View source for Biomimetics

{{Short description|Imitation of biological systems for the solving of human problems}}
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[[File:Loligo forbesii.jpg|thumb| [[axons|Giant axons]] of the [[longfin inshore squid]] (''Doryteuthis pealeii'') were crucial for scientists to understand the [[action potential]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The brain, the nervous system, and their diseases |date=2015 |editor=Jennifer L. Hellier |isbn=978-1-61069-337-0 |location=Santa Barbara, California |oclc=880809097}}</ref>]]

'''Biomimetics''' or '''biomimicry''' is the emulation of the models, systems, and elements of nature for the purpose of solving complex [[human]] problems.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vincent|first1=Julian F. V.|title=Biomimetics: its practice and theory|journal=Journal of the Royal Society Interface|volume=3|issue=9|pages=471–482|doi=10.1098/rsif.2006.0127|pmid=16849244|pmc=1664643|date=22 August 2006|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> The terms "biomimetics" and "biomimicry" are derived from {{langx|grc|βίος}} (''bios''), life, and μίμησις (''[[mimesis|mīmēsis]]''), imitation, from μιμεῖσθαι (''mīmeisthai''), to imitate, from μῖμος (''mimos''), actor. A closely related field is [[bionics]].<ref name=McCarty/>

Nature has gone through [[evolution]] over the 3.8 billion years since life is estimated to have appeared on the Earth.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gordon |first=J. E. |title=The New Science of Strong Materials, or Why You Don't Fall Through the Floor |publisher=Pelican–Penguin |edition=2nd |location=London, U. K.}}</ref> It has evolved species with high performance using commonly found materials. Surfaces of solids interact with other surfaces and the environment and derive the properties of materials. Biological materials are highly organized from the molecular to the nano-, micro-, and macroscales, often in a hierarchical manner with intricate nanoarchitecture that ultimately makes up a myriad of different functional elements.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Alberts |first1=B |title=Molecular Biology of the Cell |last2=Johnson |first2=A. |last3=Lewis |first3=J. |last4=Raff |first4=M. |last5=Roberts |first5=K. |last6=Walter |first6=P. |publisher=Garland Science |year=2008 |location=New York}}</ref> Properties of materials and surfaces result from a complex interplay between surface structure and morphology and physical and chemical properties. Many materials, surfaces, and objects in general provide multifunctionality.

Various materials, structures, and devices have been fabricated for commercial interest by engineers, [[Materials science|material scientists]], chemists, and biologists, and for beauty, structure, and design by artists and architects. Nature has solved engineering problems such as self-healing abilities, environmental exposure tolerance and resistance, [[hydrophobicity]], self-assembly, and harnessing [[solar energy]]. Economic impact of bioinspired materials and surfaces is significant, on the order of several hundred billion dollars per year worldwide. 
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== History ==
One of the early examples of biomimicry was the study of [[birds]] to enable [[human flight]]. Although never successful in creating a "flying machine", [[Leonardo da Vinci]] (1452–1519) was a keen observer of the [[anatomy]] and flight of birds, and made numerous notes and sketches on his observations as well as sketches of "flying machines".<ref name="Romei 2008 56">{{Cite book | last=Romei | first=Francesca | title=Leonardo Da Vinci | publisher=The Oliver Press  | year=2008 | page=56 | isbn=978-1-934545-00-3}}</ref> The [[Wright Brothers]], who succeeded in flying the first heavier-than-air aircraft in 1903, allegedly derived inspiration from observations of pigeons in flight.<ref>Compare: {{Cite book | last=Howard | first=Fred | title=Wilbur and Orville: A Biography of the Wright Brothers | publisher=Dober Publications | year=1998 | page=33 | isbn=978-0-486-40297-0 | quote = According to Wilbur, he and his brother discovered the birds' method of lateral control one day while observing a flight of pigeons. [...] 'Although we intently watched birds fly in a hope of learning something from them,' [Orville] wrote in 1941, 'I cannot think of anything that was first learned in that way.'}}</ref>

[[File:Leonardo Design for a Flying Machine, c. 1488.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s [[Science and inventions of Leonardo da Vinci#Flight|design for a flying machine]] with wings based closely upon the structure of bat wings]]

During the 1950s the American [[biophysicist]] and [[polymath]] [[Otto Schmitt]] developed the concept of "biomimetics".<ref name="Vincent2006">{{cite journal |last= Vincent |first= Julian F.V. |author2= Bogatyreva, Olga A. |author3= Bogatyrev, Nikolaj R. |author4= Bowyer, Adrian |author5= Pahl, Anja-Karina |title= Biomimetics: its practice and theory |journal= Journal of the Royal Society Interface |date= 21 August 2006|volume= 3|issue= 9|pages= 471–482|doi= 10.1098/rsif.2006.0127 |pmid= 16849244 |pmc= 1664643}}</ref> During his doctoral research he developed the [[Schmitt trigger]] by studying the nerves in squid, attempting to engineer a device that replicated the biological system of [[nerve impulse|nerve propagation]].<ref>{{cite web |title= Otto H. Schmitt, Como People of the Past |url= https://sites.google.com/a/comogreenvillage.info/como-history/home/people-of-the-past-documents/como-people-of-the-past/otto-h-schmitt |publisher= Connie Sullivan, Como History Article |quote= He developed the trigger by studying the nerves in squid and trying to engineer a device that replicated the natural system by which squid nerves propagate. |access-date= 2012-09-25 |archive-date= 2013-10-07 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131007174931/https://sites.google.com/a/comogreenvillage.info/como-history/home/people-of-the-past-documents/como-people-of-the-past/otto-h-schmitt |url-status= dead }}</ref> He continued to focus on devices that mimic natural systems and by 1957 he had perceived a converse to the standard view of [[biophysics]] at that time, a view he would come to call biomimetics.<ref name="Vincent2006" />

{{Blockquote|Biophysics is not so much a subject matter as it is a point of view. It is an approach to problems of biological science utilizing the theory and technology of the physical sciences. Conversely, biophysics is also a biologist's approach to problems of physical science and engineering, although this aspect has largely been neglected.|Otto Herbert Schmitt|''In Appreciation, A Lifetime of Connections''<ref>''In Appreciation, A Lifetime of Connections'': Otto Herbert Schmitt, 1913 - 1998</ref>}}

In 1960 [[Jack E. Steele]] coined a similar term, ''[[bionics]]'', at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio, where Otto Schmitt also worked. Steele defined bionics as "the science of systems which have some function copied from nature, or which represent characteristics of natural systems or their analogues".<ref name="McCarty">Mary McCarty. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110604025951/http://www.daytondailynews.com/o/content/oh/story/opinions/columns/2009/01/29/ddn012909mary.html?cxntlid=inform_sr "Life of bionics founder a fine adventure"]. ''Dayton Daily News'', 29 January 2009.</ref><ref name="vincent-2009">{{cite journal |last= Vincent|first= Julian F. V. |title= Biomimetics — a review|journal= Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part H: Journal of Engineering in Medicine |date= November 2009|volume= 223 |issue= 8 |pages= 919–939 |doi= 10.1243/09544119JEIM561|pmid= 20092091 |s2cid= 21895651 }}</ref> During a later meeting in 1963 Schmitt stated,

{{Blockquote|Let us consider what bionics has come to mean operationally and what it or some word like it (I prefer biomimetics) ought to mean in order to make good use of the technical skills of scientists specializing, or rather, I should say, despecializing into this area of research.|Otto Herbert Schmitt|In Appreciation, A Lifetime of Connections: Otto Herbert Schmitt, 1913 - 1998}}

In 1969, Schmitt used the term "biomimetic" in the title one of his papers,<ref>Schmitt O. Third Int. Biophysics Congress. 1969. Some interesting and useful biomimetic transforms. p. 297.</ref> and by 1974 it had found its way into [[Webster's Dictionary]]. Bionics entered the same dictionary earlier in 1960 as "a science concerned with the application of data about the functioning of biological systems to the solution of engineering problems". Bionic took on a different connotation when [[Martin Caidin]] referenced Jack Steele and his work in the novel ''[[Cyborg (novel)|Cyborg]]'' which later resulted in the 1974 television series ''[[The Six Million Dollar Man]]'' and its spin-offs. The term bionic then became associated with "the use of electronically operated artificial body parts" and "having ordinary human powers increased by or as if by the aid of such devices".<ref>{{cite book |title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-953296-4|last1=Soanes |first1=Catherine |last2=Hawker |first2=Sara |publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref> Because the term ''bionic'' took on the implication of supernatural strength, the scientific community in [[english language|English]] speaking countries largely abandoned it.<ref>{{Cite journal | last =Vincent | first =JFV | title = Biomimetics — a review| journal =Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part H: Journal of Engineering in Medicine | volume =223 | issue=8| pages=919–939 | year=2009 | doi =10.1243/09544119JEIM561| pmid =20092091 | s2cid =21895651 }}</ref>

The term ''biomimicry'' appeared as early as 1982.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Merrill |first=Connie Lange |degree=PhD |title=Biomimicry of the Dioxygen Active Site in the Copper Proteins Hemocyanin and Cytochrome Oxidase |publisher=Rice University |year=1982 |url=https://scholarship.rice.edu/handle/1911/15707 |hdl=1911/15707 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Biomimicry was popularized by scientist and author [[Janine Benyus]] in her 1997 book ''Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature''. Biomimicry is defined in the book as a "new science that studies nature's models and then imitates or takes inspiration from these designs and processes to solve human problems". Benyus suggests looking to Nature as a "Model, Measure, and Mentor" and emphasizes sustainability as an objective of biomimicry.<ref name="Benyus 1997">{{cite book |last=Benyus |first=Janine |title=Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature |year=1997 |publisher=[[William Morrow & Company]] |location=New York, USA |isbn=978-0-688-16099-9 |ref=Benyus97}}</ref>

One of the latest examples of biomimicry has been created by Johannes-Paul Fladerer and Ernst Kurzmann by the description of "managemANT".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kurzmann |first1=Ernst |last2=Fladerer |first2=Johannes-Paul |title=ManagemANT Was Fach- und Führungskräfte von Ameisen lernen können |date=2017 |publisher=Frankfurter Allgemeine Buch |isbn=9783956012082 |edition=1. Auflage}}</ref> This term (a combination of the words "management" and "ant"), describes the usage of behavioural strategies of ants in economic and management strategies.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fladerer |first1=Johannes-Paul |last2=Kurzmann |first2=Ernst |title=WISDOM OF THE MANY: how to create self -organisation and how to use collective... intelligence in companies and in society from mana. |date=November 2019 |publisher=BOOKS ON DEMAND |isbn=9783750422421}}</ref> The potential long-term impacts of biomimicry were quantified in a 2013 Fermanian Business & Economic Institute Report commissioned by the San Diego Zoo. The findings demonstrated the potential economic and environmental benefits of biomimicry, which can be further seen in Johannes-Paul Fladerer and Ernst Kurzmann's "managemANT" approach. This approach utilizes the behavioral strategies of ants in economic and management strategies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kennedy |first1=Emily |title=Biomimicry: Design by Analogy to Biology |journal=Research Technology Management |date=2017 |volume=60 |issue=6 |pages=51–56 |doi=10.1080/08956308.2017.1373052  |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Bio-inspired technologies ==
Biomimetics could in principle be applied in many fields. Because of the diversity and complexity of biological systems, the number of features that might be imitated is large. Biomimetic applications are at various stages of development from technologies that might become commercially usable to prototypes.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal|last1=Bhushan|first1=Bharat|date=15 March 2009|title=Biomimetics: lessons from nature-an overview|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|volume=367|issue=1893|pages=1445–1486|doi=10.1098/rsta.2009.0011|pmid=19324719|bibcode=2009RSPTA.367.1445B|s2cid=25035953 |doi-access=}}</ref> [[Murray's law]], which in conventional form determined the optimum diameter of blood vessels, has been re-derived to provide simple equations for the pipe or tube diameter which gives a minimum mass engineering system.<ref name="williams">{{cite journal|last=Williams|first=Hugo R.|author2=Trask, Richard S.|author3=Weaver, Paul M.|author4=Bond, Ian P.|year=2008|title=Minimum mass vascular networks in multifunctional materials|journal=Journal of the Royal Society Interface|volume=5|issue=18|pages=55–65|doi=10.1098/rsif.2007.1022|pmc=2605499|pmid=17426011}}</ref>

=== Locomotion ===
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[[Aircraft wing]] design<ref name="The Engineer">{{cite web | url=https://www.theengineer.co.uk/the-evolution-of-the-aircraft-wing/ | title=The evolution of the aircraft wing | date=31 March 2017 | access-date=10 December 2018 | author= The Engineer}}</ref> and flight techniques<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn24951-drone-with-legs-can-perch-watch-and-walk-like-a-bird.html#.U0lxhuZdWcI|title=Drone with legs can perch, watch and walk like a bird|date=27 January 2014|work=Tech|publisher=New Scientist|access-date=17 July 2014}}</ref> are being inspired by birds and bats. The [[aerodynamics]] of streamlined design of improved Japanese high speed train [[Shinkansen]] [[500 Series Shinkansen|500 Series]] were modelled after the beak of [[Kingfisher]] bird.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/science-environment-47673287/how-a-kingfisher-helped-reshape-japan-s-bullet-train |title=How a kingfisher helped reshape Japan's bullet train |date=26 March 2019|work=BBC|access-date=2020-06-20}}</ref>

[[Biorobotics|Biorobots]] based on the physiology and methods of [[animal locomotion|locomotion of animals]] include [[BionicKangaroo]] which moves like a kangaroo, saving energy from one jump and transferring it to its next jump;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/festo-newest-robot-is-a-hopping-bionic-kangaroo|title=''Festo's Newest Robot Is a Hopping Bionic Kangaroo''|last1=Ackerman|first1=Evan|date=2 Apr 2014|website=[[IEEE]]|publisher=[[IEEE Spectrum]]|access-date=17 Apr 2014}}</ref> [[Dash Robotics, Inc|Kamigami Robots]], a children's toy, mimic cockroach locomotion to run quickly and efficiently over indoor and outdoor surfaces,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://cra.org/robotics-highlight-kamigami-cockroach-inspired-robotics/|title=Robotics Highlight: Kamigami Cockroach Inspired Robotics|date=2016-07-18|work=CRA|access-date=2017-05-16}}</ref> and Pleobot, a shrimp-inspired robot to study metachronal swimming and the ecological impacts of this propulsive gait on the environment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oliveira Santos |first1=Sara |last2=Tack |first2=Nils |last3=Su |first3=Yunxing |last4=Cuenca-Jimenez |first4=Francisco |last5=Morales-Lopez |first5=Oscar |last6=Gomez-Valdez |first6=P. Antonio |last7=M Wilhelmus |first7=Monica |title=Pleobot: a modular robotic solution for metachronal swimming |journal=Scientific Reports |date=June 13, 2023 |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=9574 |doi=10.1038/s41598-023-36185-2 |pmid=37311777 |pmc=10264458 |arxiv=2303.00805 |bibcode=2023NatSR..13.9574O |s2cid=257280019 }}</ref>

=== Biomimetic flying robots (BFRs) ===
[[File:Skybird.gif|thumb|Flapping wing BFR in motion|210x210px]]
BFRs take inspiration from flying mammals, birds, or insects. BFRs can have flapping wings, which generate the lift and thrust, or they can be propeller actuated. BFRs with flapping wings have increased stroke efficiencies, increased maneuverability, and reduced energy consumption in comparison to propeller actuated BFRs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jun |last2=Zhao |first2=Ning |last3=Qu |first3=Feiyang |date=2022-11-15 |title=Bio-inspired flapping wing robots with foldable or deformable wings: a review |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=011002 |doi=10.1088/1748-3190/ac9ef5 |pmid=36317380 |s2cid=253246037 |issn=1748-3182}}</ref> Mammal and bird inspired BFRs share similar flight characteristics and design considerations. For instance, both mammal and bird inspired BFRs minimize [[Aeroelasticity#Flutter|edge fluttering]] and [[Wingtip vortices|pressure-induced wingtip curl]] by increasing the rigidity of the wing edge and wingtips. Mammal and insect inspired BFRs can be impact resistant, making them useful in cluttered environments.

Mammal inspired BFRs typically take inspiration from bats, but the flying squirrel has also inspired a prototype.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Shin |first1=Won Dong |last2=Park |first2=Jaejun |last3=Park |first3=Hae-Won |date=2019-09-01 |title=Development and experiments of a bio-inspired robot with multi-mode in aerial and terrestrial locomotion |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=056009 |doi=10.1088/1748-3190/ab2ab7 |pmid=31212268 |bibcode=2019BiBi...14e6009S |s2cid=195066183 |issn=1748-3182|doi-access=free }}</ref> Examples of bat inspired BFRs include Bat Bot<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ramezani |first1=Alireza |last2=Shi |first2=Xichen |last3=Chung |first3=Soon-Jo |last4=Hutchinson |first4=Seth |title=2016 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) |chapter=Bat Bot (B2), a biologically inspired flying machine |date=May 2016 |chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7487491 |location=Stockholm, Sweden |publisher=IEEE |pages=3219–3226 |doi=10.1109/ICRA.2016.7487491 |isbn=978-1-4673-8026-3|s2cid=8581750 }}</ref> and the DALER.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Daler |first1=Ludovic |last2=Mintchev |first2=Stefano |last3=Stefanini |first3=Cesare |last4=Floreano |first4=Dario |date=2015-01-19 |title=A bioinspired multi-modal flying and walking robot |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-3190/10/1/016005 |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=016005 |doi=10.1088/1748-3190/10/1/016005 |pmid=25599118 |bibcode=2015BiBi...10a6005D |s2cid=11132948 |issn=1748-3190}}</ref> Mammal inspired BFRs can be designed to be multi-modal; therefore, they're capable of both flight and terrestrial movement. To reduce the impact of landing, shock absorbers can be implemented along the wings.<ref name=":3" /> Alternatively, the BFR can pitch up and increase the amount of drag it experiences.<ref name=":2" /> By increasing the drag force, the BFR will decelerate and minimize the impact upon grounding. Different land gait patterns can also be implemented.<ref name=":2" />
[[File:Insectothopter.png|thumb|193x193px|Dragonfly inspired BFR.]]
Bird inspired BFRs can take inspiration from raptors, gulls, and everything in-between. Bird inspired BFRs can be feathered to increase the angle of attack range over which the prototype can operate before stalling.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Kilian |first1=Lukas |last2=Shahid |first2=Farzeen |last3=Zhao |first3=Jing-Shan |last4=Nayeri |first4=Christian Navid |date=2022-07-01 |title=Bioinspired morphing wings: mechanical design and wind tunnel experiments |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=046019 |doi=10.1088/1748-3190/ac72e1 |pmid=35609562 |bibcode=2022BiBi...17d6019K |s2cid=249045806 |issn=1748-3182}}</ref> The wings of bird inspired BFRs allow for in-plane deformation, and the in-plane wing deformation can be adjusted to maximize flight efficiency depending on the flight gait.<ref name=":4" /> An example of a raptor inspired BFR is the prototype by Savastano et al.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Savastano |first1=E. |last2=Perez-Sanchez |first2=V. |last3=Arrue |first3=B.C. |last4=Ollero |first4=A. |date=July 2022 |title=High-Performance Morphing Wing for Large-Scale Bio-Inspired Unmanned Aerial Vehicles |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9804870 |journal=IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=8076–8083 |doi=10.1109/LRA.2022.3185389 |s2cid=250008824 |issn=2377-3766}}</ref> The prototype has fully deformable flapping wings and is capable of carrying a payload of up to 0.8&nbsp;kg while performing a parabolic climb, steep descent, and rapid recovery. The gull inspired prototype by Grant et al. accurately mimics the elbow and wrist rotation of gulls, and they find that lift generation is maximized when the elbow and wrist deformations are opposite but equal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grant |first1=Daniel T. |last2=Abdulrahim |first2=Mujahid |last3=Lind |first3=Rick |date=June 2010 |title=Flight Dynamics of a Morphing Aircraft Utilizing Independent Multiple-Joint Wing Sweep |journal=International Journal of Micro Air Vehicles |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=91–106 |doi=10.1260/1756-8293.2.2.91 |s2cid=110577545 |issn=1756-8293|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Insect inspired BFRs typically take inspiration from beetles or dragonflies. An example of a beetle inspired BFR is the prototype by Phan and Park,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Phan |first1=Hoang Vu |last2=Park |first2=Hoon Cheol |date=2020-12-04 |title=Mechanisms of collision recovery in flying beetles and flapping-wing robots |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abd3285 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=370 |issue=6521 |pages=1214–1219 |doi=10.1126/science.abd3285 |pmid=33273101 |bibcode=2020Sci...370.1214P |s2cid=227257247 |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> and a dragonfly inspired BFR is the prototype by Hu et al.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hu |first1=Zheng |last2=McCauley |first2=Raymond |last3=Schaeffer |first3=Steve |last4=Deng |first4=Xinyan |title=2009 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation |chapter=Aerodynamics of dragonfly flight and robotic design |date=May 2009 |chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5152760 |pages=3061–3066 |doi=10.1109/ROBOT.2009.5152760|isbn=978-1-4244-2788-8 |s2cid=12291429 }}</ref> The flapping frequency of insect inspired BFRs are much higher than those of other BFRs; this is because of the [[Insect flight|aerodynamics of insect flight]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Balta |first1=Miquel |last2=Deb |first2=Dipan |last3=Taha |first3=Haithem E |date=2021-10-26 |title=Flow visualization and force measurement of the clapping effect in bio-inspired flying robots |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=066020 |doi=10.1088/1748-3190/ac2b00 |pmid=34584023 |bibcode=2021BiBi...16f6020B |s2cid=238217893 |issn=1748-3182}}</ref> Insect inspired BFRs are much smaller than those inspired by mammals or birds, so they are more suitable for dense environments. The prototype by Phan and Park took inspiration from the rhinoceros beetle, so it can successfully continue flight even after a collision by deforming its hindwings.

=== Biomimetic architecture ===
Living beings have adapted to a constantly changing environment during evolution through mutation, recombination, and selection.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Biomimetic research for architecture and building construction: biological design and integrative structures|date=2016|publisher=Springer |editor=Knippers, Jan |editor2=Nickel, Klaus G. |editor3=Speck, Thomas |isbn=978-3-319-46374-2|location=Cham|oclc=967523159}}</ref> The core idea of the biomimetic philosophy is that nature's inhabitants including animals, plants, and microbes have the most experience in solving problems and have already found the most appropriate ways to last on planet Earth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Collins|first=George R.|date=1963|title=Antonio Gaudi: Structure and Form|journal=Perspecta|volume=8|pages=63–90|doi=10.2307/1566905|jstor=1566905|issn=0079-0958}}</ref> Similarly, biomimetic architecture seeks solutions for building sustainability present in nature. While nature serves as a model, there are few examples of biomimetic architecture that aim to be nature positive.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urban Science |url=https://www.mdpi.com/journal/urbansci/special_issues/nature_positive_design |access-date=2024-05-05 |website=www.mdpi.com |language=en}}</ref>

The 21st century has seen a ubiquitous waste of energy due to inefficient building designs, in addition to the over-utilization of energy during the operational phase of its life cycle.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Radwan|first1=Gehan.A.N.|last2=Osama|first2=Nouran|date=2016|title=Biomimicry, an Approach, for Energy Effecient &#91;sic&#93; Building Skin Design|journal=Procedia Environmental Sciences|language=en|volume=34|pages=178–189|doi=10.1016/j.proenv.2016.04.017|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016PrEnS..34..178R }}</ref> In parallel, recent advancements in fabrication techniques, computational imaging, and simulation tools have opened up new possibilities to mimic nature across different architectural scales.<ref name=":1" /> As a result, there has been a rapid growth in devising innovative design approaches and solutions to counter energy problems. Biomimetic architecture is one of these multi-disciplinary approaches to [[sustainable design]] that follows a set of principles rather than stylistic codes, going beyond using nature as inspiration for the aesthetic components of built form but instead seeking to use nature to solve problems of the building's functioning and saving energy.

==== Characteristics ====
The term biomimetic architecture refers to the study and application of construction principles which are found in natural environments and species, and are translated into the design of sustainable solutions for architecture.<ref name=":1" /> Biomimetic architecture uses nature as a model, measure and mentor for providing architectural solutions across scales, which are inspired by natural organisms that have solved similar problems in nature. Using nature as a measure refers to using an ecological standard of measuring sustainability, and efficiency of man-made innovations, while the term mentor refers to learning from natural principles and using biology as an inspirational source.<ref name="Benyus 1997" />

Biomorphic architecture, also referred to as bio-decoration,<ref name=":1" /> on the other hand, refers to the use of formal and geometric elements found in nature, as a source of inspiration for aesthetic properties in designed architecture, and may not necessarily have non-physical, or economic functions. A historic example of biomorphic architecture dates back to Egyptian, Greek and Roman cultures, using tree and plant forms in the ornamentation of structural columns.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Aziz|first1=Moheb Sabry|last2=El sherif|first2=Amr Y.|date=March 2016|title=Biomimicry as an approach for bio-inspired structure with the aid of computation|journal=Alexandria Engineering Journal|language=en|volume=55|issue=1|pages=707–714|doi=10.1016/j.aej.2015.10.015|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Procedures ====
Within biomimetic architecture, two basic procedures can be identified, namely, the bottom-up approach (biology push) and top-down approach (technology pull).<ref>{{Citation|last1=Speck|first1=Thomas|title=Emergence in Biomimetic Materials Systems|date=2019|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-06128-9_5|work=Emergence and Modularity in Life Sciences|pages=97–115|editor-last=Wegner|editor-first=Lars H.|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-06128-9_5|isbn=978-3-030-06127-2|access-date=2020-11-23|last2=Speck|first2=Olga|s2cid=139377667 |editor2-last=Lüttge|editor2-first=Ulrich}}</ref> The boundary between the two approaches is blurry with the possibility of transition between the two, depending on each individual case. Biomimetic architecture is typically carried out in interdisciplinary teams in which biologists and other natural scientists work in collaboration with engineers, material scientists, architects, designers, mathematicians and computer scientists.

In the bottom-up approach, the starting point is a new result from basic biological research promising for biomimetic implementation. For example, developing a biomimetic material system after the quantitative analysis of the mechanical, physical, and chemical properties of a biological system.

In the top-down approach, biomimetic innovations are sought for already existing developments that have been successfully established on the market. The cooperation focuses on the improvement or further development of an existing product.

==== Examples ====
Researchers studied the [[termite]]'s ability to maintain virtually constant temperature and humidity in their [[termite mound]]s in Africa despite outside temperatures that vary from {{convert|1.5|to|40|C|F}}. Researchers initially scanned a termite mound and created 3-D images of the mound structure, which revealed construction that could influence human [[building design]]. The [[Eastgate Centre, Harare|Eastgate Centre]], a mid-rise office complex in [[Harare]], [[Zimbabwe]],<ref name="BI">{{Cite web|url=https://biomimicry.org/biomimicry-examples/|title=The Biomimicry Institute - Examples of nature-inspired sustainable design|website=Biomimicry Institute|access-date=2019-07-02|archive-date=2022-01-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123071717/https://biomimicry.org/biomimicry-examples/|url-status=dead}}</ref> stays cool via a passive cooling architecture that uses only 10% of the energy of a conventional building of the same size.

[[File:Co op Building dual facade.jpg|thumb|A [[Waagner-Biro]] double-skin facade being assembled at [[One Angel Square]], [[Manchester]]. The brown outer facade can be seen being assembled to the inner white facade via struts. These struts create a walkway between both 'skins' for ventilation, solar shading and maintenance.]]

Researchers in the [[Sapienza University of Rome]] were inspired by the natural ventilation in termite mounds and designed a double façade that significantly cuts down over lit areas in a building. Scientists have imitated the porous nature of mound walls by designing a facade with double panels that was able to reduce heat gained by radiation and increase heat loss by convection in cavity between the two panels. The overall cooling load on the building's energy consumption was reduced by 15%.<ref>El Ahmar, Salma & Fioravanti, Antonio. (2015). Biomimetic-Computational Design for Double Facades in Hot Climates: A Porous Folded Façade for Office Buildings.</ref>

A similar inspiration was drawn from the porous walls of termite mounds to design a naturally ventilated façade with a small ventilation gap. This design of façade is able to induce air flow due to the [[Venturi effect]] and continuously circulates rising air in the ventilation slot. Significant transfer of heat between the building's external wall surface and the air flowing over it was observed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Paar |first1=Michael Johann |last2=Petutschnigg |first2=Alexander |title=Biomimetic inspired, natural ventilated façade – A conceptual study |journal=Journal of Facade Design and Engineering |date=8 July 2017 |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=131–142 |doi=10.3233/FDE-171645 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The design is coupled with [[Green wall|greening]] of the façade. Green wall facilitates additional natural cooling via evaporation, respiration and transpiration in plants. The damp plant substrate further support the cooling effect.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=Nyuk Hien |last2=Kwang Tan |first2=Alex Yong |last3=Chen |first3=Yu |last4=Sekar |first4=Kannagi |last5=Tan |first5=Puay Yok |last6=Chan |first6=Derek |last7=Chiang |first7=Kelly |last8=Wong |first8=Ngian Chung |title=Thermal evaluation of vertical greenery systems for building walls |journal=Building and Environment |date=March 2010 |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=663–672 |doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2009.08.005 |bibcode=2010BuEnv..45..663W }}</ref>
[[File:Sepiolite-469730.jpg|thumb|Sepiolite in solid form]]
Scientists in [[Shanghai University]] were able to replicate the complex microstructure of clay-made conduit network in the mound to mimic the excellent humidity control in mounds. They proposed a porous humidity control material (HCM) using [[sepiolite]] and [[calcium chloride]] with water vapor adsorption-desorption content at 550 grams per meter squared. Calcium chloride is a [[desiccant]] and improves the water vapor adsorption-desorption property of the Bio-HCM. The proposed bio-HCM has a regime of interfiber mesopores which acts as a mini reservoir. The flexural strength of the proposed material was estimated to be 10.3 MPa using computational simulations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Xiaopeng |last2=Chen |first2=Zhang |last3=Yang |first3=Guang |last4=Gao |first4=Yanfeng |title=Bioinspired Ant-Nest-Like Hierarchical Porous Material Using CaCl<sub>2</sub> as Additive for Smart Indoor Humidity Control |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research |date=2 April 2019 |volume=58 |issue=17 |pages=7139–7145 |doi=10.1021/acs.iecr.8b06092 |s2cid=131825398 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/Bioinspired_Ant-Nest-Like_Hierarchical_Porous_Material_Using_CaCl_sub_2_sub_as_Additive_for_Smart_Indoor_Humidity_Control/7940336 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lan |first1=Haoran |last2=Jing |first2=Zhenzi |last3=Li |first3=Jian |last4=Miao |first4=Jiajun |last5=Chen |first5=Yuqian |title=Influence of pore dimensions of materials on humidity self-regulating performances |journal=Materials Letters |date=October 2017 |volume=204 |pages=23–26 |doi=10.1016/j.matlet.2017.05.095 |bibcode=2017MatL..204...23L }}</ref>

In structural engineering, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology ([[École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne|EPFL]]) has incorporated biomimetic characteristics in an adaptive deployable "tensegrity" bridge. The bridge can carry out self-diagnosis and self-repair.<ref name="korkmaz">{{cite journal |last1=Korkmaz |first1=Sinan |last2=Bel Hadj Ali |first2=Nizar |last3=Smith |first3=Ian F.C. |title=Determining control strategies for damage tolerance of an active tensegrity structure |journal=Engineering Structures |date=June 2011 |volume=33 |issue=6 |pages=1930–1939 |doi=10.1016/j.engstruct.2011.02.031 |bibcode=2011EngSt..33.1930K |citeseerx=10.1.1.370.6243 }}</ref> The [[phyllotaxy|arrangement of leaves on a plant]] has been adapted for better solar power collection.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/young-naturalist-awards/winning-essays2/2011-winning-essays/the-secret-of-the-fibonacci-sequence-in-trees|title=The Secret of the Fibonacci Sequence in Trees|date=1 May 2014|work=2011 Winning Essays|publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]]|access-date=17 July 2014}}</ref>

Analysis of the elastic deformation happening when a pollinator lands on the sheath-like perch part of the flower ''[[Strelitzia reginae]]'' (known as [[Strelitzia|bird-of-paradise]] flower) has inspired architects and scientists from the [[University of Freiburg]] and [[University of Stuttgart]] to create hingeless shading systems that can react to their environment. These bio-inspired products are sold under the name Flectofin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lienhard|first1=J|last2=Schleicher|first2=S|last3=Poppinga|first3=S|last4=Masselter|first4=T|last5=Milwich|first5=M|last6=Speck|first6=T|last7=Knippers|first7=J|date=2011-11-29|title=Flectofin: a hingeless flapping mechanism inspired by nature|journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics|volume=6|issue=4|pages=045001|doi=10.1088/1748-3182/6/4/045001|pmid=22126741|issn=1748-3182|bibcode=2011BiBi....6d5001L|s2cid=41502774}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Jürgen Bertling|title=Flectofin|date=2012-05-15|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XyLR_-fW0aA |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/XyLR_-fW0aA| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|access-date=2019-06-27}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Other hingeless bioinspired systems include Flectofold.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Körner|first1=A|last2=Born|first2=L|last3=Mader|first3=A|last4=Sachse|first4=R|last5=Saffarian|first5=S|last6=Westermeier|first6=A S|last7=Poppinga|first7=S|last8=Bischoff|first8=M|last9=Gresser|first9=G T|date=2017-12-12|title=Flectofold—a biomimetic compliant shading device for complex free form facades|journal=Smart Materials and Structures|volume=27|issue=1|pages=017001|doi=10.1088/1361-665x/aa9c2f|s2cid=139146312|issn=0964-1726|url=https://zenodo.org/record/3498858}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Flectofold has been inspired from the trapping system developed by the carnivorous plant ''[[Aldrovanda vesiculosa]]''.

=== Structural materials ===
There is a great need for new structural materials that are light weight but offer exceptional combinations of [[stiffness]], strength, and [[toughness]].

Such materials would need to be manufactured into bulk materials with complex shapes at high volume and low cost and would serve a variety of fields such as construction, transportation, energy storage and conversion.<ref>Bio-Synthetic Hybrid Materials and Bionanoparticles, Editors: Alexander Boker, Patrick van Rijn, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge 2016, https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/ebook/978-1-78262-210-9</ref> In a classic design problem, strength and toughness are more likely to be mutually exclusive, i.e., strong materials are brittle and tough materials are weak. However, natural materials with complex and hierarchical material gradients that span from [[Nanoscopic scale|nano]]- to macro-scales are both strong and tough. Generally, most natural materials utilize limited chemical components but complex material architectures that give rise to exceptional mechanical properties. Understanding the highly diverse and multi functional biological materials and discovering approaches to replicate such structures will lead to advanced and more efficient technologies. [[Bone]], [[nacre]] (abalone shell), teeth, the dactyl clubs of stomatopod shrimps and bamboo are great examples of damage tolerant materials.<ref name="materials">{{Cite journal|last1=Wegst|first1=Ulrike G. K.|last2=Bai|first2=Hao|last3=Saiz|first3=Eduardo|last4=Tomsia|first4=Antoni P.|last5=Ritchie|first5=Robert O.|date=2014-10-26|title=Bioinspired structural materials|journal=Nature Materials|volume=14|issue=1|pages=23–36|doi=10.1038/nmat4089|pmid=25344782|s2cid=1400303 |issn=1476-1122}}</ref> The exceptional resistance to [[fracture]] of bone is due to complex deformation and toughening mechanisms that operate at spanning different size scales &mdash; nanoscale structure of protein molecules to macroscopic physiological scale.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Launey|first1=Maximilien E.|last2=Buehler|first2=Markus J.|last3=Ritchie|first3=Robert O.|date=June 2010|title=On the Mechanistic Origins of Toughness in Bone|journal=[[Annual Review of Materials Research]]|volume=40|issue=1|pages=25–53|doi=10.1146/annurev-matsci-070909-104427|issn=1531-7331|citeseerx=10.1.1.208.4831|bibcode=2010AnRMS..40...25L|s2cid=6552812 }}</ref> [[File:Bruchfläche eines Perlmuttstücks.JPG|thumb|Electron microscopy image of a fractured surface of [[nacre]]|alt=]][[Nacre]] exhibits similar mechanical properties however with rather simpler structure. Nacre shows a brick and mortar like structure with thick mineral layer (0.2–0.9&nbsp;μm) of closely packed aragonite structures and thin organic matrix (~20&nbsp;nm).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Rizhi|last2=Gupta|first2=Himadri S.|date=2011-08-04|title=Deformation and Fracture Mechanisms of Bone and Nacre|journal=[[Annual Review of Materials Research]]|volume=41|issue=1|pages=41–73|doi=10.1146/annurev-matsci-062910-095806|issn=1531-7331|bibcode=2011AnRMS..41...41W}}</ref> While thin films and micrometer sized samples that mimic these structures are already produced, successful production of bulk biomimetic structural materials is yet to be realized. However, numerous processing techniques have been proposed for producing nacre like materials.<ref name="materials" /> [[Pavement cells]], epidermal cells on the surface of plant leaves and petals, often form wavy interlocking patterns resembling jigsaw puzzle pieces and are shown to enhance the fracture toughness of leaves, key to plant survival.<ref name="auto1">{{cite journal |last1=Bidhendi|first1=Amir J. |last2=Lampron |first2=Olivier|last3=Gosselin|first3=Frédérick P. |last4=Geitmann |first4=Anja |title = Cell geometry regulates tissue fracture |journal=Nature Communications |date=December 2023 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=8275|doi=10.1038/s41467-023-44075-4|pmid=38092784 |pmc=10719271 |bibcode=2023NatCo..14.8275B }}</ref> Their pattern, replicated in laser-engraved [[Poly(methyl methacrylate)]] samples, was also demonstrated to lead to increased fracture toughness. It is suggested that the arrangement and patterning of cells play a role in managing crack propagation in tissues.<ref name="auto1"/>

[[Biomineralization|Biomorphic mineralization]] is a technique that produces materials with morphologies and structures resembling those of natural living organisms by using bio-structures as templates for mineralization. Compared to other methods of material production, biomorphic mineralization is facile, environmentally benign and economic.<ref name="Tong">Tong-Xiang, Suk-Kwun, Di Zhang. "Biomorphic Mineralization: From biology to materials." State Key Lab of Metal Matrix Composites. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiaotong University, n.d. 545-1000.</ref>

[[Freeze-casting|Freeze casting]] (ice templating), an inexpensive method to mimic natural layered structures, was employed by researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory to create alumina-Al-Si and IT HAP-epoxy layered composites that match the mechanical properties of bone with an equivalent mineral/organic content.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Deville|first1=Sylvain|last2=Saiz|first2=Eduardo|last3=Nalla|first3=Ravi K.|last4=Tomsia|first4=Antoni P.|date=2006-01-27|title=Freezing as a Path to Build Complex Composites|journal=Science|volume=311|issue=5760|pages=515–518|doi=10.1126/science.1120937|issn=0036-8075|pmid=16439659|arxiv=1710.04167|bibcode=2006Sci...311..515D|s2cid=46118585}}</ref> Various further studies<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Munch|first1=E.|last2=Launey|first2=M. E.|last3=Alsem|first3=D. H.|last4=Saiz|first4=E.|last5=Tomsia|first5=A. P.|last6=Ritchie|first6=R. O.|date=2008-12-05|title=Tough, Bio-Inspired Hybrid Materials|journal=Science|volume=322|issue=5907|pages=1516–1520|doi=10.1126/science.1164865|issn=0036-8075|pmid=19056979|bibcode=2008Sci...322.1516M|s2cid=17009263|url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc932916/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Qiang|last2=Ye|first2=Feng|last3=Gao|first3=Ye|last4=Liu|first4=Shichao|last5=Yang|first5=Haixia|last6=Zhou|first6=Zhiqiang|date=February 2014|title=Fabrication of a new SiC/2024Al co-continuous composite with lamellar microstructure and high mechanical properties|journal=Journal of Alloys and Compounds|volume=585|pages=146–153|doi=10.1016/j.jallcom.2013.09.140|issn=0925-8388}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roy|first1=Siddhartha|last2=Butz|first2=Benjamin|last3=Wanner|first3=Alexander|date=April 2010|title=Damage evolution and domain-level anisotropy in metal/ceramic composites exhibiting lamellar microstructures|journal=Acta Materialia|volume=58|issue=7|pages=2300–2312|doi=10.1016/j.actamat.2009.12.015|bibcode=2010AcMat..58.2300R|issn=1359-6454}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bouville|first1=Florian|last2=Maire|first2=Eric|last3=Meille|first3=Sylvain|last4=Van de Moortèle|first4=Bertrand|last5=Stevenson|first5=Adam J.|last6=Deville|first6=Sylvain|date=2014-03-23|title=Strong, tough and stiff bioinspired ceramics from brittle constituents|journal=Nature Materials|volume=13|issue=5|pages=508–514|doi=10.1038/nmat3915|pmid=24658117|issn=1476-1122|arxiv=1506.08979|bibcode=2014NatMa..13..508B|s2cid=205409702}}</ref> also employed similar methods to produce high strength and high toughness composites involving a variety of constituent phases.

Recent studies demonstrated production of cohesive and self supporting macroscopic tissue constructs that mimic [[Tissue (biology)|living tissues]] by printing tens of thousands of heterologous picoliter droplets in software-defined, 3D millimeter-scale geometries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Villar|first1=Gabriel|last2=Graham|first2=Alexander D.|last3=Bayley|first3=Hagan|date=2013-04-05|title=A Tissue-Like Printed Material|journal=Science|volume=340|issue=6128|pages=48–52|doi=10.1126/science.1229495|issn=0036-8075|pmid=23559243|pmc=3750497|bibcode=2013Sci...340...48V}}</ref> Efforts are also taken up to mimic the design of nacre in artificial [[composite material]]s using fused deposition modelling<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Espinosa|first1=Horacio D.|last2=Juster|first2=Allison L.|last3=Latourte|first3=Felix J.|last4=Loh|first4=Owen Y.|last5=Gregoire|first5=David|last6=Zavattieri|first6=Pablo D.|date=2011-02-01|title=Tablet-level origin of toughening in abalone shells and translation to synthetic composite materials|journal=Nature Communications|volume=2|issue=1|pages=173|doi=10.1038/ncomms1172|pmid=21285951|issn=2041-1723|bibcode=2011NatCo...2..173E|doi-access=free}}</ref> and the helicoidal structures of [[Mantis shrimp|stomatopod]] clubs in the fabrication of high performance [[Carbon fibers|carbon fiber]]-epoxy composites.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2014-09-01|title=Bio-inspired impact-resistant composites|journal=Acta Biomaterialia|volume=10|issue=9|pages=3997–4008|doi=10.1016/j.actbio.2014.03.022|pmid=24681369|issn=1742-7061|last1=Grunenfelder|first1=L.K.|last2=Suksangpanya|first2=N.|last3=Salinas|first3=C.|last4=Milliron|first4=G.|last5=Yaraghi|first5=N.|last6=Herrera|first6=S.|last7=Evans-Lutterodt|first7=K.|last8=Nutt|first8=S.R.|last9=Zavattieri|first9=P.|last10=Kisailus|first10=D.}}</ref>

Various established and novel additive manufacturing technologies like PolyJet printing, direct ink writing, 3D magnetic printing, multi-material magnetically assisted 3D printing and magnetically assisted [[Slipcasting|slip casting]] have also been utilized to mimic the complex micro-scale architectures of natural materials and provide huge scope for future research.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Das |first1=Ratul |last2=Ahmad |first2=Zain |last3=Nauruzbayeva |first3=Jamilya |last4=Mishra |first4=Himanshu |title=Biomimetic Coating-free Superomniphobicity |journal=Scientific Reports |date=13 May 2020 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=7934 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-64345-1 |pmid=32404874 |language=en |issn=2045-2322|pmc=7221082 |bibcode=2020NatSR..10.7934D }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Studart|first=André R.|s2cid=3218518|date=2016|title=Additive manufacturing of biologically-inspired materials|journal=Chemical Society Reviews|volume=45|issue=2|pages=359–376|doi=10.1039/c5cs00836k|pmid=26750617|issn=0306-0012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Islam |first1=Muhammed Kamrul |last2=Hazell |first2=Paul J. |last3=Escobedo |first3=Juan P. |last4=Wang |first4=Hongxu |title=Biomimetic armour design strategies for additive manufacturing: A review |journal=Materials & Design |date=July 2021 |volume=205 |pages=109730 |doi=10.1016/j.matdes.2021.109730 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Spider]] silk is tougher than [[Kevlar]] used in [[Ballistic vest|bulletproof vests]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gu|first1=Yunqing|last2=Yu|first2=Lingzhi|last3=Mou|first3=Jiegang|last4=Wu|first4=Denghao|last5=Zhou|first5=Peijian|last6=Xu|first6=Maosen|date=2020-08-24|title=Mechanical properties and application analysis of spider silk bionic material|journal=E-Polymers|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=443–457|doi=10.1515/epoly-2020-0049|s2cid=221372172|issn=2197-4586|doi-access=free}}</ref> Engineers could in principle use such a material, if it could be reengineered to have a long enough life, for parachute lines, suspension bridge cables, artificial ligaments for medicine, and other purposes.<ref name="Benyus 1997" /> The self-sharpening teeth of many animals have been copied to make better cutting tools.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Killian|first1=Christopher E.|year=2010|title=Self-Sharpening Mechanism of the Sea Urchin Tooth|journal=Advanced Functional Materials|volume=21|issue=4|pages=682–690|doi=10.1002/adfm.201001546|s2cid=96221597 }}</ref>

New ceramics that exhibit giant electret hysteresis have also been realized.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yao|first1=Y.|last2=Wang|first2=Q.|last3=Wang|first3=H.|last4=Zhang|first4=B.|last5=Zhao|first5=C.|last6=Wang|first6=Z.|last7=Xu|first7=Z.|last8=Wu|first8=Y.|last9=Huang|first9=W.|year=2013|title=Bio-Assembled Nanocomposites in Conch Shells Exhibit Giant Electret Hysteresis|journal=Adv. Mater.|volume=25|issue=5|pages=711–718|doi=10.1002/adma.201202079|pmid=23090938|last10=Qian|first10=P.-Y.|last11=Zhang|first11=X. X.|bibcode=2013AdM....25..711Y |s2cid=205246425 }}</ref>

=== Neuronal computers ===
[[Neuromorphic]] computers and sensors are electrical devices that copy the structure and function of biological neurons in order to compute. One example of this is the [[event camera]] in which only the
pixels that receive a new signal update to a new state. All other pixels do not update until a signal is received.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3389/fnins.2016.00115|doi-access=free|title=A Review of Current Neuromorphic Approaches for Vision, Auditory, and Olfactory Sensors|year=2016|last1=Vanarse|first1=Anup|last2=Osseiran|first2=Adam|last3=Rassau|first3=Alexander|journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience|volume=10|page=115|pmid=27065784|pmc=4809886}}</ref>

=== Self healing-materials ===
In some biological systems, [[self-healing]] occurs via chemical releases at the site of fracture, which initiate a systemic response to transport repairing agents to the fracture site. This promotes autonomic healing.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Youngblood|first1=Jeffrey P.|last2=Sottos|first2=Nancy R.|date=August 2008|title=Bioinspired Materials for Self-Cleaning and Self-Healing|journal=MRS Bulletin|volume=33|issue=8|pages=732–741|doi=10.1557/mrs2008.158|issn=1938-1425|doi-access=free}}</ref> To demonstrate the use of micro-vascular networks for autonomic healing, researchers developed a microvascular coating–substrate architecture that mimics human skin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Toohey|first1=Kathleen S.|last2=Sottos|first2=Nancy R.|last3=Lewis|first3=Jennifer A.|last4=Moore|first4=Jeffrey S.|last5=White|first5=Scott R.|date=2007-06-10|title=Self-healing materials with microvascular&nbsp;networks|journal=Nature Materials|volume=6|issue=8|pages=581–585|doi=10.1038/nmat1934|pmid=17558429|issn=1476-1122}}</ref> Bio-inspired self-healing structural color hydrogels that maintain the stability of an inverse opal structure and its resultant structural colors were developed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fu|first1=Fanfan|last2=Chen|first2=Zhuoyue|last3=Zhao|first3=Ze|last4=Wang|first4=Huan|last5=Shang|first5=Luoran|last6=Gu|first6=Zhongze|last7=Zhao|first7=Yuanjin|date=2017-06-06|title=Bio-inspired self-healing structural color hydrogel|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=114|issue=23|pages=5900–5905|doi=10.1073/pnas.1703616114|issn=0027-8424|pmid=28533368|pmc=5468601|bibcode=2017PNAS..114.5900F|doi-access=free}}</ref> A self-repairing membrane inspired by rapid self-sealing processes in plants was developed for inflatable lightweight structures such as rubber boats or Tensairity constructions. The researchers applied a thin soft cellular polyurethane foam coating on the inside of a fabric substrate, which closes the crack if the membrane is punctured with a spike.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rampf|first1=Markus|last2=Speck|first2=Olga|last3=Speck|first3=Thomas|last4=Luchsinger|first4=Rolf H.|date=September 2011|title=Self-Repairing Membranes for Inflatable Structures Inspired by a Rapid Wound Sealing Process of Climbing Plants|journal=Journal of Bionic Engineering|volume=8|issue=3|pages=242–250|doi=10.1016/s1672-6529(11)60028-0|s2cid=137853348|issn=1672-6529}}</ref> [[Self-healing material]]s, [[polymer]]s and [[composite material]]s capable of mending cracks have been produced based on biological materials.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yuan |first1=Y. C. |last2=Yin |first2=T. |last3=Rong |first3=M. Z. |last4=Zhang |first4=M. Q. |title=Self healing in polymers and polymer composites. Concepts, realization and outlook: A review |journal=Express Polymer Letters |date=2008 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=238–250 |doi=10.3144/expresspolymlett.2008.29|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The self-healing properties may also be achieved by the breaking and reforming of hydrogen bonds upon cyclical stress of the material.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cummings|first1=Sean C.|last2=Dodo|first2=Obed J.|last3=Hull|first3=Alexander C.|last4=Zhang|first4=Borui|last5=Myers|first5=Camryn P.|last6=Sparks|first6=Jessica L.|last7=Konkolewicz|first7=Dominik|date=2020-03-13|title=Quantity or Quality: Are Self-Healing Polymers and Elastomers Always Tougher with More Hydrogen Bonds?|journal=ACS Applied Polymer Materials|volume=2|issue=3|pages=1108–1113|doi=10.1021/acsapm.9b01095|s2cid=214391859}}</ref>

=== Surfaces ===
[[Sharklet (material)|Surfaces]] that recreate the properties of [[Dermal denticle#Shark skin|shark skin]] are intended to enable more efficient movement through water. Efforts have been made to produce fabric that emulates shark skin.<ref name="williams" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sharklet.com/technology/|title=Inspired by Nature|date=2010|publisher=Sharklet Technologies Inc|access-date=6 June 2014}}</ref>

[[Surface tension biomimetics]] are being researched for technologies such as [[hydrophobic]] or [[hydrophilic]] coatings and microactuators.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yuan|first1=Zhiqing|date=15 November 2013|title=A novel fabrication of a superhydrophobic surface with highly similar hierarchical structure of the lotus leaf on a copper sheet|journal=Applied Surface Science|volume=285|pages=205–210|doi=10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.08.037|bibcode=2013ApSS..285..205Y}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Huh|first1=Dongeun|s2cid=11011310|date=25 June 2010|title=Reconstituting Organ-Level Lung Functions on a Chip|journal=Science|volume=328|issue=5986|pages=1662–1668|doi=10.1126/science.1188302|pmid=20576885|bibcode=2010Sci...328.1662H|pmc=8335790}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mayser|first1=Matthias|date=12 June 2014|title=Layers of Air in the Water beneath the Floating Fern Salvinia are Exposed to Fluctuations in Pressure|journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology|volume=54|issue=6|pages=1001–1007|doi=10.1093/icb/icu072|pmid=24925548|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Borno|first1=Ruba|date=21 September 2006|title=Transpiration actuation: the design, fabrication and characterization of biomimetic microactuators driven by the surface tension of water|journal=Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering|volume=16|issue=11|pages=2375–2383|doi=10.1088/0960-1317/16/11/018|bibcode=2006JMiMi..16.2375B|hdl=2027.42/49048|s2cid=2571529 |url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/49048/2/jmm6_11_018.pdf|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Garrod|first1=R.|date=4 October 2006|title=Mimicking a Stenocara Beetle's Back for Microcondensation Using Plasmachemical Patterned Superhydrophobic-Superhydrophilic Surfaces|journal=Langmuir|volume=23|issue=2|pages=689–693|doi=10.1021/la0610856|pmid=17209621}}</ref>

=== Adhesion ===

==== Wet adhesion ====
Some amphibians, such as tree and [[torrent frog]]s and arboreal [[salamander]]s, are able to attach to and move over wet or even flooded environments without falling. This kind of organisms have toe pads which are permanently wetted by mucus secreted from glands that open into the channels between epidermal cells. They attach to mating surfaces by wet adhesion and they are capable of climbing on wet rocks even when water is flowing over the surface.<ref name=":5" /> [[Tire]] treads have also been inspired by the toe pads of [[tree frog]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0953-8984/19/37/376110|title=ShieldSquare Captcha|website=iopscience.iop.org}}</ref> 3D printed hierarchical surface models, inspired from tree and torrent frogs toe pad design, have been observed to produce better wet traction than conventional tire design.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Banik|first1=Arnob|last2=Tan|first2=Kwek-Tze|date=2020|title=Dynamic Friction Performance of Hierarchical Biomimetic Surface Pattern Inspired by Frog Toe-Pad|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/admi.202000987|journal=Advanced Materials Interfaces|language=en|volume=7|issue=18|pages=2000987|doi=10.1002/admi.202000987|s2cid=225194802 |issn=2196-7350}}</ref>

Marine [[mussel]]s can stick easily and efficiently to surfaces underwater under the harsh conditions of the ocean. Mussels use strong filaments to adhere to rocks in the inter-tidal zones of wave-swept beaches, preventing them from being swept away in strong sea currents. Mussel foot proteins attach the filaments to rocks, boats and practically any surface in nature including other mussels. These proteins contain a mix of [[amino acid]] residues which has been adapted specifically for [[adhesive]] purposes. Researchers from the University of California Santa Barbara borrowed and simplified chemistries that the mussel foot uses to overcome this engineering challenge of wet adhesion to create copolyampholytes,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Seo|first1=Sungbaek|last2=Das|first2=Saurabh|last3=Zalicki|first3=Piotr J.|last4=Mirshafian|first4=Razieh|last5=Eisenbach|first5=Claus D.|last6=Israelachvili|first6=Jacob N.|last7=Waite|first7=J. Herbert|last8=Ahn|first8=B. Kollbe|date=2015-07-29|title=Microphase Behavior and Enhanced Wet-Cohesion of Synthetic Copolyampholytes Inspired by a Mussel Foot Protein|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=137|issue=29|pages=9214–9217|doi=10.1021/jacs.5b03827|issn=0002-7863|pmid=26172268|s2cid=207155810 |url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/9qd4s083}}</ref> and one-component adhesive systems<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ahn|first1=B. Kollbe|last2=Das|first2=Saurabh|last3=Linstadt|first3=Roscoe|last4=Kaufman|first4=Yair|last5=Martinez-Rodriguez|first5=Nadine R.|last6=Mirshafian|first6=Razieh|last7=Kesselman|first7=Ellina|last8=Talmon|first8=Yeshayahu|last9=Lipshutz|first9=Bruce H.|date=2015-10-19|title=High-performance mussel-inspired adhesives of reduced complexity|journal=Nature Communications|volume=6|pages=8663|doi=10.1038/ncomms9663|pmc=4667698|pmid=26478273|bibcode=2015NatCo...6.8663A}}</ref> with potential for employment in [[nanofabrication]] protocols. Other research has proposed adhesive glue from [[mussel]]s.

