|AkkadianChinese]] as Jiāntuóluó, kɨɐndala, [[Jibin|Jìbīn]], and Kipin. In [[ElamiteAncient languageGreek|ElamiteGreek]] as ''[[ParuparaesannaParopamisadae]]'' (''{{lang|peo|Para-upari-sena}}''),<ref name="PC2004HIII">Perfrancesco Callieri,Herodotus [httphttps://wwwpenelope.iranicaonlineuchicago.orgedu/Thayer/E/articlesRoman/india-ii-historical-geography INDIA iiTexts/Herodotus/3D*.html HistoricalBook Geography]III, Encyclopaedia Iranica, 15 December 2004.89–95]</ref> in [[Chinese Language|Chinese]] as {{lang|zh|[[Traditional Chinese|T]]: 犍陀羅/[[Simplified Chinese|S]]: 犍陀罗}} ([[Pinyin]]: ''Jiāntuóluó''; [[Middle Chinese]] ([[Zhengzhang Shangfang]]): /kɨɐn dɑ lɑ/) or▼
The region steadily declined after the violent invasion by [[Alchon Huns]] in 6th century, and the name Gandhara disappeared after [[Mahmud Ghaznavi]]'s conquest in 1001 CE.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Mohiuddin|first=Yasmeen Niaz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTMy0B9OZjAC&q=Swat+Pakistan&pg=PA17|title=Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook|date=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781851098019|language=en}}</ref>
 
▲==Etymology==
▲Gandhara was known in [[Sanskrit]] as ''{{IAST|Gandhāra}}'' ({{lang|sa|[[wikt:गन्धार|गन्धार]]}}), in [[Avestan]] as ''{{lang|ae|Vaēkərəta}}'', in [[Old Persian]] as ''Gadāra'' (Old Persian cuneiform: [[:Wikt:𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼|𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼]], ''[[Gadāra]]'', also transliterated as ''Ga<sup>n</sup>dāra'' since the nasal "n" before consonants was omitted in the Old Persian script, and simplified as ''Gandara''),<ref name="Old Persian">Some sounds are omitted in the writing of Old Persian, and are shown with a raised letter.[https://archive.org/stream/OldPersian#page/n177/mode/2up/ Old Persian p.164][https://archive.org/stream/OldPersian#page/n23/mode/2up/ Old Persian p.13]. In particular Old Persian nasals such as "n" were omitted in writing before consonants [https://archive.org/stream/OldPersian#page/n27/mode/2up/ Old Persian p.17][https://archive.org/stream/OldPersian#page/n35/mode/2up/ Old Persian p.25]</ref> in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] and [[Elamite language|Elamite]] as ''[[Paruparaesanna]]'' (''{{lang|peo|Para-upari-sena}}''),<ref name="PC2004">Perfrancesco Callieri, [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/india-ii-historical-geography INDIA ii. Historical Geography], Encyclopaedia Iranica, 15 December 2004.</ref> in [[Chinese Language|Chinese]] as {{lang|zh|[[Traditional Chinese|T]]: 犍陀羅/[[Simplified Chinese|S]]: 犍陀罗}} ([[Pinyin]]: ''Jiāntuóluó''; [[Middle Chinese]] ([[Zhengzhang Shangfang]]): /kɨɐn dɑ lɑ/) or
{{lang|zh|[[Traditional Chinese|T]]: 罽賓/[[Simplified Chinese|S]]: 罽宾}} (Pinyin: ''[[Jibin|Jìbīn]]''; Middle Chinese (Zhengzhang Shangfang): /kˠiᴇiᴴ piɪn/), and in [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] as {{lang|grc|Γανδάρα}} (''Gandhara'').<ref name=HIII>Herodotus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/3D*.html Book III, 89–95]</ref>
 
One proposed origin of the name is from the Sanskrit word ''{{IAST|gandhaḥ}}'' ({{lang|sa|[[wikt:गन्धः|गन्धः]]}}), meaning "perfume" and "referring to the spices and aromatic herbs which they (the inhabitants) traded and with which they anointed themselves".<ref>{{cite web|title=On Yuan Chwang's travels in India, 629–645 A.D.|author=Thomas Watters|publisher=[[Royal Asiatic Society]]|year=1904|url=https://archive.org/stream/onyuanchwangstr00wattgoog#page/n220/mode/2up|page=200|quote=Taken as Gandhavat the name is explained as meaning ''hsiang-hsing'' or "scent-action" from the word gandha which means ''scent'', ''small'', ''perfume''.}} At the [[Internet Archive]].</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzIer-wYbnQC&pg=PA176|title=Placenames of the World|author=Adrian Room|publisher=McFarland|year=1997|quote=Kandahar. ''City, south central Afghanistan''|isbn=9780786418145}} At Google Books.</ref> The [[Gandhari people]] are a [[List of Rigvedic tribes|tribe]] mentioned in the [[Rigveda]], the [[Atharvaveda]], and later Vedic texts.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6TVLlPvuMAC&pg=PA219 | title=Vedic Index of Names and Subjects|volume=1|year=1995|page=219|first1=Arthur Anthony|last1=Macdonell|first2=Arthur Berriedale|last2=Keith|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers| isbn=9788120813328}} At [[Google Books]].</ref>
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandhara"