View source for User:Spesh531/Azawad

{{for|the geographical region spanning several Sahelian countries|Azawagh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{Infobox former country
|native_name              = {{lang|ber|ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴷ}}<br />{{lang|ar|دولة ازواد}}<br />''{{lang|fr|État de l’Azawad}}''
|conventional_long_name   = State of Azawad
|common_name              = Azawad
|continent = Africa
|country = Mali
|status = [[List of historical unrecognized states|Unrecognized state]]
|p1 = Mali
|flag_p1 = Flag of Mali.svg
|s1 = Mali
|flag_s1 = Flag of Mali.svg
|image_flag = MNLA flag.svg
|flag_alt = Flag of Azawad
|flag = Flag of Azawad
|image_map = Azawad (orthographic projection).svg
|alt_map = Projection of Azawad in green and southern [[Mali]] in dark grey
|map_caption = Azawad, as claimed by the MNLA, in green, with southern [[Mali]] in dark grey.
|capital = [[Timbuktu]] <small>(proclaimed)</small><br/>[[Gao]] <small>(provisional)</small>
|latd=16 |latm=16 |latNS=N |longd=0 |longm=03 |longEW=W
|common_languages = {{hlist|[[Tuareg languages|Tuareg]]|[[Songhay languages|Songhay]]|[[Fula language|Fula]]<br/>[[Hassānīya language|Hassānīya Arabic]]<br/>[[French language|French]]}}
|religion = [[Islam]]
|government_type = Transitional Council of the State of Azawad<br/><small>(Conseil de Transition de l'Etat de l'Azawad, CTEA)</small>
|title_leader = President
|leader1 = Bilal Ag Acherif
|year_leader1 = 2012
|deputy1 = {{nowrap|[[Mahamadou Djeri Maïga]]}}
|year_deputy1 = 2012
|title_deputy = Vice President
|event_start = [[Azawad Declaration of Independence|Declaration of independence]]
|date_start = 6 April
|year_start = 2012
|event1 = [[Battle of Gao]]
|date_event1 = 27 June 2012
|event_end = Fall of [[Ansongo]]
|date_end = 12 July
|year_end = 2012
}}
{{Contains special characters|Tifinagh}}
[[File:Azawad in context.JPG|thumb|Map of Azawad, as claimed by the [[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad|MNLA]]. Dark grey dots indicate regions with a [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] majority. The west is mainly inhabited by [[Moors]] and the south by [[Sub-Saharan Africa|sub-Saharan]] peoples.]]

'''Azawad''' ([[Tuareg languages|Tuareg]]: {{lang|ber|ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴷ}}, ''{{transl|ber|Azawd}}''; {{langx|ar|أزواد }}, ''{{transl|ar|Azawād}}''; {{langx|fr|link=no|Azawad}} or Azaouad), officially the '''State of Azawad''' ([[Tuareg languages|Tuareg]]: {{lang|ber|ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴷ}}, ''{{transl|ber|Tagdwda n Azawd}}''; {{lang|ar|دولة ازواد}}, ''{{transl|ar|Dawlat Azawād}}''; {{langx|fr|link=no|État de l’Azawad}}) is a territory situated in northern [[Mali]] as well as a former [[diplomatic recognition|unrecognized]] state. Its [[Azawad Declaration of Independence|independence was declared unilaterally]] by the [[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad]] (MNLA) in 2012 after a [[Tuareg rebellion (2012)|Tuareg rebellion]] drove the [[military of Mali|Malian Army]] from the territory. Azawad, as claimed by the MNLA, comprises the [[Regions of Mali|Malian regions]] of [[Tombouctou Region|Timbuktu]], [[Kidal Region|Kidal]], [[Gao Region|Gao]], as well as a part of [[Mopti region]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17576725 |title=Mali Tuareg rebels control Timbuktu as troops flee |date=1 April 2012 |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> encompassing about 60 percent of Mali's total land area. Azawad borders [[Burkina Faso]] to the south, [[Mauritania]] to the west and northwest, [[Algeria]] to the north and northeast, and [[Niger]] to the east and southeast, with undisputed Mali to its southwest. It straddles a portion of the [[Sahara]] and the [[Sahel|Sahelian zone]]. [[Gao]] is its largest city and served as the temporary capital,<ref name="gao">{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/04/20124644412359539.html |title=Tuaregs claim 'independence' from Mali |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=6 April 2012 |accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref> while [[Timbuktu]] is the second-largest city, and intended to be the capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.muslimnews.co.uk/news/news.php?article=22090 |title=[[Mali]]: A scramble for power |date=8 April 2012 |publisher=The Muslim News |accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref>

On 6 April 2012, in a statement posted to its website, the MNLA declared "irrevocably" the independence of Azawad from [[Mali]]. In Gao on the same day, [[Bilal Ag Acherif]], the secretary-general of the movement, signed the [[Azawadi Declaration of Independence]], which also declared the MNLA as the interim administrators of Azawad until a "national authority" is formed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/Mali-rebels-declare-independence-in-north/articleshow/12556649.cms|work=The Times of India|date=6 April 2012|title=Mali rebels declare independence in north|accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref> The proclamation has yet to be recognised by a foreign entity,<ref name="udi">{{cite news|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/04/06/205763.html|publisher=Al Arabiya|title=Tuareg rebels declare the independence of Azawad, north of Mali|date=6 April 2012|accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref> and even the MNLA's claim to have ''de facto'' control of the Azawad region is disputed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/04/06/rift-appears-between-islamists-and-main-rebel-group-in-mali/|title=Rift Appears Between Islamists and Main Rebel Group in Mali|author=J. David Goodman|date=6 April 2012|work=The New York Times|accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> The [[Economic Community of West African States]], which refused to recognise Azawad and called the declaration of its independence "null and void", has said it may send troops into the disputed region in support of the Malian claim.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.panapress.com/ECOWAS-calls-declaration-of-Azawad-independence---null-and-void-----12-824949-100-lang2-index.html|title=ECOWAS calls declaration of Azawad independence ''null and void''|publisher=Panapress.com|date=6 April 2012|accessdate=9 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/334244/20120427/ecowas-mali-guinea-bissau-military.htm|title=Ecowas To Send 3,000 Troops To Mali, Guinea-Bissau To Reinstate Civilian Rule|work=International Business Times|date=27 April 2012|accessdate=9 June 2012}}</ref>