==== Dry adhesion ====
Leg attachment pads of several animals, including many insects (e.g., [[beetle]]s and [[Fly|flies]]), [[spider]]s and [[lizard]]s (e.g., [[gecko]]s), are capable of attaching to a variety of surfaces and are used for locomotion, even on vertical walls or across ceilings. Attachment systems in these organisms have similar structures at their terminal elements of contact, known as [[seta]]e. Such biological examples have offered inspiration in order to produce climbing robots,{{Citation needed |date=June 2022}}<!-- originally pointed to New Scientist main website, probably a good science news reference available there --> boots and tape.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/mota/education/Physics%2087N%20Final%20Projects/Group%20Gamma/gecko.htm|title=Gecko Tape|publisher=[[Stanford University]]|access-date=17 July 2014}}</ref> [[Synthetic setae]] have also been developed for the production of dry adhesives.

=== Liquid repellency ===
Superliquiphobicity refers to a remarkable surface property where a solid surface exhibits an extreme aversion to liquids, causing droplets to bead up and roll off almost instantaneously upon contact. This behavior arises from intricate surface textures and interactions at the nanoscale, effectively preventing liquids from wetting or adhering to the surface. The term "superliquiphobic" is derived from "[[Ultrahydrophobicity|superhydrophobic]]," which describes surfaces highly resistant to water. Superliquiphobic surfaces go beyond water repellency and display repellent characteristics towards a wide range of liquids, including those with very low surface tension or containing surfactants.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |title=Biomimetics |url=http://www.springer.com/us/book/9783319716756 |journal=SpringerLink |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tuteja |first1=Anish |last2=Choi |first2=Wonjae |last3=Ma |first3=Minglin |last4=Mabry |first4=Joseph M. |last5=Mazzella |first5=Sarah A. |last6=Rutledge |first6=Gregory C. |last7=McKinley |first7=Gareth H. |last8=Cohen |first8=Robert E. |date=2007-12-07 |title=Designing Superoleophobic Surfaces |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1148326 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=318 |issue=5856 |pages=1618–1622 |doi=10.1126/science.1148326 |pmid=18063796 |bibcode=2007Sci...318.1618T |s2cid=36967067 |issn=0036-8075}}</ref>

Superliquiphobicity, a remarkable phenomenon, emerges when a solid surface possesses minute roughness, forming interfaces with droplets through wetting while altering contact angles. This behavior hinges on the roughness factor (R<sub>f</sub>), defining the ratio of solid-liquid area to its projection, influencing contact angles. On rough surfaces, non-wetting liquids give rise to composite solid-liquid-air interfaces, their contact angles determined by the distribution of wet and air-pocket areas. The achievement of superliquiphobicity involves increasing the fractional flat geometrical area (f<sub>LA</sub>) and R<sub>f</sub>, leading to surfaces that actively repel liquids.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wenzel |first=Robert N. |title=Resistance of Solid Surfaces to Wetting by Water |date=August 1936 |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50320a024 |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry |language=en |volume=28 |issue=8 |pages=988–994 |doi=10.1021/ie50320a024 |issn=0019-7866}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cassie |first1=A. B. D. |last2=Baxter |first2=S. |date=1944 |title=Wettability of porous surfaces |url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=tf9444000546 |journal=Transactions of the Faraday Society |language=en |volume=40 |pages=546 |doi=10.1039/tf9444000546 |issn=0014-7672}}</ref>

The inspiration for crafting such surfaces draws from nature's ingenuity, prominently illustrated by the renowned "[[lotus effect]]". Leaves of water-repellent plants, like the lotus, exhibit inherent hierarchical structures featuring nanoscale wax-coated formations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neinhuis |first=C |date=June 1997 |title=Characterization and Distribution of Water-repellent, Self-cleaning Plant Surfaces |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=79 |issue=6 |pages=667–677 |doi=10.1006/anbo.1997.0400|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barthlott |first1=W. |last2=Neinhuis |first2=C. |date=1997-04-30 |title=Purity of the sacred lotus, or escape from contamination in biological surfaces |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s004250050096 |journal=Planta |volume=202 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1007/s004250050096 |bibcode=1997Plant.202....1B |s2cid=37872229 |issn=0032-0935}}</ref> These structures lead to superhydrophobicity, where water droplets perch on trapped air bubbles, resulting in high contact angles and minimal contact angle hysteresis. This natural example guides the development of superliquiphobic surfaces, capitalizing on re-entrant geometries that can repel low surface tension liquids and achieve near-zero contact angles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tuteja |first1=Anish |last2=Choi |first2=Wonjae |last3=McKinley |first3=Gareth H. |last4=Cohen |first4=Robert E. |last5=Rubner |first5=Michael F. |date=August 2008 |title=Design Parameters for Superhydrophobicity and Superoleophobicity |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1557/mrs2008.161 |journal=MRS Bulletin |language=en |volume=33 |issue=8 |pages=752–758 |doi=10.1557/mrs2008.161 |s2cid=138093919 |issn=0883-7694}}</ref>

Creating superliquiphobic surfaces involves pairing re-entrant geometries with low surface energy materials, such as fluorinated substances. These geometries include overhangs that widen beneath the surface, enabling repellency even for minimal contact angles. Researchers have successfully fabricated various re-entrant geometries, offering a pathway for practical applications in diverse fields. These surfaces find utility in self-cleaning, anti-icing, anti-fogging, antifouling, and more, presenting innovative solutions to challenges in biomedicine, desalination, and energy conversion.

In essence, superliquiphobicity, inspired by natural models like the lotus leaf, capitalizes on re-entrant geometries and surface properties to create interfaces that actively repel liquids. These surfaces hold immense promise across a range of applications, promising enhanced functionality and performance in various technological and industrial contexts.

=== Optics ===
{{Further|Structural coloration|Patterns in nature|Bio-inspired photonics}}

[[Biomimetic material]]s are gaining increasing attention in the field of [[optics]] and [[photonics]]. There are still little known [[Bio-inspired photonics|bioinspired or biomimetic products]] involving the photonic properties of plants or animals. However, understanding how nature designed such optical materials from biological resources is a current field of research.

[[File:Macroscopic picture of a film of cellulose nanocrystal suspension cast on a Petri dish (diameter 3.5cm)..jpg|right|thumb|Macroscopic picture of a film of cellulose nanocrystal suspension cast on a [[Petri dish]] (diameter: 3.5cm)]]

==== Inspiration from fruits and plants ====
One source of biomimetic inspiration is from [[plant]]s. Plants have proven to be concept generations for the following functions; re(action)-coupling, self (adaptability), self-repair, and energy-autonomy. As plants do not have a centralized decision making unit (i.e. a brain), most plants have a decentralized autonomous system in various organs and tissues of the plant. Therefore, they react to multiple stimulus such as light, heat, and humidity.<ref name="journals.sagepub.com">{{Cite journal |last1=Speck |first1=Thomas |last2=Poppinga |first2=Simon |last3=Speck |first3=Olga |last4=Tauber |first4=Falk |date=2021-09-23 |title=Bio-inspired life-like motile materials systems: Changing the boundaries between living and technical systems in the Anthropocene |journal=The Anthropocene Review |volume=9 |issue=2 |language=en |pages=237–256 |doi=10.1177/20530196211039275 |s2cid=244195957 |issn=2053-0196|doi-access=free }}</ref>

One example is the carnivorous plant species ''[[Dionaea muscipula]]'' (Venus flytrap). For the last 25 years, there has been research focus on the motion principles of the plant to develop AVFT (artificial Venus flytrap robots). Through the movement during prey capture, the plant inspired soft robotic motion systems. The fast snap buckling (within 100&ndash;300&nbsp;ms) of the trap closure movement is initiated when prey triggers the hairs of the plant within a certain time (twice within 20&nbsp;s). AVFT systems exist, in which the trap closure movements are actuated via magnetism, electricity, pressurized air, and temperature changes.<ref name="journals.sagepub.com"/>

Another example of mimicking plants, is the ''[[Pollia condensata]],'' also known as the marble berry. The chiral [[self-assembly]] of cellulose inspired by the ''[[Pollia condensata]]'' berry has been exploited to make optically active films.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vignolini|first1=Silvia|last2=Rudall|first2=Paula J.|last3=Rowland|first3=Alice V.|last4=Reed|first4=Alison|last5=Moyroud|first5=Edwige|last6=Faden|first6=Robert B.|last7=Baumberg|first7=Jeremy J.|last8=Glover|first8=Beverley J.|last9=Steiner|first9=Ullrich|date=2012-09-25|title=Pointillist structural color in Pollia fruit|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=109|issue=39|pages=15712–15715|doi=10.1073/pnas.1210105109|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3465391|pmid=23019355|bibcode=2012PNAS..10915712V|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dumanli|first1=A. G.|last2=van der Kooij|first2=H. M.|last3=Reisner|first3=E.|last4=Baumberg|first4=J.J.|last5=Steiner|first5=U.|last6=Vignolini|first6=Silvia|date=2014|title=Digital color in cellulose nanocrystal films|journal=ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces|volume=7|issue=15|pages=12302–12306|doi=10.1021/am501995e|pmid=25007291|pmc=4251880}}</ref> Such films are made from cellulose which is a biodegradable and biobased resource obtained from wood or cotton. The structural colours can potentially be everlasting and have more vibrant colour than the ones obtained from chemical absorption of light. ''[[Pollia condensata]]'' is not the only fruit showing a structural coloured skin; iridescence is also found in berries of other species such as ''[[Margaritaria nobilis]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vignolini|first1=Silvia|last2=Gregory|first2=Thomas|last3=Kolle|first3=Mathias|last4=Lethbridge|first4=Alfie|last5=Moyroud|first5=Edwige|last6=Steiner|first6=Ullrich|last7=Glover|first7=Beverley J.|last8=Vukusic|first8=Peter|last9=Rudall|first9=Paula J.|date=2016-11-01|title=Structural colour from helicoidal cell-wall architecture in fruits of Margaritaria nobilis|journal=Journal of the Royal Society Interface|volume=13|issue=124|pages=20160645|doi=10.1098/rsif.2016.0645|issn=1742-5689|pmc=5134016|pmid=28334698}}</ref> These fruits show [[Iridescence|iridescent]] colors in the blue-green region of the visible spectrum which gives the fruit a strong metallic and shiny visual appearance.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Vignolini|first1=Silvia|last2=Moyroud|first2=Edwige|last3=Glover|first3=Beverley J.|last4=Steiner|first4=Ullrich|date=2013-10-06|title=Analysing photonic structures in plants|journal=Journal of the Royal Society Interface|volume=10|issue=87|pages=20130394|doi=10.1098/rsif.2013.0394|issn=1742-5689|pmc=3758000|pmid=23883949}}</ref> The structural colours come from the organisation of cellulose chains in the fruit's [[Fruit anatomy|epicarp]], a part of the fruit skin.<ref name=":0" /> Each cell of the epicarp is made of a multilayered envelope that behaves like a [[Bragg reflector]]. However, the light which is reflected from the skin of these fruits is not polarised unlike the one arising from man-made replicates obtained from the self-assembly of cellulose nanocrystals into helicoids, which only reflect left-handed [[Circular polarization|circularly polarised light]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Parker|first1=Richard M.|last2=Guidetti|first2=Giulia|last3=Williams|first3=Cyan A.|last4=Zhao|first4=Tianheng|last5=Narkevicius|first5=Aurimas|last6=Vignolini|first6=Silvia|last7=Frka-Petesic|first7=Bruno|date=2017-12-18|title=The Self-Assembly of Cellulose Nanocrystals: Hierarchical Design of Visual Appearance|journal=Advanced Materials|volume=30|issue=19|pages=1704477|doi=10.1002/adma.201704477|pmid=29250832|issn=0935-9648|url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/1810/275165/1/Accepted%20Manuscript.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The fruit of ''[[Elaeocarpus angustifolius]]'' also show structural colour that come arises from the presence of specialised cells called iridosomes which have layered structures.<ref name=":0" /> Similar iridosomes have also been found in ''[[Delarbrea]] michieana'' fruits.<ref name=":0" />

