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{{Short description|Cooling period in Northern Hemisphere caused by volcanic eruptions}}
In the years [[535]] and [[536]], several remarkable aberrations in world [[climate]] took place. The [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] historian [[Procopius]] recorded of 536, "during this year a most dread portent took place. For the sun gave forth its light without brightness… and it seemed exceedingly like the sun in eclipse, for the beams it shed were not clear.". Tree ring analysis by [[dendrochronology|dendrochronologist]] [[Mike Baillie]], [[Queen's University, Belfast|Queen's University]], [[Belfast]], shows abnormally little growth in Irish oak in 536 and another sharp drop in [[542]], after a partial recovery. Similar patterns are recorded in tree rings from [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]], in [[California| California's]] [[Sierra Nevada (US)|Sierra Nevada]] and in rings from [[Chile]]an [[Alerce]] trees.
{{EngvarB|date=December 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
[[File:SS Filippo e Giacomo, Nosedo. Lapide del 536 d.c. Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, 3 July 2022 2.jpg|thumb|Tombstone in the chapel of Filippo e Giacomo, [[Nosedo]], dated to AD 536 (the second year after the [[consul]]ship of [[Decius Paulinus]]).]]
The '''volcanic winter of 536''' was the most severe and protracted episode of climatic cooling in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] in the last 2,000 years.<ref name="Abbott08">{{cite conference |author=Abbott, D. H. |author2=Biscaye, P. |author3=Cole-Dai, J. |author4=Breger, D. |title=Magnetite and Silicate Spherules from the GISP2 Core at the 536 A.D. Horizon |conference=American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2008 |id=Abstract #PP41B-1454 |date=December 2008 |pages=41B–1454 |book-title=AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts |bibcode=2008AGUFMPP41B1454A |volume=41}}</ref> The [[volcanic winter]] was caused by at least three simultaneous eruptions of uncertain origin, with several possible locations proposed in various continents. Most contemporary accounts of the volcanic winter are from authors in [[Constantinople]]{{Citation needed|reason=is there any acadeic work that proves this?|date=August 2024}}, the capital of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], although the impact of the cooler temperatures extended beyond Europe. Modern scholarship has determined that in early AD 536 (or possibly late 535), an eruption ejected massive amounts of sulfate aerosols into the atmosphere, which reduced the solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface and cooled the atmosphere for several years. In March 536, Constantinople began experiencing darkened skies and lower temperatures.


Summer temperatures in 536 fell by as much as {{convert |2.5 |C-change}} below normal in Europe. The lingering impact of the volcanic winter of 536 was augmented in 539–540, when another volcanic eruption caused summer temperatures to decline as much as {{convert |2.7 |C-change}} below normal in Europe.<ref name="Harper2017">{{cite book |last1=Harper |first1=Kyle |title=The Fate of Rome |date=2017 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691166834 |location=Princeton, New Jersey |page=253}}</ref> There is evidence of still another volcanic eruption in 547 which would have extended the cool period. The volcanic eruptions caused crop failures, and were accompanied by the [[Plague of Justinian]], famine, and millions of deaths and initiated the [[Late Antique Little Ice Age]], which lasted from 536 to 560.<ref name="peregrine">{{cite journal |last1=Peregrine |first1=Peter |year=2020 |title=Climate and social change at the start of the Late Antique Little Ice Age |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342830830 |journal=The Holocene |volume=30 |issue=11 |pages=1643–1648 |bibcode=2020Holoc..30.1643P |doi=10.1177/0959683620941079 |issn=0959-6836 |access-date=18 November 2021 |s2cid=222179333|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Further phenomena reported by a number of independent contemporary sources:
* low temperatures, even snow during the summer
* dark clouds, only a few hours of sunlight during the day
* floods in formerly dry regions
* crop failures


The medieval scholar Michael McCormick wrote that 536 "was the beginning of one of the worst periods to be alive, if not the worst year."<ref name="Gibbons18">{{cite journal |last1=Gibbons |first1=Ann |date=15 November 2018 |title=Why 536 was 'the worst year to be alive' |journal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.aaw0632 |issn=0036-8075 |s2cid=189287084}}</ref>
It has been conjectured that these changes were due to ashes or dust thrown into the air after the impact of a [[comet]] or [[meteorite]], or after the eruption of a [[volcano]] (a phenomenon known as "[[volcanic winter]]").


== Documentary evidence ==
A similar, lesser episode of climatic aberration was also observed in [[1816]], popularly known as the [[Year Without A Summer]], which has been connected to the explosion of the volcano [[Tambora]] in [[Sumbawa]], [[Indonesia]].
The Roman historian [[Procopius]] recorded in AD 536 in his report on the [[Vandalic War|wars with]] the [[Vandals]], "during this year a most dread [[portent (divination)|portent]] took place. For the sun gave forth its light without brightness... and it seemed exceedingly like the sun in [[eclipse]], for the beams it shed were not clear".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Procopius |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szQjAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA329 |title=Procopius |date=1916 |publisher=William Heinemann |isbn=978-0-674-99054-8 |volume=2: History of the [Vandalic] Wars, Books III and IV |location=London, England |page=329 |language=en-uk |translator-last=Dewing |translator-first=Henry Bronson}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ochoa |first1=George |title=Climate: the force that shapes our world and the future of life on earth |last2=Hoffman |first2=Jennifer |last3=Tin |first3=Tina |publisher=Rodale |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-59486-288-5 |location=Emmaus, Pennsylvania |language=en-us |postscript=,}} gives this quote as "The Sun gave forth its light without brightness, like the moon during this whole year, and it seemed exceedingly like the Sun in eclipse".</ref>


In 538, the Roman statesman [[Cassiodorus]] described the following to one of his subordinates in letter 25:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cassiodorus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aymsvxyyOhoC&pg=PA518 |title=The Letters of Cassiodorus |date=1886 |publisher=Henry Frowde |location=London, England |pages=518–520 |language=en-uk |translator-last=Hodgkin |translator-first=Thomas}} See: "25. Senator, Praetorian Praefect, to his deputy Ambrosius, an Illustris."</ref>
In a [[1999]] book, David Keys, supported by work of the American [[volcanology|volcanologist]] Ken Wohletz, suggested that the [[Indonesia]]n volcano [[Krakatoa]] exploded at the time and caused the changes. He further speculated that the climate changes may have contributed to various developments, such as the emergence of [[bubonic plague]] (the [[Plague of Justinian]]), the migration of [[Turkic]] tribes towards the West, the end of the [[Persian empire]], the rise of [[Islam]] and the end of various civilizations in [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]]. [[PBS]] based a documentary, ''Catastrophe!'', on Keys and Wohletz' ideas. These ideas are not widely accepted at this point.


* The sun's rays were weak, and they appeared a "bluish" colour.
[[Stephen Baxter]] apparently makes a brief allusion to this event in his novel ''Evolution'', in which he mentions that a fictional eruption of [[Rabaul]] was "the biggest eruption since the sixth century after Christ".
* At noon, no shadows from people were visible on the ground.
* The heat from the sun was feeble.
* The moon, even when full, was "empty of splendour"
* "A winter without storms, a spring without mildness, and a summer without heat"
* Prolonged frost and unseasonable drought
* The seasons "seem to be all jumbled up together"
* The sky is described as "blended with alien elements" just like cloudy weather, except prolonged. It was "stretched like a hide across the sky" and prevented the "true colours" of the sun and moon from being seen, along with the sun's warmth.
* Frosts during harvest, which made apples harden and grapes sour.
* The need to use stored food to last through the situation.
* Subsequent letters (no. 26 and 27) discuss plans to relieve a widespread famine.


In the entry corresponding to the year 535–536, the early 7th century [[Mandaeism|Mandaean]] ''Book of Kings'' relates, "were you to request a tenth of a [[peck]] of grain in the land [[Gawkāy]] for five [[stater|staters]], we would look but it would not be found,"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Häberl |first1=Charles G. |title=The Book of Kings and the Explanations of This World |date=2022 |publisher=Liverpool |location=Liverpool |isbn=9781837642595 |page=77 |doi=10.3828/9781800856271 |doi-broken-date=19 August 2024 |url=https://liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk/doi/epdf/10.3828/9781800856271 |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref> an exchange of 873 grams of grain for 43 grams of gold, reflecting the scarcity of grain during this time.
== Further Reading ==
* David Keys: ''Catastrophe: A Quest for the Origins of the Modern World'', Ballantine Books, New York, 1999
* Ken Wohletz: ''[http://www.ees1.lanl.gov/Wohletz/Krakatau.htm Were the Dark Ages Triggered by Volcano-Related Climate Changes in the 6th Century?]''
* Joel D. Gunn (ed.): ''The Years without Summer: Tracing A.D. 536 and its Aftermath''. ISBN 1841710741
* [[Simon Winchester]]: ''Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded, August 27, 1883''. ISBN 0066212855, 2003
* M G L Baillie: ''Slice Through Time''. ISBN 0713476540, 1995. [http://print.google.com/print?id=V5UdlvScawQC&pg=93&lpg=93&prev=http://print.google.com/print%3Fq%3Drabaul%2Bvolcano%2B540%26btnG%3DSearch%2BPrint&sig=Qh-7mot279fX5Om9ZDdmosLboN0 (Google Print, p. 93)]
* Mike Baillie: ''Exodus to Arthur: Catastrophic Encounters With Comets'', 1999 [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0713483520/qid=1126862770/sr=2-2/ref=pd_bbs_b_2_2/104-4245223-5434311?v=glance&s=books]
* David Levy (editor): ''The Scientific American Book of the Cosmos''. ISBN 0312254539, 2000. [http://print.google.com/print?id=1N_UHgSqbEwC&lpg=186&prev=http://print.google.com/print%3Fq%3DMike%2BBaillie%26btnG%3DSearch%2BPrint&pg=186&sig=KZRcEQZjVo0KyylUWLbMw2_QQJ8 (Google Print, p. 186)]


[[Michael the Syrian]] (1126–1199), a patriarch of the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], reported that during 536–537 the sun shone feebly for a year and a half.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Michel le Syrien |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112069474242&view=1up&seq=228 |title=Chronique de Michel le Syrien, Patriarche Jacobite d'Antoche |date=1901 |publisher=Leroux |volume=2 |location=Paris, France |pages=220–221 |language=fr |translator-last=Chabot |translator-first=J. -B. |trans-title=Chronicle of Michael the Syrian, Jacobite Patriarch of Syria}} ''"Or, un peu auparavant, en l'an 848, il y eut un signe dans le soleil..., et le vin avait le goût de celui qui provient de raisins acides."'' (However, a little earlier, in the year 848 [according to the Greek calendar; AD 536/537 according to the Christian calendar], there was a sign in the sun. One had never seen it [before] and nowhere is it written that such [an event] had happened [previously] in the world. If it were not [true] that we found it recorded in most proven and credible writings, and confirmed by men worthy of belief, we would not have written it [here]; for it's difficult to conceive. So it is said that the sun was darkened and that its eclipse lasted a year and a half, that is, eighteen months. Every day it shone for about four hours and yet this light was only a feeble shadow. Everyone declared that it would not return to the state of its original light. Fruits did not ripen, and wine had the taste of what comes from sour grapes.)</ref>
[[Category:History of climate]]
[[Category:530s]]


The [[Irish Annals]]<ref>[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/publishd.html Gaelic Irish Annals] translations</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://celt.ucc.ie/publishd.html|title=List of Published Texts at CELT|website=celt.ucc.ie}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://celt.ucc.ie/published/T100005A/index.html|title=Annals of the Four Masters|website=celt.ucc.ie}}</ref> recorded the following:
[[da:Klimachok i 535-536]]
* "A failure of bread in AD 536" – the [[Annals of Ulster]]
[[de:Klimaveränderungen von 535–536]]
* "A failure of bread from AD 536–539" – the [[Annals of Inisfallen]]

The mid-10th-century ''[[Annales Cambriae]]'' record for the year 537:

* "The [[Battle of Camlann]], in which Arthur and Medraut fell, and there was great mortality in Britain and Ireland."{{efn|The battle is dated 539 in some editions.}}<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://d.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/theme/camlan|title=Camlan {{!}} Robbins Library Digital Projects|access-date=31 July 2018|language=en}}</ref>

In Chinese sources include:

* The Annals of the Tang Dynasty, which mentions the “great cold” and “famine” that occurred in 536.
* The [[Book of the Later Han]], which describes the “year of great cold” and the “famine that occurred in the summer”.
* The [[Zizhi Tongjian]], a historical text that mentions the “great cold” and the “famine that occurred in the summer”.
* Nanshi 南史 "History of the South" describes "a yellow ash-like substance from the sky"

Further phenomena were reported by independent contemporary sources:
* Low temperatures, even snow during the summer (snow reportedly fell in August in [[Northern and Southern dynasties|China]], which caused the harvest there to be delayed)<ref name="Ochoa05_p71">{{cite book |last1=Ochoa |first1=George |title=Climate: the force that shapes our world and the future of life on earth |last2=Hoffman |first2=Jennifer |last3=Tin |first3=Tina |publisher=Rodale |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-59486-288-5 |location=Emmaus, Pennsylvania |page=71 |language=en-us}}</ref>
* Widespread crop failures<ref>{{cite book |author=Rosen |first=William |title=Justinian's flea: Plague, Empire and the Birth of Europe |publisher=Jonathan Cape |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-224-07369-1 |location=London, England |language=en-uk}}</ref>
* "A dense, dry fog" in the [[Middle East]], China and [[Europe]]<ref name="Ochoa05_p71" />
* Drought in [[Peru]], which affected the [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] culture<ref name="Ochoa05_p71" /><ref name="Keys, David Patrick 2000">{{cite book |author=Keys, David Patrick |author-link=David Keys (author) |title=Catastrophe: an investigation into the origins of the modern world |publisher=Ballantine Pub |location=New York |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-345-40876-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/catastropheinves00keys}}</ref>

There are other sources of evidence regarding this period.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stothers |first1=R. B. |last2=Rampino |first2=M. R. |year=1983 |title=Volcanic eruptions in the Mediterranean before AD 630 from written and archaeological sources |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=88 |issue=B8 |pages=6357–6471 |bibcode=1983JGR....88.6357S |doi=10.1029/JB088iB08p06357 |issn=0148-0227}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stothers |first1=R. B. |date=16 January 1984 |title=Mystery cloud of AD 536 |journal=Nature |volume=307 |issue=5949 |pages=344–345 |bibcode=1984Natur.307..344S |doi=10.1038/307344a0 |issn=0028-0836 |s2cid=4233649}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rampino |first1=M. R. |last2=Self |first2=S. |last3=Stothers |first3=R. B. |year=1988 |title=Volcanic winters |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=16 |pages=73–99 |bibcode=1988AREPS..16...73R |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.16.050188.000445 |issn=0084-6597}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arjava |first1=Antti |year=2005 |title=The mystery cloud of 536 CE in the Mediterranean sources |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |volume=59 |pages=73–94 |doi=10.2307/4128751 |issn=0070-7546 |jstor=4128751}}</ref>

== Scientific evidence ==
[[Growth ring|Tree ring]] analysis by the [[dendrochronology|dendrochronologist]] [[Mike Baillie]], of the [[Queen's University of Belfast]], shows abnormally little growth in Irish [[oak]] in 536 and another sharp drop in 542, after a partial recovery.<ref>Baillie, M. G. L. (1994). "Dendrochronology Raises Questions About the Nature of the AD 536 Dust-Veil Event." ''[[The Holocene (journal)|The Holocene]],'' fig. 3, p. 215.</ref> [[Ice core]]s from [[Greenland]] and [[Antarctica]] show evidence of substantial [[sulfate]] deposits in around 534 ± 2, which is evidence of an extensive acidic dust veil.<ref name="Larsen">{{cite journal |last1=Larsen |first1=L. B. |last2=Vinther |first2=B. M. |last3=Briffa |first3=K. R. |last4=Melvin |first4=T. M. |last5=Clausen |first5=H. B. |last6=Jones |first6=P. D. |last7=Siggaard-Andersen |first7=M.-L. |last8=Hammer |first8=C. U. |last9=Eronen |first9=M. |last10=Grudd |first10=H. |last11=Gunnarson |first11=B. E. |last12=Hantemirov |first12=R. M. |last13=Naurzbaev |first13=M. M. |last14=Nicolussi |first14=K. |display-authors=8 |year=2008 |title=New ice core evidence for a volcanic cause of the A.D. 536 dust veil |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2008/2007GL032450.shtml |journal=Geophys. Res. Lett. |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=L04708 |bibcode=2008GeoRL..35.4708L |doi=10.1029/2007GL032450 |s2cid=54703352 |issn=0094-8276 |doi-access= |access-date=7 April 2008 |archive-date=6 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606043829/http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2008/2007GL032450.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Possible explanations ==
It was originally theorized that the climatic changes of AD 536 were caused by either volcanic eruptions (a phenomenon known as "[[volcanic winter]]") or [[Impact event|impact events]] ([[meteorite]] or [[comet]]).<ref>{{cite book |author=Baillie |first=Michael G. L. |title=Exodus to Arthur: Catastrophic Encounters with Comets |publisher=B.T. Batsford |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7134-8352-9 |location=London, England |language=en-uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rigby |first1=Emma |last2=Symonds |first2=Melissa |last3=Ward-Thompson |first3=Derek |date=February 2004 |title=A comet impact in AD 536? |journal=Astronomy and Geophysics |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=1.23–1.26 |bibcode=2004A&G....45a..23R |doi=10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45123.x |issn=1366-8781 |s2cid=121589992|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=MacIntyre, Ferren |title=Simultaneous Settlement of Indo-Pacific Extrema? |journal=Rapa Nui Journal |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=96–104 |year=2002}}</ref>

In 2015, revision of polar ice core chronologies dated sulfate deposits and a [[Tephrochronology|cryptotephra layer]] to the exact year AD 536 (previously dated to AD 529 before revision).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Sigl |first1=M. |last2=Winstrup |first2=M. |last3=McConnell |first3=J. R. |last4=Welten |first4=K. C. |last5=Plunkett |first5=G. |last6=Ludlow |first6=F. |last7=Büntgen |first7=U. |last8=Caffee |first8=M. |last9=Chellman |first9=N. |year=2015 |title=Timing and climate forcing of volcanic eruptions for the past 2,500 years |url=https://pure.qub.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/timing-and-climate-forcing-of-volcanic-eruptions-for-the-past-2500-years(04c84f13-a3c3-48e4-81ca-1507cdd4359d).html |journal=Nature |volume=523 |issue=7562 |pages=543–549 |bibcode=2015Natur.523..543S |doi=10.1038/nature14565 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=26153860 |s2cid= 4462058|archive-url= |quote=}}</ref> This is strong evidence that a large explosive volcanic eruption caused the observed dimming and cooling, removing the need for an extraterrestrial explanation,<ref name="Larsen" /><ref name=":0" /> but an impact event around this time period cannot be ruled out.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Abbott |first1=Dallas H. |last2=Breger |first2=Dee |last3=Biscaye |first3=Pierre E. |last4=Barron |first4=John A. |last5=Juhl |first5=Robert A. |last6=McCafferty |first6=Patrick |title=Volcanism, Impacts, and Mass Extinctions: Causes and Effects |date=2014-09-01 |chapter=What caused terrestrial dust loading and climate downturns between A.D. 533 and 540? |chapter-url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/books/book/674/chapter/3808140/What-caused-terrestrial-dust-loading-and-climate |language=en |doi=10.1130/2014.2505(23)|isbn=9780813725055 |s2cid=129953699 }}</ref>

The source of volcanic eruption remains to be found but several proposed volcanoes have been rejected:

* R. B. Stothers postulated the volcano [[Rabaul caldera|Rabaul]] in [[New Britain]], in [[Papua New Guinea]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stothers |first=R. B. |date=26 January 1984 |title=Mystery cloud of AD 536 |journal=Nature |volume=307 |issue=5949 |pages=344–345 |bibcode=1984Natur.307..344S |doi=10.1038/307344a0 |issn=0028-0836 |s2cid=4233649}}</ref> The eruption is now thought to have occurred in the interval AD 667–699 based on [[Wiggle matching|wiggle-match radiocarbon dating]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McKee |first1=Chris O. |last2=Baillie |first2=Michael G. |last3=Reimer |first3=Paula J. |date=2015-07-04 |title=A revised age of ad 667–699 for the latest major eruption at Rabaul |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-015-0954-7 |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |language=en |volume=77 |issue=7 |pages=65 |doi=10.1007/s00445-015-0954-7 |bibcode=2015BVol...77...65M |s2cid=132032440 |issn=1432-0819}}</ref>
* [[David Keys (author)|David Keys]] suggested the volcano [[Krakatoa]] by shifting a cataclysm in AD 416 recorded in Javanese ''[[Pararaton|Book of Kings]]'' to AD 535.<ref name="Keys, David Patrick 2000" /> Drilling projects in [[Sunda Strait]] ruled out any possibility that an eruption took place during this time period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Southon |first1=John |last2=Mohtadi |first2=Mahyar |last3=Pol-Holz |first3=Ricardo De |date=2013-02-09 |title=Planktonic Foram Dates from the Indonesian Arc: Marine 14C Reservoir Ages and a Mythical AD 535 Eruption of Krakatau |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/radiocarbon/article/abs/planktonic-foram-dates-from-the-indonesian-arc-marine-14c-reservoir-ages-and-a-mythical-ad-535-eruption-of-krakatau/459ED3B7A3807405994B278B26B8928E |journal=Radiocarbon |language=en |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=1164–1172 |doi=10.1017/S0033822200048074 |bibcode=2013Radcb..55.1164S |s2cid=54647517 |issn=0033-8222}}</ref>
* Robert Dull and colleagues proposed the large VEI-7, [[Tierra Blanca Joven eruption|Tierra Blanca Joven]] (TBJ) eruption of the [[Lake Ilopango|Ilopango caldera]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dull |first1=R. |last2=Southon |first2=J. R. |last3=Kutterolf |first3=S. |last4=Freundt |first4=A. |last5=Wahl |first5=D. |last6=Sheets |first6=P. |date=13–17 December 2010 |title=Did the TBJ Ilopango eruption cause the AD 536 event? |journal=AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts |volume=13 |pages=V13C–2370 |bibcode=2010AGUFM.V13C2370D}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dull |first1=Robert A. |last2=Southon |first2=John R. |last3=Kutterolf |first3=Steffen |last4=Anchukaitis |first4=Kevin J. |last5=Freundt |first5=Armin |last6=Wahl |first6=David B. |last7=Sheets |first7=Payson |last8=Amaroli |first8=Paul |last9=Hernandez |first9=Walter |last10=Wiemann |first10=Michael C. |last11=Oppenheimer |first11=Clive |date=October 2019 |title=Radiocarbon and geologic evidence reveal Ilopango volcano as a source of the colossal 'mystery' eruption of 539/40 CE |url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/47558/13/Dull.pdf |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=222 |pages=105855 |bibcode=2019QSRv..22205855D |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.07.037 |issn=0277-3791 |s2cid=202190161}}</ref> Identification of TBJ tephra in ice cores narrowed the eruption date to AD 429–433.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Victoria C. |last2=Costa |first2=Antonio |last3=Aguirre-Díaz |first3=Gerardo |last4=Pedrazzi |first4=Dario |last5=Scifo |first5=Andrea |last6=Plunkett |first6=Gill |last7=Poret |first7=Mattieu |last8=Tournigand |first8=Pierre-Yves |last9=Miles |first9=Dan |last10=Dee |first10=Michael W. |last11=McConnell |first11=Joseph R. |last12=Sunyé-Puchol |first12=Ivan |last13=Harris |first13=Pablo Dávila |last14=Sigl |first14=Michael |last15=Pilcher |first15=Jonathan R. |date=20 October 2020 |title=The magnitude and impact of the 431 CE Tierra Blanca Joven eruption of Ilopango, El Salvador |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=117 |issue=42 |pages=26061–26068 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11726061S |doi=10.1073/pnas.2003008117 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=7584997 |pmid=32989145 |doi-access=free |last16=Chellman |first16=Nathan |last17=Gutiérrez |first17=Eduardo}}</ref>
* Christopher Loveluck and his colleagues proposed Icelandic volcanos based on the shards from a Swiss glacier.<ref name="Gibbons18" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Loveluck |first1=Christopher P. |last2=McCormick |first2=Michael |last3=Spaulding |first3=Nicole E. |last4=Clifford |first4=Heather |last5=Handley |first5=Michael J. |last6=Hartman |first6=Laura |last7=Hoffmann |first7=Helene |last8=Korotkikh |first8=Elena V. |last9=Kurbatov |first9=Andrei V. |last10=More |first10=Alexander F. |last11=Sneed |first11=Sharon B. |last12=Mayewski |first12=Paul A. |date=2018-11-14 |title=Alpine ice-core evidence for the transformation of the European monetary system, AD 640–670 |journal=Antiquity |language=en |volume=92 |issue=366 |pages=1571–1585 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2018.110 |s2cid=165543389 |issn=0003-598X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>https://www.science.org/content/article/why-536-was-worst-year-be-alive {{Bare URL inline|date=August 2024}}</ref> However, the cryptotephras dated exactly to AD 536 are geochemically distinct from Icelandic tephra,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Plunkett |first1=Gill |last2=Sigl |first2=Michael |last3=Pilcher |first3=Jonathan R. |last4=McConnell |first4=Joseph R. |last5=Chellman |first5=Nathan |last6=Steffensen |first6=J.P. |last7=Büntgen |first7=Ulf |date=2020-06-08 |title=Smoking guns and volcanic ash: the importance of sparse tephras in Greenland ice cores |url=https://polarresearch.net/index.php/polar/article/view/3511 |journal=Polar Research |volume=39 |doi=10.33265/polar.v39.3511 |s2cid=219672090 |issn=0800-0395|doi-access=free }}</ref> and the shards in the Swiss glacier have large age uncertainty.<ref name=":1" />

Geochemical analysis of AD 536 cryptotephras distinguishes at least three synchronous eruptive events in North America.<ref name=":0" /> Further analysis correlates one of the eruptions to a widespread [[Mono–Inyo Craters|Mono Craters]] tephra identified in northeast California.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Plunkett |first1=Gill |last2=Sigl |first2=Michael |last3=McConnell |first3=Joseph R. |last4=Pilcher |first4=Jonathan R. |last5=Chellman |first5=Nathan J. |date=2023-02-01 |title=The significance of volcanic ash in Greenland ice cores during the Common Era |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |language=en |volume=301 |pages=107936 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107936 |bibcode=2023QSRv..30107936P |s2cid=181849906 |issn=0277-3791|doi-access=free }}</ref> The other two eruptions most likely originated from the [[Aleutian Arc|eastern Aleutians]] and [[Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province|Northern Cordilleran volcanic province]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Plunkett |first1=Gill |last2=Sigl |first2=Michael |last3=Schwaiger |first3=Hans F. |last4=Tomlinson |first4=Emma L. |last5=Toohey |first5=Matthew |last6=McConnell |first6=Joseph R. |last7=Pilcher |first7=Jonathan R. |last8=Hasegawa |first8=Takeshi |last9=Siebe |first9=Claus |date=2022-01-18 |title=No evidence for tephra in Greenland from the historic eruption of Vesuvius in 79&thinsp;CE: implications for geochronology and paleoclimatology |url=https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/18/45/2022/ |journal=Climate of the Past |language=English |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=45–65 |doi=10.5194/cp-18-45-2022 |bibcode=2022CliPa..18...45P |issn=1814-9324|doi-access=free |hdl=2262/101944 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

== Historic consequences ==
{{Main|Late Antique Little Ice Age}}
The 536 event and ensuing famine have been suggested as an explanation for the deposition of [[hoard]]s of gold by Scandinavian elites at the end of the [[Migration Period]]. The gold was possibly a sacrifice to appease the gods and get the sunlight back.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Axboe |first=Morten |author-link=Morten Axboe |year=2001 |title=Året 536 |journal=Skalk |issue=4 |pages=28–32}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Axboe |first=Morten |author-link=Morten Axboe |year=1999 |title=The year 536 and the Scandinavian gold hoards |url=http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-769-1/ahds/dissemination/pdf/vol43/43_186_188.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Medieval Archaeology (journal)|Medieval Archaeology]] |volume=43 |pages=186–188 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810180313/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-769-1/ahds/dissemination/pdf/vol43/43_186_188.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2011 |access-date=12 January 2009}}</ref> Mythological events such as the [[Fimbulwinter]] and [[Ragnarök]] are theorised to be based on the [[cultural memory]] of the event.<ref>Ström, Folke: ''Nordisk Hedendom'', [[Studentlitteratur]], Lund 2005, {{ISBN|91-44-00551-2}} (first published 1961) among others, refer to the climate change theory.</ref>

A book written by [[David Keys (author)|David Keys]] speculates that the climate changes contributed to various developments, such as the emergence of the [[Plague of Justinian]] (541–549), the decline of the [[Avars (Carpathians)|Avars]], the migration of [[Mongol]] tribes towards the west, the end of the [[Sassanid Empire]], the collapse of the [[Gupta Empire]], the rise of [[Islam]], the expansion of [[Turkic expansion|Turkic]] tribes, and the fall of [[Teotihuacán]].<ref name="Keys, David Patrick 2000" /> In 2000, a [[3BM Television]] production (for [[WNET]] and [[Channel 4|Channel Four]]) capitalised upon Keys' book. The documentary, under the name ''Catastrophe! How the World Changed'', was broadcast in the US as part of [[PBS]]'s ''[[Secrets of the Dead]]'' series.<ref name="gunn2000">{{cite book |author=Gunn, Joel D. |title=The Years Without Summer: Tracing A.D. 536 and its Aftermath |series=British Archaeological Reports (BAR) International |publisher=Archaeopress |location=Oxford, England |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-84171-074-7}}</ref>

However, Keys and Wohletz's ideas lack mainstream acceptance. Reviewing Keys' book, British archaeologist [[Ken Dark]] commented that "much of the apparent evidence presented in the book is highly debatable, based on poor sources or simply incorrect. [...] Nonetheless, both the global scope and the emphasis on the 6th century AD as a time of wide-ranging change are notable, and the book contains some obscure information that will be new to many. However, it fails to demonstrate its central thesis and does not offer a convincing explanation for the many changes discussed".<ref name="dark1999">{{cite journal |last=Dark |first=Ken |author-link=Ken Dark |date=November 1999 |title=Jumbling old events with modern myths |url=http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba49/ba49book.html |url-status=dead |journal=British Archaeology |issue=49 |issn=1357-4442 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060225050701/http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba49/ba49book.html |archive-date=25 February 2006 |access-date=14 July 2020}}</ref>

The philologist [[Andrew Breeze]] in a recent book (2020) argues that some [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] events, including the [[Battle of Camlann]], are historical, happening in 537 as a consequence of the famine associated with the climate change of the previous year.<ref name="Breeze06">{{cite book |last=Breeze |first=Andrew |title=British Battles 493–937: Mount Badon to Brunanburh |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2020 |isbn=9781785272233 |place=London, England |pages=13–24 |language=en-uk |doi=10.2307/j.ctvv4187r |jstor=j.ctvv4187r |s2cid=243164764}}</ref>

Historian Robert Bruton argues that this catastrophe played a role in the decline of the Roman Empire.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.academia.edu/42765814|title=The Role of Climate Change in the Decline of the Roman Empire
|accessdate=2023-12-29|date=7 April 2019|first=Robert|last=Burton|publisher=Capstone Paper}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[1257 Samalas eruption]]
* [[1452/1453 mystery eruption]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gao |first1=Chaochao |last2=Robock |first2=Alan |last3=Self |first3=Stephen |last4=Witter |first4=Jeffrey B. |last5=Steffenson |first5=J. P. |last6=Clausen |first6=Henrik Brink |last7=Siggaard-Andersen |first7=Marie-Louise |last8=Johnsen |first8=Sigfus |last9=Mayewski |first9=Paul A. |last10=Ammann |first10=Caspar |year=2006 |title=The 1452 or 1453 A.D. Kuwae Eruption Signal Derived from Multiple Ice Core Records: Greatest Volcanic Sulfate Event of the Past 700 Years |url=http://climate.envsci.rutgers.edu/pdf/Kuwae27.pdf |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=111 |issue=D12107 |page=11 |bibcode=2006JGRD..11112107G |doi=10.1029/2005JD006710 |issn=0148-0227}}</ref>
* [[1815 eruption of Mount Tambora]], largest ever recorded
*[[946 eruption of Paektu Mountain]]
* [[Fimbulvetr]]
* [[Great Famine of 1315–1317]]
* [[Justinian I]], Roman emperor at the time
* [[Laki#1783 eruption|Laki]]
* [[Minoan eruption]]
* [[Tierra Blanca Joven eruption]]
* [[Volcanism of Iceland]]
* [[Year Without a Summer]], 1816

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |author=Arjava |first=Antti |chapter=The Mystery Cloud of 536 CE in the Mediterranean Sources |title=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection |location=Washington, DC |year=2006 |volume=59 |pages=73–94 |language=en-us}}
* {{cite book |author=Axboe, Morten |author-link=Morten Axboe |chapter=Amulet Pendants and a Darkened Sun |editor=Bente Magnus |title=Roman Gold and the Development of the Early Germanic Kingdoms: Aspects of Technical, Socio-political, Socio-economic, Artistic and Intellectual Development, A.D. 1–500 |page=51 |publisher=Almquiest & Wiksell Intl |year=2001 |isbn=978-91-7402-310-7}}
* {{cite journal |last=Baillie |first=Michael G. L. |year=1994 |title=Dendrochronology Raises Questions About the Nature of the AD 536 Dust-Veil Event |journal=The Holocene |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=212–217 |doi=10.1177/095968369400400211 |bibcode=1994Holoc...4..212B |s2cid=140595125}}
* {{cite book |author=Baillie |title=A Slice Through Time: Dendrochronology and Precision Dating |publisher=Batsford |location=London, England |year=1995 |page=93 |language=en-uk |isbn=978-0-7134-7654-5 |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mc6jv_58MRUC}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Büntgen |first1=Ulf |last2=Myglan |first2=Vladimir S. |last3=Ljungqvist |first3=Fredrik Charpentier |last4=McCormick |first4=Michael |last5=Di Cosmo |first5=Nicola |last6=Sigl |first6=Michael |last7=Jungclaus |first7=Johann |last8=Wagner |first8=Sebastian |last9=Krusic |first9=Paul J. |last10=Esper |first10=Jan |last11=Kaplan |first11=Jed O. |last12=de Vaan |first12=Michiel A. C. |last13=Luterbacher |first13=Jürg |last14=Wacker |first14=Lukas |last15=Tegel |first15=Willy |last16=Kirdyanov |first16=Alexander V. |title=Cooling and societal change during the Late Antique Little Ice Age from 536 to around 660 AD |journal=Nature Geoscience |date=March 2016 |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=231–236 |doi=10.1038/ngeo2652 |bibcode=2016NatGe...9..231B |url=http://elib.sfu-kras.ru/handle/2311/27894 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Farhat-Holzman, Laina |title=Climate Change, Volcanoes, and Plagues{{snd}}the New Tools of History|journal=Good Times|date=23 January 2003 |url=http://globalthink.net/global/dsppaper.cfm?ArticleID=96 |series=GlobalThink.Net Research Papers |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927235420/http://globalthink.net/global/dsppaper.cfm?ArticleID=96 |archive-date = 27 September 2007}}
* {{cite book |author=Gunn, Joel |title=The Years Without Summer: Tracing A.D. 536 and its Aftermath |series=British Archaeological Reports (BAR) International |publisher=Archaeopress |location=Oxford, England |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-84171-074-7}}
* {{cite book |author=Keys, David Patrick |author-link=David Keys (author) |title=Catastrophe: An Investigation into the Origins of the Modern World |publisher=Ballantine Pub |location=New York |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-345-40876-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/catastropheinves00keys}}
* [[David H. Levy|Levy, David]] (ed.), ''The Scientific American Book of the Cosmos'', {{ISBN|0-312-25453-9}}, 2000, [http://print.google.com/print?id=1N_UHgSqbEwC&lpg=186&prev=http://print.google.com/print%3Fq%3DMike%2BBaillie%26btnG%3DSearch%2BPrint&pg=186 (Google Print, p. 186)]{{dead link|date=February 2012}}
* {{cite book |author=Rosen |first=William |title=Justinian's Flea: Plague, Empire and the Birth of Europe |publisher=Jonathan Cape |location=London, England |language=en-uk |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-224-07369-1}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Salzer |first1=Matthew W. |last2=Hughes |first2=Malcolm K. |title=Bristlecone pine tree rings and volcanic eruptions over the last 5000 yr |journal=Quaternary Research |date=January 2007 |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=57–68 |doi=10.1016/j.yqres.2006.07.004 |bibcode=2007QuRes..67...57S |s2cid=14654597 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sigl |first1=M. |last2=Winstrup |first2=M. |last3=McConnell |first3=J. R. |last4=Welten |first4=K. C. |last5=Plunkett |first5=G. |last6=Ludlow |first6=F. |last7=Büntgen |first7=U. |last8=Caffee |first8=M. |last9=Chellman |first9=N. |last10=Dahl-Jensen |first10=D. |last11=Fischer |first11=H. |last12=Kipfstuhl |first12=S. |last13=Kostick |first13=C. |last14=Maselli |first14=O. J. |last15=Mekhaldi |first15=F. |last16=Mulvaney |first16=R. |last17=Muscheler |first17=R. |last18=Pasteris |first18=D. R. |last19=Pilcher |first19=J. R. |last20=Salzer |first20=M. |last21=Schüpbach |first21=S. |last22=Steffensen |first22=J. P. |last23=Vinther |first23=B. M. |last24=Woodruff |first24=T. E. |title=Timing and climate forcing of volcanic eruptions for the past 2,500 years |journal=Nature |date=July 2015 |volume=523 |issue=7562 |pages=543–549 |doi=10.1038/nature14565 |pmid=26153860 |bibcode=2015Natur.523..543S |s2cid=4462058 |url=https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/files/16135501/258284_3_high_res_merged_1429871467.pdf }}
* {{cite book |author=Winchester, Simon |author-link=Simon Winchester |title=Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded, August 27, 1883 |publisher=Harper-Collins |location=New York |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-06-621285-2 |title-link=Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded, 27 August 1883}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2008/03/536-ad-and-all-that/ "536 and all that"], from [[Real Climate]], March 2008.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070703082438/http://www.staff.livjm.ac.uk/spsbpeis/AD536-CCNetDebate.htm CCNet Debate: The AD 536–540 Mystery: Global Catastrophe, Regional Event or Modern Myth?]
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Extreme weather events of 0535-0536}}
[[Category:535]]
[[Category:536]]
[[Category:6th century in Asia]]
[[Category:6th century in Europe]]
[[Category:6th century in North America]]
[[Category:6th-century natural disasters]]
[[Category:Anomalous weather]]
[[Category:Events that forced the climate]]
[[Category:Medieval weather events]]
[[Category:6th-century famines]]
[[Category:Volcanic winters]]
[[Category:Mystery eruptions]]