On 26 May, the MNLA and its former co-belligerent [[Ansar Dine]] announced a pact in which they would merge to form an [[Islamist]] state.<ref name=BBC265>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18224004|title=Mali Tuareg and Islamist rebels agree on Sharia state|date=26 May 2012|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=27 May 2012}}</ref> However, some later reports indicated the MNLA had decided to withdraw from the pact, distancing itself from Ansar Dine.<ref name="Biiga">{{cite news|url=http://www.fasozine.com/index.php/le-blog-de-barkbiiga/le-blog-de-barkbiiga/8518-nord-mali-le-mnla-refuse-de-se-mettre-len-sardiner|agency=FasoZine|title=Nord Mali: le MNLA refuse de se mettre "en sardine"!|first=Bark|last=Biiga|date=3 June 2012|accessdate=3 June 2012|language=French}}</ref><ref name="voanews.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/mali-islamists-reopen-talks-with-tuareg-rebels/1146352.html|publisher=Voice of America|title=Mali Islamists Reopen Talks With Tuareg Rebels|date=2 June 2012|accessdate=2 June 2012}}</ref> Ansar Dine later declared that they rejected the idea of Azawad independence.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5h7XMRIbuZL6BjKF-U-RbRw5W30GA?docId=CNG.03a07b9823792a080c03447fb210148d.121|title=Mali Islamists want sharia not independence|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=20 June 2012|accessdate=28 July 2012}}</ref> The MNLA and Ansar Dine continued to clash,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18377168|title=Mali rebel groups 'clash in Kidal'|date=8 June 2012|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> culminating in the [[Battle of Gao]] on 27 June, in which the Islamist groups [[Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa]] and Ansar Dine took control of the city, driving out the MNLA. The following day, Ansar Dine announced that it was in control of all the cities of northern Mali.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/28/us-mali-crisis-idUSBRE85R15720120628|title=Islamists declare full control of Mali's north|author2=Tiemoko Diallo|author 2=Adama Diarra|work=Reuters|date=28 June 2012|accessdate=28 July 2012}}</ref>

==Name==
According to Scottish explorer and scientist [[Robert Brown (explorer)|Robert Brown]], Azawad is an Arabic [[Corruption (linguistics)|corruption]] of the [[Berber language|Berber]] word "[[Azawagh]]", a dry river basin that covers western Niger, northeastern Mali, and southern Algeria.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i2AMAAAAYAAJ&dq=azawad&pg=PA198|title=Annotations to The history and description of Africa, by Leo Africanus|author=Robert Brown|year=1896|publisher=The Hakluyt Society|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> The name translates to "land of [[transhumance]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.courrierinternational.com/article/2012/03/01/rebelles-touaregs-pourquoi-nous-reprenons-les-armes|title=Rebelles touaregs : "Pourquoi nous reprenons les armes…"|language=French|author=Germain B. Nama|date=1 March 2012|work=Courrier International |accessdate=5 April 2012}}</ref>

On 6 April 2012, in a statement posted to its website, the MNLA declared the independence of Azawad from Mali. In this Azawad Declaration of Independence the name ''Independent State of Azawad'' was used<ref name=DOI>{{cite web|url=http://www.mnlamov.net/component/content/article/169-declaration-dindependance-de-lazawad.html|title=Déclaration d'indépendence de l'Azawad|author=Bilal Ag Acherif|authorlink=Bilal Ag Acherif|date=6 April 2012|publisher=[[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad]]|language=French|trans-title=Declaration of Independence of Azawad|accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref> ({{langx|fr|link=no|État indépendant de l’Azawad}},<ref name=DOI/> {{langx|ar|دولة أزواد المستقلة}},<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ar.mnlamov.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=176:2012-04-06-02-18-09&catid=1:latest-news&Itemid=50|title=بيان استقلال أزواد|author=Bilal Ag Acherif|authorlink=Bilal Ag Acherif|date=6 April 2012|publisher=[[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad]]|language=Arabic|trans-title=Declaration of Independence of Azawad|accessdate=28 April 2012}}</ref> ''{{transl|ar|Dawlat Azawād al-Mustaqillah}}''). On 26 May, the MNLA and its former co-belligerent Ansar Dine announced a pact in which they would merge to form an Islamist state – according to the media the new long name of Azawad was used in this pact. But this new name is not clear – sources list few variants of it: the ''Islamic Republic of Azawad''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18224004|title=Mali Tuareg and Islamist rebels agree on Islamist state|date=27 May 2012|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=31 May 2012}}</ref> ({{langx|fr|link=no|République islamique de l’Azawad}}),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://maliactu.net/13418/proclamation-de-la-republique-islamique-de-lazawad-la-vraie-face-de-lirredentisme-et-de-lintegrisme-saffiche|title=Proclamation de la République Islamique de l'Azawad : La vraie face de l'irrédentisme et de l'intégrisme s'affiche|author=Allimam Mahamane|date=31 May 2012|publisher=MaliActu|language=French|accessdate=31 May 2012}}</ref> the ''Islamic State of Azawad'' ({{langx|fr|link=no|État islamique de l’Azawad}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lefigaro.fr/international/2012/05/27/01003-20120527ARTFIG00058-nord-mali-la-rebellion-cree-un-etat-islamique.php|title=Nord-Mali : la rébellion crée un État islamique|date=27 May 2012|work=Le Figaro|language=French|accessdate=31 May 2012}}</ref>), the ''Republic of Azawad''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/27/world/africa/mali-rebel-groups/index.html?iref=allsearch|title=Mali rebel groups join forces, vowing an Islamic state|author=Katarina Höije|date=27 May 2012|publisher=CNN|accessdate=31 May 2012}}</ref> Azawad authorities didn’t officially confirm any change of name yet. Moreover, some later reports indicated the MNLA had decided to withdraw from the pact with Ansar Dine. In a new statement, dated on 9 June, MNLA uses the name ''State of Azawad'' ({{langx|fr|link=no|État de l’Azawad}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mnlamov.net/index.php?view=article&catid=38:constantes&id=182:mis-en-place-un-conseil-transitoire-de-letat-de-lazawadctea-&tmpl=component&print=1&layout=default&page=|title=Mis en place un Conseil Transitoire de l'Etat de l'AZAWAD (CTEA)|author=Bilal Ag Acherif|authorlink=Bilal Ag Acherif|date=9 June 2012|publisher=[[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad]]|language=French|trans-title=Declaration of Independence of Azawad|accessdate=11 June 2012}}</ref> The MNLA has unveiled the list of 28 members of the Transitional Council of the State of Azawad (Conseil de Transition de l'Etat de l'Azawad, CTEA) serving as a provisional government with President [[Bilal Ag Acherif]] to manage the new State of Azawad.

==History==

===Gao, Mali and Songhai empires===
The [[Gao Empire]] owes its name to the town of [[Gao]]. In the ninth century AD, it was considered to be the most powerful West African kingdom.

In the early 14th century, the southern part of the region came under the control of the [[Mali Empire]], including the peaceful annexation of Timbuktu by [[Musa (mansa)|King Musa I]] in 1324, as he returned from his famous pilgrimage to [[Mecca]].{{sfn|Hunwick|2003|pp=9–10}}

With the power of the [[Mali Empire]] waning in the first half of the 15th century, the area around Timbuktu became relatively autonomous, although Maghsharan Tuareg{{who|date=May 2012}} had a dominant position.{{sfn|Saad|1983|p=11}}
Thirty years later however, the rising [[Songhay Empire]] expanded in Gao, absorbing Timbuktu in 1468 or 1469 and much of the surrounding area. The city was led, consecutively, by [[Sunni Ali Ber]] (1468–1492), [[Sunni Baru]] (1492–1493) and [[Askia Mohammad I]] (1493–1528). Although Sunni Ali Ber was in severe conflict with Timbuktu after its conquest, Askia Mohammad I created a [[golden age]] for both the Songhay Empire and Timbuktu through an efficient central and regional administration and allowed sufficient leeway for the city's commercial centers to flourish.{{sfn|Saad|1983|p=11}}{{sfn|Fage|1956|pp=27}} With Gao the capital of the empire, Timbuktu enjoyed a relatively autonomous position. Merchants from [[Ghadames]], [[Awjilah, Libya|Awjilah]], and numerous other cities of North Africa gathered there to buy gold and slaves [[History of salt#The socio-political history of salt|in exchange for the Saharan salt of Taghaza]] and for North African cloth and horses.<ref name=Brittanica>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Timbuktu|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/596022/Timbuktu|accessdate=5 November 2010}}</ref> Leadership of the Empire stayed in the Askia dynasty until 1591, when internal fights weakened the dynasty's grip.{{sfn|Fage|1956|pp=27–29}}

===Moroccan expedition===
Following the [[Battle of Tondibi]] in a village just north of Gao, the city was captured on 30 May 1591 by an expedition of 4,000 [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] [[Moriscos]], 500 [[mercenaries]] and 2,500 auxiliaries, including slaves, dubbed the [[Arma people|Arma]]. They were sent by the [[Saadi Dynasty|Saadi]] ruler of [[Morocco]], [[Ahmad I al-Mansur]], and were led by Morisco General [[Judar Pasha]] in search of gold mines. Pasha was born into a family of Spanish Muslims in Morocco, banished by the Spanish Crown following the failed [[Morisco Revolt|Alpujarras uprising of 1568–71]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Prieto|first=José|title=Exploradores españoles olvidados de África|year=2001|publisher=Sociedad Geográfica Española|location=Madrid}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Bovill|first=EW|title=The Moorish Invasion of The Sudan|journal=African Affairs|year=1927|issue=XXVII|pages=47–56|publisher=Royal African Society|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a100485}}</ref> The sacking of Gao marked the effective end of the Songhai as a regional power{{sfn|Hunwick|2003|p=192}}{{sfn|Kaba|1981}} and its economic and intellectual decline,{{sfn|Hunwick|2000|p=508}} as increasing trans-atlantic trade routes – transporting African slaves, including leaders and scholars of Timbuktu – marginalised Gao and Timbuktu's role as trade and scholarly centers.<ref name="Pelizzo">{{Cite journal|last=Pelizzo|first=Riccardo|title=Timbuktu: A Lesson in Underdevelopment|journal=Journal of World-Systems Research|volume=7|issue=2|pages=265–283|year=2001|doi=10.5195/jwsr.2001.166|url=http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol7/number2/pdf/jwsr-v7n2-pelizzo.pdf|accessdate =25 March 2010}}</ref> The consequence of the Moroccan expedition was the formation of the [[Pashalik of Timbuktu]]. While initially controlling the Morocco – Timbuktu trade routes, Morocco soon cut its ties with the Arma and the grip of the numerous subsequent ''[[pasha]]s'' on Timbuktu began losing its strength. By 1630, the colony was independent and had been indigenised through intermarriage and local alliances. Songhay never regained control and smaller [[taifa]] kingdoms were created.<ref>{{cite book|title=Cities of The Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, CA|isbn=978-1-57607-919-5|author=Michael Dumper, Bruce E. Stanley}}</ref> [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] temporarily took over control in 1737 and the remainder of the 18th century saw various Tuareg tribes, [[Bambara people|Bambara]] and [[Kounta]] briefly occupy or besiege the city.{{sfn|Saad|1983|p=206-214}} During this period, the influence of the ''Pashas'', who by then had mixed with the Songhay through intermarriage, never completely disappeared.{{sfn|Saad|1983|p=206-209}}

The [[Massina Empire]] took control of Timbuktu in 1826, holding it until 1865, when they were driven away by [[El Hadj Umar Tall]]'s [[Toucouleur Empire]]. Sources conflict on who was in control when the French arrived: Elias N. Saad in 1983 suggests the [[Soninke Wangara]],{{sfn|Saad|1983|p=206-214}} a 1924 article in the Journal of the Royal African Society mentions the Tuareg,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maugham|first=R.C.F.|title=Native Land Tenure in the Timbuktu Districts|journal=Journal of the Royal African Society|volume=23|issue=90|pages=125–130|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=1924|jstor=715389}}</ref> while [[African studies|Africanist]] [[John Hunwick]] does not determine one ruler, but notes several states competing for power 'in a shadowy way' until 1893.{{sfn|Hunwick|2003|p=xvi}}

===Under French rule===
{{History of Azawad}}
After European powers formalized the [[scramble for Africa]] in the [[Berlin Conference (1884)|Berlin Conference]], land between the 14th [[meridian (geography)|meridian]] and Miltou, South-West [[Chad]], became French territory, bounded in the south by a line running from [[Say, Niger]] to Baroua. Although the Azawad region was now French in name, the [[Berlin conference#Principle of Effectivity|principle of effectivity]] required France to actually hold power in those areas assigned, e.g. by signing agreements with local chiefs, setting up a government and making use of the area economically, before the claim would be definitive. On 15 December 1893, Timbuktu, by then long past its prime, was annexed by a small group of French soldiers, led by Lieutenant Gaston Boiteux.<ref>{{Harvnb |Hacquard|1900|p=[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k103743p/f78.image 71]}}; {{Harvnb|Dubois|White|1896|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/timbuctoomyster01whitgoog#page/n374/mode/1up|p=358}}</ref> The region became part of [[French Sudan]] (Soudan Français), a colony of France. The colony was reorganised and the name changed several times during the French colonial period. In 1899 the French Sudan was subdivided and the Azawad became part of Upper Senegal and Middle Niger (Haut-Sénégal et Moyen Niger). In 1902 the name became [[Senegambia and Niger]] (Sénégambie et Niger) and in 1904 this was changed again to Upper Senegal and Niger (Haut-Sénégal et Niger). This name was used until 1920 when it became French Sudan again.{{sfn|Imperato|1989|pp=48–49}}

===Under Malian rule===
[[File:Touaregs at the Festival au Desert near Timbuktu, Mali 2012.jpg|thumb|left|[[Tuareg people|Tuaregs]] at the January 2012 [[Festival au Désert]] in Timbuktu, just before the [[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad|MNLA]] launched the [[Tuareg rebellion (2012)|Azawadi rebellion]] later in the same month]]

French Sudan became the autonomous state of Mali within the [[French Community]] in 1958, and Mali became independent from France in 1960. The area saw four major Tuareg rebellions against Malian rule: the [[First Tuareg Rebellion]] (1962–64), the [[Tuareg Rebellion (1990–1995)|rebellion of 1990–1995]], the [[Tuareg rebellion (2007–2009)|rebellion of 2007–2009]], and a [[Tuareg rebellion (2012)|2012 rebellion]].

In the early twenty-first century, the region became notorious for banditry and drug smuggling.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.la-croix.com/Actualite/S-informer/France/Une-zone-immense-et-incontrolable-aux-confins-du-Sahara-_NG_-2010-09-20-604494|title=Une zone immense et incontrôlable aux confins du Sahara|language={{in lang|fr}}|work=La Croix|date=20 September 2010|accessdate=9 June 2012}}</ref> The area has been reported to contain a great deal of potential mineral wealth, including petroleum and uranium.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jmpmali.com/html/fourpagefive.html|title=Le secteur minier du Mali, un potentiel riche mais inexploité|year=2011|publisher=Les Journées Minières et Pétrolières du Mali|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref>

On 17 January 2012, the MNLA announced the start of an [[2012 insurgency in the Azawad|insurrection]] in Azawad against the government of Mali, declaring that it "will continue so long as Bamako does not recognise this territory as a separate entity".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mnlamov.net/english/93-the-renewal-of-armed-struggle-in-azawad.html|title=The Renewal of Armed Struggle in Azawad|date=17 January 2012|publisher=Mouvement National de libération de l'Azawad|accessdate=2 April 2012}}</ref>

In March 2012, the MNLA and Ansar Dine took control of the regional capitals of [[Kidal]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17562066|publisher=BBC News|title=Mali coup: Rebels seize desert town of Kidal|date=30 March 2012|accessdate=30 March 2012}}</ref> and [[Gao]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17576263|title=Mali Tuareg rebels seize key garrison town of Gao|date=31 March 2012|accessdate=1 April 2012|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> along with their military bases. On 1 April, Timbuktu was captured.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ajc.com/news/nation-world/mali-coup-leader-reinstates-1403759.html|title=Mali coup leader reinstates old constitution|author=Rukmini Callimachi|date=1 April 2012|agency=Associated Press|accessdate=31 March 2012}}</ref> After the seizure of [[Timbuktu]] on 1 April, the MNLA gained effective control of most of the territory they claim for an independent Azawad. In a statement released on the occasion, the MNLA invited all Azawadis abroad to return home and join in constructing institutions in the new state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mnlamov.net/actualites/34-actualites/164-declaration-du-bureau-politique-.html|title=Declaration du Bureau Politique|language=French|date=1 April 2012|publisher=Mouvement National de libération de l'Azawad|accessdate=2 April 2012}}</ref>

===Unilateral declaration of independence===
The [[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad]] (MNLA) [[Azawadi declaration of independence|declared Azawad an independent state]] on 6 April 2012 and pledged to draft a constitution establishing it as a democracy. Their statement also acknowledged the United Nations charter and said the new state would uphold its principles.<ref name="udi"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://af.reuters.com/article/maliNews/idAFL6E8F605520120406|title=Mali rebels declare independence in north|author=Bate Felix|date=6 April 2012|accessdate=6 April 2012|work=Reuters}}</ref>

In an interview with ''[[France 24]]'', an MNLA spokesman declared the independence of Azawad:

{{quote|Mali is an anarchic state. Therefore we have gathered a national liberation movement to put in an army capable of securing our land and an executive office capable of forming democratic institutions. We declare the independence of Azawad from this day on.|sign=[[Moussa Ag Assarid]], MLNA spokesman, 6 April 2012<ref name=spokesman/>}}

In the same interview, Assarid also promised that Azawad would respect the colonial frontiers that separate Azawad from its neighbours and insisted that Azawad's declaration of independence had international legality.<ref name=spokesman>{{cite news|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20120406-france-24-exclusive-tuareg-rebels-declare-independence-mlna-mali-ansar-dine-azawad|title=Tuareg rebels declare independence in north Mali|publisher=France 24|date=6 April 2012|accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref>

No foreign entity recognised Azawad. The MNLA's declaration was immediately rejected by the [[African Union]], who declared it "null and no value whatsoever". The French Foreign Ministry said it would not recognise the unilateral partition of [[Mali]], but it called for negotiations between the two entities to address "the demands of the northern Tuareg population [which] are old and for too long had not received adequate and necessary responses". The United States also rejected the declaration of independence.<ref name="reject">{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/06/us-mali-idUSBRE83507L20120406|work=Reuters|title=AU, US reject Mali rebels' independence declaration|first=Bate|last=Felix|date=6 April 2012|accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref>

The MNLA is estimated to have up to 3,000 soldiers. ECOWAS declared Azawad "null and void", and said that Mali is "one and [an] indivisible entity". ECOWAS has said that it would use force, if necessary, to put down the rebellion.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=Afrique en Ligue|title=Azawad independence: ECOWAS calls declaration of Azawad independence 'null and void'|date=7 April 2012|url=http://www.afriquejet.com/azawad-independence-mali-2012040736597.html|accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref> The French government indicated it could provide logistical support.<ref name="reject"/>

On 26 May, the MNLA and its former co-belligerent Ansar Dine announced a pact in which they would merge to form an [[Islamist]] state.<ref name=BBC265>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18224004|title=Mali Tuareg and Islamist rebels agree on Sharia state|date=26 May 2012|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=27 May 2012}}</ref> However, some later reports indicated the MNLA withdrew from the pact, distancing itself from Ansar Dine.<ref name="Biiga"/><ref name="voanews.com"/> MNLA and Ansar Dine continued to clash,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18377168|title=Mali rebel groups 'clash in Kidal'|date=8 June 2012|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> culminating in the [[Battle of Gao and Timbuktu]] on 27 June, in which the Islamist groups [[Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa]] and Ansar Dine took control of Gao, driving out the MNLA. The following day, Ansar Dine announced that it was in control of Timbuktu and Kidal, the three biggest cities of northern Mali.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/28/us-mali-crisis-idUSBRE85R15720120628|title=Islamists declare full control of Mali's north|author=Tiemoko Diallo and Adama Diarra|date=28 June 2012|work=Reuters|accessdate=29 June 2012}}</ref> Ansar Dine continued its offensive against MNLA positions and overran all remaining MNLA held towns by 12 July with the fall of Ansogo.<ref>http://www.france24.com/en/20120712-al-qaeda-linked-islamists-drive-malis-tuaregs-last-stronghold-ansogo-timbuktu-mnla-ansar-dine-mujao</ref>

In December 2012, the MNLA distanced themselves from their declaration of independence by agreeing on Mali's national unity and territorial integrity in talks with both the central government and Ansar Dine.<ref>[http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/12/201212420515159568.html  Mali rebels agree to respect 'national unity']. Retrieved 2012-12-05.</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:Une guelta, près d'Oubankort dans l'Adrar des Ifoghas.jpg|thumb|A [[guelta]] in [[Adrar des Ifoghas]]]]
The local climate is [[desert]] or [[Semi-arid climate|semi-desert]]. [[Reuters]] wrote of the terrain: "Much of the land is the Sahara desert at its most inhospitable: rock, sand dunes and dust scored by shifting tracks."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/factbox-azawad-self-proclaimed-tuareg-state/|title=FACTBOX-'Azawad': self-proclaimed Tuareg state|date=6 April 2012|accessdate=6 April 2012|agency=Reuters AlertNet}}</ref> Some definitions of Azawad also include parts of northern [[Niger]] and southern [[Algeria]], adjacent areas to the south and the north<ref name="AlJaz08">{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/focus/unrestsahara/2008/07/20087118508319575.html|title=Who are the Tuareg?|date=14 July 2008|publisher=Al Jazeera|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> though in its declaration of independence, the MNLA did not advance territorial claims on those areas.<ref name=DOI/>

Traditionally, Azawad has referred to the [[sandplain]]s north of Timbuktu. In geological terms, it is a mosaic of [[fluvial|river]], [[swamp]], lake, and [[Aeolian deposit|wind-borne]] [[Deposition (geology)|deposits]], while [[aeolian processes]] have proven the most imprinting.<ref>McIntosh, 2008, p. 33</ref>

About 6500 BC, Azawad was a 90,000 square kilometres [[marsh]]y and [[lacustrine plain|lake basin]]. The area of today's Timbuktu was probably permanently flooded. In the deeper parts of Azawad, there were large lakes, partly recharged by rainfall, partly by exposed [[groundwater]]. Seasonal lakes and creeks were fed by overflow of the Niger river.<ref>McIntosh, 2008, p. 34</ref> The annual Niger flood was diffused throughout the Azawad by a network of [[palaeochannel]]s spread out over an area of 180 by 130 kilometres. The most important of these paleochannels is the Wadi el-Ahmar, which is 1 200 metres wide at its southern end, at the Niger bend, and winds 70 to 100 kilometres northward. These long interdunal indentations that are framed by [[Pleistocene]] [[Seif dune|longitudinal dunes]], charactise the present landscape.<ref>McIntosh, 2008, p. 35</ref>

==Politics==
[[File:Mali regions map.png|thumb|right|Azawad consists of the entire regions of [[Gao Region|Gao]], [[Kidal Region|Kidal]], and [[Timbuktu]], as well as the north-east half of the [[Mopti Region]], which are claimed by and internationally recognised as part of [[Mali]].]]

The MNLA in its declaration of independence announced the first political institutions of the state of Azawad. It included:<ref>Salima Tlemçani (7 April 2012) [http://www.elwatan.com/une/le-mali-dans-la-tourmente-aqmi-brouille-les-cartes-a-l-azawad-07-04-2012-165810_108.php "Le mali dans la tourmente : AQMi brouille les cartes à l’Azawad"], El Watan.</ref>
* An executive committee, directed by [[Mahmoud Ag Aghaly]].
* A revolutionary council, directed by Abdelkrim Ag Tahar.
* A consultative council, directed by Mahamed Ag Tahadou.
* The general staff of the Liberation Army, directed by [[Mohamed Ag Najem]].

As part of Mali, Azawad did not have a central government, and although the MNLA claimed responsibility for managing the country "until the appointment of a national authority" in their [[Azawad Declaration of Independence|declaration of independence]], it has acknowledged the presence of rival armed groups, including [[Islamism|Islamist]] fighters under [[Ansar Dine]], the [[Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa]], and [[Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb]], in Azawad. The MNLA has yet to establish a formal government, though it has pledged to draft a constitution establishing Azawad as a democracy.<ref name="udi"/> The main government building is called the [[Palace of Azawad]] by the MNLA. It is a heavily guarded building in central Gao that served as the office of the [[Gao Region]]'s governor prior to the [[Tuareg rebellion (2012)|rebellion]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/mali/9190808/Malians-protest-against-Azawad-independence.html|title=Malians protest against Azawad independence|work=The Telegraph|date=6 April 2012|accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref>

The military wing of Ansar Dine rejected the MNLA's declaration of independence hours after it was issued.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.modernghana.com/news/387765/1/confusion-in-mali-after-tuareg-independen.html|title=Confusion in Mali after Tuareg independence claim|date=6 April 2012|accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref> Ansar Dine has vowed to establish Islamic ''[[sharia]]'' law over all of Mali.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vision.org/visionmedia/article.aspx?id=54403|agency=Vision|title=Qaeda using Mali crisis to expand, France warns|date=4 April 2012|accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref> At a conference, the Azawadis voiced their disapproval of radical Islamic groups, and asked all foreign fighters to disarm and leave the country.<ref>{{cite news|title=Azawad rejects armed groups|author=Jemal Oumar|work=Magharebia|date=30 April 2012|url=http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/features/2012/04/30/feature-02}}</ref>

According to a [[Chatham House]] Africa expert, Mali is not to be considered "definitively partitioned". The peoples that constitute a major share of the population of northern Mali, like Songhai and Fulani, would consider themselves to be Malian and have no interest in a separate Tuareg-dominated state.<ref>[http://www.heraldsun.com.au/ipad/rebels-declare-independent-state/story-fn6s850w-1226320870085 "Rebels declare independent state"], Herald Sun, 7 April 2012.</ref> On the day of the declaration of independence, about 200 Malian northerners staged a rally in Bamako, declaring their rejection of the partition and their willingness to fight to drive out the rebels.<ref>{{Citation|first=Bate|last=Felix|title=AU, US reject Mali rebels' independence declaration|agency=Reuters|date=6 April 2012|url=http://news.yahoo.com/mali-rebels-declare-independence-north-102935627.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/mali/9190808/Malians-protest-against-Azawad-independence.html|title=Malians protest against Azawad independence|date=7 April 2012|work=The New York Times|accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> One day later, a new rally against separatism was joined by 2,000 protesters.<ref>{{Citation|title=Protests in Bamoko as Malians reject independence of North|work=Euronews|date=8 April 2012|url=http://www.euronews.com/2012/04/08/protests-in-bamoko-as-malians-reject-independence-of-north/}}</ref>

According to [[Ramtane Lamamra]], the [[African Union|African Union's]] peace and security commissioner, the African Union has discussed sending a military force to reunify Mali and that negotiations with terrorists had been ruled out but negotiations with other armed factions are still open.<ref>{{cite news|last=Nossiter|first=Adam|title=Jihadists' Fierce Justice Drives Thousands to Flee Mali|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/18/world/africa/jidhadists-fierce-justice-drives-thousands-to-flee-mali.html?pagewanted=all|newspaper=The New York Times|date=18 July 2012|accessdate=12 August 2012|archivedate=12 August 2012|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/69rWZYFcX}}</ref>

===Administrative divisions===
Azawad, as proclaimed by the MNLA, includes the [[Regions of Mali|regions]] of [[Gao Region|Gao]], [[Timbuktu Region|Timbuktu]], [[Kidal Region|Kidal]], and the northeast half of [[Mopti Region|Mopti]]; until 1991, when the new Kidal Region was created, it formed the northern portion of Gao Region. As such, it includes the three biggest cities of [[Timbuktu]], [[Gao]] and [[Kidal]].<ref name="AlJaz08"/>

==Demographics==
[[File:Timbuktu 1950 Ethnics figures azawad.JPG|thumb|right|Timbuktu census in 1950]]
[[File:Gao 1950 Ethnics figures azawad.JPG|thumb|right|Gao (which includes Kidal) census in 1950]]

Northern Mali has a population density of 1.5 people per square kilometre.<ref>[http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Mali-POPULATION.html Mali – Population], Encyclopedia of the Nations. Retrieved 2 April 2012</ref> The Malian regions that are claimed by Azawad are listed hereafter (apart from the portion of [[Mopti Region]] claimed and occupied by the MNLA). The population figures are from the 2009 census of [[Mali]], taken before Azawadi independence was proclaimed.<ref>(In French.) {{Cite document|url=http://instat.gov.ml/documentation/mali.pdf|publisher=République de Mali: Institut National de la Statistique| title=Resultats provisoires R.G.P.H. 2009}}.</ref> Since the start of the Tuareg rebellion in January 2012, probably 250,000 former inhabitants have fled from the territory.<ref>{{Citation|first=Nick|last=Meo|title=Triumphant Tuareg rebels fall out over al-Qaeda's jihad in Mali|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=7 April 2012|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/mali/9191760/Triumphant-Tuareg-rebels-fall-out-over-al-Qaedas-jihad-in-Mali.html}}</ref>

{| class="sortable wikitable"
|-
! Region name || Area (km<sup>2</sup>) || Population
|-
| [[Gao Region|Gao]] || 170,572 || 544,120
|-
| [[Kidal Region|Kidal]] || 151,430 || 67,638
|-
| [[Tombouctou Region|Timbuktu]] || 497,926 || 681,691
|}

===Ethnic groups===
The area was traditionally inhabited by the settled [[Songhai people|Songhay]], nomadic [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] people, [[Moors]], and [[Fula people|Fulas]] ({{langx|ff|Fulɓe}}; {{langx|fr|link=no|Peul}})<ref>[[:File:Statistiques.JPG]]</ref> The ethnic composition of the regions in 1950 (at that time, Kidal Region was a part of Gao Region) is shown in the diagrams to the right.

===Languages===
[[File:Kidal.jpg|thumb|right|Bilingual traffic sign<br/>(left side in [[Tifinagh]]: "k´l")]]

The languages of Azawad include [[Tamashek]], [[Hassānīya language|Hassānīya Arabic]], [[Fulfulde]] and [[Songhay languages|Songhay]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=mali|title=Languages of Mali|publisher=Ethnologue.com|accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref><ref name=heath>{{Cite book|last=Heath|first=Jeffrey|title=A Grammar of Koyra Chiini: the Songhay of Timbuktu|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG|year=1999|location=Berlin|pages=4–5 |isbn=9783110162851|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=93ar5YZt6SEC&q=koyra+chiini+timbuktu }}</ref> [[French language|French]] is the language of school and administration.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

===Religion===
Most are [[Islam|Muslims]], of the [[Sunni]] or [[Sufi]] orientations.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} Most popular in the Tuareg movement and northern Mali as a whole is the [[Maliki]] branch of Sunnism, in which traditional opinions and analogical reasoning by later Muslim scholars are often used instead of a strict reliance on Ḥadith (coming directly from the Mohammed’s life and utterances) as a basis for legal judgment.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360203/Malikiyyah|title=Mālikiyyah|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=16 July 2012}}</ref>

Ansar Dine follows the [[Salafi]] branch of Sunni Islam, which rejects the existence of Islamic holy men (other than Mohammed) and their teachings. They strongly object to praying around the graves of Malikite 'holymen', burning down one ancient shrine in Timbuktu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2012-05-05/africa/world_africa_mali-heritage-sites_1_baba-haidara-sufi-shrines-timbuktu-residents?_s=PM:AFRICA|title=Rebels burn Timbuktu tomb listed as U.N. World Heritage site|date=5 May 2012|publisher=CNN|accessdate=16 July 2012}}</ref>

At least 90 percent of the 300 [[Christianity|Christians]] who formerly lived in Timbuktu have fled to the South since the rebels captured the town on 2 April 2012.<ref>{{Citation|first=Madeleine|last=Davies|title=Christians in north of Mali flee Tuareg rebels' control|newspaper=Church Times|date=13 April 2012|url=http://www.churchtimes.co.uk/content.asp?id=127144|accessdate=16 June 2012}}</ref>

===Humanitarian situation===
The people living in the central and northern [[Sahel]]ian and Sahelo-Saharan areas of Mali are the country's poorest, according to an [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] report. Most of them are [[pastoralism|pastoralists]] and farmers practicing [[subsistence agriculture]] on dry land with poor and increasingly [[land degradation|degraded soils]].<ref name="IBT">{{Citation|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/327373/20120412/mali-tuaregs-azawad-civil-war-separatist-poverty.htm|first=Palash R.|last=Ghosh|title=Azawad: The Tuaregs' Nonexistent State In A Desolate, Poverty-Stricken Wasteland|newspaper=International Business Times|date=12 April 2012}}</ref> The northern part of Mali suffers from a critical [[famine|shortage of food]] and lack of [[health care]]. Starvation has prompted about 200,000 inhabitants to leave the region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2012/1093/in2.htm|first=Gamal|last=Nkrumah|title=Saharan quicksand|work=Al-Ahram Weekly Online|date=12–18 April 2012|accessdate=13 April 2012}}</ref>

Refugees, in the 92,000-person refugee camp at [[Mbera]], [[Mauritania]], describe the Islamists as "intent on imposing an Islam of lash and gun on Malian Muslims." The Islamists in Timbuktu have destroyed about a half-dozen venerable above-ground tombs of revered holy men, proclaiming the tombs contrary to [[Shariah]]. One refugee in the camp spoke of encountering Afghans, Pakistanis and Nigerians.<ref name=NYT187>{{cite news|last=Nossiter|first=Adam|title=Jihadists' Fierce Justice Drives Thousands to Flee Mali|newspaper=The New York Times|date=18 July 2012}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Africa}}
* [[Arab Islamic Front of Azawad]]
* [[List of states with limited recognition]]
* [[Niger Movement for Justice]]
* [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Azawad]]
* [[Tuareg rebellion (2007–2009)]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
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* {{Cite book|last=Fage|first=J. D.|authorlink=John Donnelly Fage|title=An Introduction to the History of West Africa|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1956|location=London|page=22
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RDw9AAAAIAAJ&q=an+introduction+to+the+history+of+west+africa}}
* {{Cite document|last=Hacquard|first=Augustin|year=1900|title=Monographie de Tombouctou|publisher=Société des études coloniales & maritimes|place=Paris|url=http://www.archive.org/details/monographiedeto00hacqgoog}}. Also available from [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k103743p Gallica].
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* {{Cite book|last=Hunwick|first=John O.|authorlink=John Hunwick|year=2003|title=Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents|publisher=Brill|place=Leiden|isbn=0585-6914}}. First published in 1999 as {{ISBN|90-04-11207-3}}.
* {{Cite book|last=Imperato|first=Pascal James|title=Mali: A Search for Direction|year=1989|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=1-85521-049-5|unused_data=Boulder CO}}.
* {{Cite journal|last=Kaba|first=Lansine|year=1981|title=Archers, Musketeers, and Mosquitoes: The Moroccan Invasion of the Sudan and the Songhay Resistance (1591–1612)|journal=Journal of African History|volume=22|issue=4|pages=457–475|jstor=181298|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019861|pmid=11632225|s2cid=41500711 }}.
* {{cite book|last1=Kirkby|first1=Coel|last2=Murray|first2=Christina|chapter=Elusive Autonomy in Sub-Saharan Africa|title=Asymmetric Autonomy and the Settlement of Ethnic Conflicts|editor1-first=Marc|editor1-last=Weller|editor2-first=Katherine|editor2-last=Nobbs|location=Philadelphia|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=2010|pages=97–120|isbn=978-0-8122-4230-0}}
* {{Citation|first=Roderick J.|last=McIntosh|title=Before Timbuktu: cities of the Elder World|work=The Meanings of Timbuktu|publisher=HSRC Press|year=2008|pages=31–43|url=http://www.codesria.org/IMG/pdf/The_Meanings_of_Timbuktu_-_Chapter_3_-_Before_Timbuktu__cities_of_the_elder_world.pdf|accessdate=9 April 2012}}
* {{Cite book|last=Saad|first=Elias N.|year=1983|title=Social History of Timbuktu: The Role of Muslim Scholars and Notables 1400–1900|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-24603-2}}.

==External links==
{{commonscat-inline}}
* [http://www.mnlamov.net/english.html Website of the MNLA]

[[:Category:Azawad| ]]
[[:Category:Tuareg]]
[[:Category:North Africa]]
[[:Category:Territorial disputes of Mali]]
[[:Category:Secession in Mali]]
[[:Category:Disputed territories in Africa]]
[[:Category:Former unrecognized countries]]
[[:Category:States and territories established in 2012]]
[[:Category:Islamic states]]
[[:Category:2012 establishments in Mali]]

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