In plants, multi layer structures can be found either at the surface of the leaves (on top of the epidermis), such as in ''[[Selaginella willdenowii]]''<ref name=":0" /> or within specialized intra-cellular [[organelle]]s, the so-called iridoplasts, which are located inside the cells of the upper epidermis.<ref name=":0" /> For instance, the rain forest plants Begonia pavonina have iridoplasts located inside the epidermal cells.<ref name=":0" />

Structural colours have also been found in several algae, such as in the red alga ''[[Chondrus crispus]]'' (Irish Moss).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chandler|first1=Chris J.|last2=Wilts|first2=Bodo D.|last3=Vignolini|first3=Silvia|last4=Brodie|first4=Juliet|last5=Steiner|first5=Ullrich|last6=Rudall|first6=Paula J.|last7=Glover|first7=Beverley J.|last8=Gregory|first8=Thomas|last9=Walker|first9=Rachel H.|date=2015-07-03|title=Structural colour in Chondrus crispus|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=5|issue=1|pages=11645|doi=10.1038/srep11645|pmid=26139470|pmc=5155586|issn=2045-2322|bibcode=2015NatSR...511645C}}</ref>

==== Inspiration from animals ====
[[File:Morpho didius Male Dos MHNT.jpg|thumb|alt=Morpho butterfly.|The vibrant blue color of ''[[Morpho (genus)|Morpho]]'' butterfly due to [[structural coloration]] has been mimicked by a variety of technologies.]]

[[Structural coloration]] produces the rainbow colours of [[soap bubble]]s, butterfly wings and many beetle scales.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schroeder |first1=Thomas B. H. |last2=Houghtaling |first2=Jared |last3=Wilts |first3=Bodo D. |last4=Mayer |first4=Michael |date=March 2018 |title=It's Not a Bug, It's a Feature: Functional Materials in Insects |journal=Advanced Materials |volume=30 |issue=19 |pages=1705322 |doi=10.1002/adma.201705322 |pmid=29517829|bibcode=2018AdM....3005322S |doi-access=free |hdl=2027.42/143760 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schenk |first1=Franziska |last2=Wilts |first2=Bodo D. |last3=Stavenga |first3=Doekele G|date=November 2013 |title=The Japanese jewel beetle: a painter's challenge|journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=045002 |doi=10.1088/1748-3182/8/4/045002 |pmid=24262911|bibcode=2013BiBi....8d5002S |s2cid=41654298 }}</ref> Phase-separation has been used to fabricate ultra-[[white]] [[scattering]] membranes from [[polymethylmethacrylate]], mimicking the [[beetle]] ''[[Cyphochilus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Syurik |first1=Julia |last2=Jacucci |first2=Gianni |last3=Onelli |first3=Olimpia D.<!--self-citing author-->|last4=Holscher |first4=Hendrik |last5=Vignolini |first5=Silvia |date=22 February 2018 |title=Bio-inspired Highly Scattering Networks via Polymer Phase Separation |journal=Advanced Functional Materials |volume=28|issue=24 |pages=1706901 |doi=10.1002/adfm.201706901|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[light-emitting diode|LED]] lights can be designed to mimic the patterns of scales on [[firefly|fireflies]]' abdomens, improving their efficiency.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2013/01/09/brighter-leds-inspired-by-fireflies-efficiency-increased-by-55-percent/ |title=Brighter LEDs Inspired By Fireflies, Efficiency Increased By 55% |website=[[CleanTechnica]] |date=January 9, 2013 |first=James |last=Ayre |access-date=June 4, 2019}}</ref>

''[[Morpho (genus)|Morpho]]'' butterfly wings are structurally coloured to produce a vibrant blue that does not vary with angle.<ref name="Ball">{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/scientificamerican/journal/v306/n5/full/scientificamerican0512-74.html |journal=Scientific American |author=Ball, Philip |date=May 2012 |title=Nature's Color Tricks |volume=306 |issue=5 |pages=74–79 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0512-74|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |pmid=22550931 |bibcode=2012SciAm.306e..74B }}</ref> This effect can be mimicked by a variety of technologies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Song |first1=Bokwang |last2=Johansen |first2=Villads Egede |last3=Sigmund |first3=Ole |last4=Shin |first4=Jung H. |date=April 2017 |title=Reproducing the hierarchy of disorder for Morpho-inspired, broad-angle color reflection |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=46023 |doi=10.1038/srep46023 |pmid=28387328 |pmc=5384085|bibcode=2017NatSR...746023S }}</ref> [[Lotus Cars]] claim to have developed a paint that mimics the ''Morpho'' butterfly's structural blue colour.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://discoverlexus.com/highlights/structural-blue-color-reimagined|title=Structural Blue: Color Reimagined / Discover the Global World of Lexus|website=discoverlexus.com|access-date=25 September 2018}}</ref> In 2007, [[Qualcomm]] commercialised an [[interferometric modulator display]] technology, "Mirasol", using ''Morpho''-like optical interference.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.qualcomm.com/blog/2010/01/07/nature-knows-best |title=Nature Knows Best: What Burrs, Geckos and Termites Teach Us About Design |last1=Cathey |first1=Jim |date=7 January 2010 |publisher=Qualcomm |access-date=24 August 2015}}</ref> In 2010, the dressmaker Donna Sgro made a dress from [[Teijin|Teijin Fibers]]' [[Morphotex]], an undyed fabric woven from structurally coloured fibres, mimicking the microstructure of ''Morpho'' butterfly wing scales.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cherny-Scanlon |first1=Xenya |title=Seven fabrics inspired by nature: from the lotus leaf to butterflies and sharks |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sustainable-fashion-blog/nature-fabrics-fashion-industry-biomimicry |access-date=23 November 2018 |work=The Guardian |date=29 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Sgro |first1=Donna |title=About |url=https://donnasgro.com/Morphotex-Dress |publisher=Donna Sgro |access-date=23 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Sgro |first1=Donna |title=Biomimicry + Fashion Practice |url=https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B6_GqbK7TV1pSXp4Q3MweUcwbUE/edit |publisher=Fashionably Early Forum, National Gallery Canberra |access-date=23 November 2018 |pages=61–70 |date=9 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |website=Teijin Japan |title=Annual Report 2006 |url=https://www.teijin.com/ir/library/annual_report/pdf/ar_06_all.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123154355/https://www.teijin.com/ir/library/annual_report/pdf/ar_06_all.pdf |archive-date=2018-11-23 |access-date=23 November 2018 |date=July 2006 |quote=MORPHOTEX, the world's first structurally colored fiber, features a stack structure with several tens of nano-order layers of polyester and nylon fibers with different refractive indexes, facilitating control of color using optical coherence tomography. Structural control means that a single fiber will always show the same colors regardless of its location.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Morphotex |url=http://transmaterial.net/morphotex/ |website=Transmaterial |access-date=23 November 2018 |date=12 October 2010}}</ref>

[[Canon Inc.]]'s SubWavelength structure Coating uses wedge-shaped structures the size of the wavelength of visible light. The wedge-shaped structures cause a continuously changing refractive index as light travels through the coating, significantly reducing [[lens flare]]. This imitates the structure of a moth's eye.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cpn.canon-europe.com/content/education/technical/subwavelength_coating.do|title=SubWavelength Structure Coating|first=Canon Europa N. V. and Canon Europe|last=Ltd 2002-2017|website=Canon Professional Network|access-date=2019-07-24|archive-date=2020-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730125716/https://cpn.canon-europe.com/content/education/technical/subwavelength_coating.do|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cpn.canon-europe.com/content/education/infobank/lenses/subwavelength_coating.do|title=SubWavelength structure Coating|first=Canon Europa N. V. and Canon Europe|last=Ltd 2002-2017|website=Canon Professional Network|access-date=2019-07-24|archive-date=2020-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730080939/https://cpn.canon-europe.com/content/education/infobank/lenses/subwavelength_coating.do|url-status=dead}}</ref> Notable figures such as the Wright Brothers and Leonardo da Vinci attempted to replicate the flight observed in birds.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kulkarni|first1=Amogh|last2=Saraf|first2=Chinmay|title=2019 IEEE Pune Section International Conference (PuneCon) |chapter=Learning from Nature: Applications of Biomimicry in Technology |date=December 2019|pages=1–6|publisher=IEEE|doi=10.1109/punecon46936.2019.9105797|isbn=978-1-7281-1924-3|s2cid=219316015}}</ref> In an effort to reduce aircraft noise researchers have looked to the leading edge of owl feathers, which have an array of small finlets or [[rachis]] adapted to disperse aerodynamic pressure and provide nearly silent flight to the bird.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Stevenson|first=John|date=November 18, 2020|title=Small finlets on owl feathers point the way to less aircraft noise|work=[[Phys.org]]|url=https://phys.org/news/2020-11-small-finlets-owl-feathers-aircraft.html|access-date=November 20, 2020}}</ref>

=== Agricultural systems ===
[[Holistic management|Holistic planned grazing]], using fencing and/or [[herder]]s, seeks to restore [[grasslands]] by carefully planning movements of large [[herding behavior|herds]] of livestock to mimic the vast herds found in nature. The natural system being mimicked and used as a template is [[grazing]] animals concentrated by pack predators that must move on after eating, trampling, and manuring an area, and returning only after it has fully recovered. Its founder [[Allan Savory]] and some others have claimed potential in building soil,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Teague |first1=W.R. |last2=Dowhower |first2=S.L. |last3=Baker |first3=S.A. |last4=Haile |first4=N. |last5=DeLaune |first5=P.B. |last6=Conover |first6=D.M. |title=Grazing management impacts on vegetation, soil biota and soil chemical, physical and hydrological properties in tall grass prairie |journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment |date=May 2011 |volume=141 |issue=3–4 |pages=310–322 |doi=10.1016/j.agee.2011.03.009 |bibcode=2011AgEE..141..310T }}</ref> increasing biodiversity, and reversing [[desertification]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weber |first1=K.T. |last2=Gokhale |first2=B.S. |title=Effect of grazing on soil-water content in semiarid rangelands of southeast Idaho |journal=Journal of Arid Environments |date=January 2011 |volume=75 |issue=5 |pages=264–270 |doi=10.1016/j.jaridenv.2010.12.009 |url=http://giscenter.isu.edu/research/projects/jae_soilmoisture.pdf |access-date=5 March 2019|bibcode=2011JArEn..75..464W }}</ref> However, many researchers have disputed Savory's claim. Studies have often found that the method increases desertification instead of reducing it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Briske |first1=David D. |last2=Bestelmeyer |first2=Brandon T. |last3=Brown |first3=Joel R. |last4=Fuhlendorf |first4=Samuel D. |last5=Wayne Polley |first5=H. |date=Oct 2013 |title=The Savory Method Can Not Green Deserts or Reverse Climate Change |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0190052813500320 |journal=Rangelands |language=en |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=72–74 |doi=10.2111/RANGELANDS-D-13-00044.1|hdl=10150/639967 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Monbiot |first=George |date=2014-08-04 |title=Eat more meat and save the world: the latest implausible farming miracle |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/georgemonbiot/2014/aug/04/eat-more-meat-and-save-the-world-the-latest-implausible-farming-miracle |access-date=2024-05-30 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

===Other uses===

Some [[air conditioning]] systems use biomimicry in their fans to increase [[airflow]] while reducing power consumption.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lg.com/global/business/air-solution/vrf/multi-v-5|title=Multi V 5 {{pipe}} VRF {{pipe}} Air Solution {{pipe}} Business {{pipe}} LG Global|website=www.lg.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.daikin.com/products/ac/lineup/skyair/modals/technology/04_fan/|title=Fan {{pipe}} Air Conditioning and Refrigeration {{pipe}} Daikin Global|website=www.daikin.com}}</ref>

Technologists like [[Jas Johl]] have speculated that the functionality of vacuole cells could be used to design highly adaptable security systems.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/@jasjohl/biomimicry-5-security-design-principles-from-the-field-of-cellular-biology-5bb5032909f0|title=BioMimicry: 5 Security Design Principles from the Field of Cellular Biology|first=Jas|last=Johl|date=September 20, 2019|website=Medium}}</ref> "The functionality of a vacuole, a biological structure that guards and promotes growth, illuminates the value of adaptability as a guiding principle for security." The functions and significance of vacuoles are fractal in nature, the organelle has no basic shape or size; its structure varies according to the requirements of the cell. Vacuoles not only isolate threats, contain what's necessary, export waste, maintain pressure—they also help the cell scale and grow. Johl argues these functions are necessary for any security system design.<ref name="auto"/> The [[500 Series Shinkansen]] used biomimicry to reduce energy consumption and noise levels while increasing passenger comfort.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/design-voices/looking-deeper-into-biomimicry-how-nature-inspires-design-55c6f881241d|title=Looking deeper into biomimicry: how nature inspires design|first=Skipper Chong|last=Warson|date=January 2, 2018|website=Medium}}</ref> With reference to space travel, NASA and other firms have sought to develop swarm-type space drones inspired by bee behavioural patterns, and oxtapod terrestrial drones designed with reference to desert spiders.<ref>{{Cite web|title=NASA's New Flying Robots: Bee-ing in Space for the First Time|url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/nasa-s-new-flying-robots-bee-ing-in-space-for-the-first-time|last=Chen|first=Rick|date=2019-04-16|website=NASA|access-date=2020-05-29|archive-date=2021-09-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907233005/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/nasa-s-new-flying-robots-bee-ing-in-space-for-the-first-time/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Other technologies==

[[Protein folding]] has been used to control material formation for [[Molecular self-assembly|self-assembled functional nanostructures]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Self-assembled bionanostructures: proteins following the lead of DNA nanostructures|first1=Helena|last1=Gradišar|first2=Roman|last2=Jerala|date=February 3, 2014|journal=Journal of Nanobiotechnology|volume=12|issue=1|pages=4|doi=10.1186/1477-3155-12-4|pmid = 24491139|pmc=3938474 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Polar bear fur has inspired the design of thermal collectors and clothing.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Bionics in textiles: flexible and translucent thermal insulations for solar thermal applications |last1=Stegmaier |first1=Thomas |last2=Linke |first2=Michael |last3=Planck |first3=Heinrich |date=29 March 2009 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2009.0019 |pmid=19376769 |journal=Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A |volume=367 |issue=1894 |pages=1749–1758|bibcode=2009RSPTA.367.1749S |s2cid=17661840 }}</ref> The light refractive properties of the moth's eye has been studied to reduce the reflectivity of solar panels.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wilson, S.J. Wilson |author2=Hutley, M.C. | title=The Optical Properties of 'Moth Eye' Antireflection Surfaces | journal=Journal of Modern Optics | volume=29 | issue=7 | pages=993–1009| year=1982 | doi=10.1080/713820946|bibcode=1982AcOpt..29..993W }}</ref>

[[File:TobaccoMosaicVirus.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Electron micrograph of rod shaped TMV particles|[[Scanning electron micrograph]] of rod shaped [[tobacco mosaic virus]] particles]]

The [[Bombardier beetle]]'s powerful repellent spray inspired a Swedish company to develop a "micro mist" spray technology, which is claimed to have a low carbon impact (compared to aerosol sprays). The beetle mixes chemicals and releases its spray via a steerable nozzle at the end of its abdomen, stinging and confusing the victim.<ref>[http://www.swedishbiomimetics.com/biomimetics_folder.pdf Swedish Biomimetics: The μMist Platform Technology] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213022851/http://www.swedishbiomimetics.com/biomimetics_folder.pdf |date=December 13, 2013 }}. Retrieved 3 June 2012.</ref>

Most [[virus]]es have an outer capsule 20 to 300&nbsp;nm in diameter. Virus capsules are remarkably robust and capable of withstanding temperatures as high as 60&nbsp;°C; they are stable across the [[pH]] range 2–10.<ref name="Tong" /> Viral capsules can be used to create nano device components such as nanowires, nanotubes, and quantum dots. Tubular virus particles such as the [[tobacco mosaic virus]] (TMV) can be used as templates to create nanofibers and nanotubes, since both the inner and outer layers of the virus are charged surfaces which can induce nucleation of crystal growth. This was demonstrated through the production of [[platinum]] and [[gold]] nanotubes using TMV as a template.<ref name="Dujardin">{{cite journal |last1=Dujardin |first1=Erik |last2=Peet |first2=Charlie |last3=Stubbs |first3=Gerald |last4=Culver |first4=James N. |last5=Mann |first5=Stephen |title=Organization of Metallic Nanoparticles Using Tobacco Mosaic Virus Templates |journal=Nano Letters |date=March 2003 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=413–417 |doi=10.1021/nl034004o |bibcode=2003NanoL...3..413D }}</ref> Mineralized virus particles have been shown to withstand various pH values by mineralizing the viruses with different materials such as silicon, [[Lead(II) sulfide|PbS]], and [[Cadmium sulfide|CdS]] and could therefore serve as a useful carriers of material.<ref name="Shenton">{{cite journal |last1=Douglas |first1=Trevor |last2=Young |first2=Mark |title=Virus Particles as Templates for Materials Synthesis |journal=Advanced Materials |date=June 1999 |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=679–681 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1521-4095(199906)11:8<679::AID-ADMA679>3.0.CO;2-J |bibcode=1999AdM....11..679D }}</ref> A spherical plant virus called [[cowpea chlorotic mottle virus]] (CCMV) has interesting expanding properties when exposed to environments of pH higher than 6.5. Above this pH, 60 independent pores with diameters about 2&nbsp;nm begin to exchange substance with the environment. The structural transition of the viral capsid can be utilized in [[Biomineralization|Biomorphic mineralization]] for selective uptake and deposition of minerals by controlling the solution pH. Possible applications include using the viral cage to produce uniformly shaped and sized quantum dot [[semiconductor]] nanoparticles through a series of pH washes. This is an alternative to the [[Ferritin|apoferritin]] cage technique currently used to synthesize uniform CdSe nanoparticles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yamashita |first1=Ichiro |last2=Hayashi |first2=Junko |last3=Hara |first3=Masahiko |title=Bio-template Synthesis of Uniform CdSe Nanoparticles Using Cage-shaped Protein, Apoferritin |journal=Chemistry Letters |date=September 2004 |volume=33 |issue=9 |pages=1158–1159 |doi=10.1246/cl.2004.1158 }}</ref> Such materials could also be used for targeted drug delivery since particles release contents upon exposure to specific pH levels.

== See also ==
{{Portal|Biology|Technology}}
* [[Artificial photosynthesis]]
* [[Artificial enzyme]]
* {{section link|Artificial enzyme|Nanozymes}}
* [[Bio-inspired computing]] <!--this should be discussed in text not languish here-->
* ''[[Bioinspiration & Biomimetics]]''
* [[Biomimetic synthesis]]
* [[Carbon sequestration]]
* [[Reverse engineering]]
* [[Synthetic biology]]
<!--ONLY GENERAL, SOMEWHAT RELATED TOPICS HERE-->
<!--Please do not add links to individual implementations, robots, etc., as they will be removed. Add them with suitable descriptions and references in the main text.-->

== References ==
{{Reflist|28em}}

== Further reading ==

* Benyus, J. M. (2001). ''Along Came a Spider''. Sierra, 86(4), 46–47.
* Hargroves, K. D. & Smith, M. H. (2006). ''Innovation inspired by nature Biomimicry''. Ecos, (129), 27–28.
* Marshall, A. (2009). ''Wild Design: The Ecomimicry Project'', North Atlantic Books: Berkeley.
* Passino, Kevin M. (2004). ''Biomimicry for Optimization, Control, and Automation.'' Springer.
* Pyper, W. (2006). ''Emulating nature: The rise of industrial ecology''. Ecos, (129), 22–26.
* Smith, J. (2007). ''It's only natural''. The Ecologist, 37(8), 52–55.
* [[D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson|Thompson, D'Arcy W.]], ''On Growth and Form''. Dover 1992 reprint of 1942 2nd ed. (1st ed., 1917).
* [[Steven Vogel|Vogel, S.]] (2000). ''Cats' Paws and Catapults: Mechanical Worlds of Nature and People''. Norton.

== External links ==
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* [https://www.youtube.com/user/MITbiomimetics Biomimetics MIT]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081026212411/http://www.scribemedia.org/2008/10/22/float-like-a-butterfly-with-janine-benyus/ ''Sex, Velcro and Biomimicry'' with Janine Benyus]
* [http://www.ted.com/talks/janine_benyus_biomimicry_in_action.html Janine Benyus: Biomimicry in Action] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100403043953/http://www.ted.com/talks/janine_benyus_biomimicry_in_action.html |date=2010-04-03 }} from TED 2009
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080321210423/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/04/biomimetics/clark-photography Design by Nature - National Geographic]
* [http://www.ted.com/talks/michael_pawlyn_using_nature_s_genius_in_architecture.html Michael Pawlyn: Using nature's genius in architecture] from TED 2010
* [http://www.ted.com/talks/robert_full_on_engineering_and_evolution.html Robert Full shows how human engineers can learn from animals' tricks] from TED 2002
* [https://archive.today/20130102112425/http://www.eveningnews.com/blogs/2009/11/08/fastdraw/entry5577007.shtml ''The Fast Draw: Biomimicry''] from CBS News

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