Revision as of 10:55, 4 September 2024

Tombstone in the chapel of Filippo e Giacomo, Nosedo, dated to AD 536 (the second year after the consulship of Decius Paulinus).

The volcanic winter of 536 was the most severe and protracted episode of climatic cooling in the Northern Hemisphere in the last 2,000 years.[1] The volcanic winter was caused by at least three simultaneous eruptions of uncertain origin, with several possible locations proposed in various continents. Most contemporary accounts of the volcanic winter are from authors in Constantinople[citation needed], the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, although the impact of the cooler temperatures extended beyond Europe. Modern scholarship has determined that in early AD 536 (or possibly late 535), an eruption ejected massive amounts of sulfate aerosols into the atmosphere, which reduced the solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface and cooled the atmosphere for several years. In March 536, Constantinople began experiencing darkened skies and lower temperatures.

Summer temperatures in 536 fell by as much as 2.5 °C (4.5 °F) below normal in Europe. The lingering impact of the volcanic winter of 536 was augmented in 539–540, when another volcanic eruption caused summer temperatures to decline as much as 2.7 °C (4.9 °F) below normal in Europe.[2] There is evidence of still another volcanic eruption in 547 which would have extended the cool period. The volcanic eruptions caused crop failures, and were accompanied by the Plague of Justinian, famine, and millions of deaths and initiated the Late Antique Little Ice Age, which lasted from 536 to 560.[3]

The medieval scholar Michael McCormick wrote that 536 "was the beginning of one of the worst periods to be alive, if not the worst year."[4]

Documentary evidence

The Roman historian Procopius recorded in AD 536 in his report on the wars with the Vandals, "during this year a most dread portent took place. For the sun gave forth its light without brightness... and it seemed exceedingly like the sun in eclipse, for the beams it shed were not clear".[5][6]

In 538, the Roman statesman Cassiodorus described the following to one of his subordinates in letter 25:[7]

  • The sun's rays were weak, and they appeared a "bluish" colour.
  • At noon, no shadows from people were visible on the ground.
  • The heat from the sun was feeble.
  • The moon, even when full, was "empty of splendour"
  • "A winter without storms, a spring without mildness, and a summer without heat"
  • Prolonged frost and unseasonable drought
  • The seasons "seem to be all jumbled up together"
  • The sky is described as "blended with alien elements" just like cloudy weather, except prolonged. It was "stretched like a hide across the sky" and prevented the "true colours" of the sun and moon from being seen, along with the sun's warmth.
  • Frosts during harvest, which made apples harden and grapes sour.
  • The need to use stored food to last through the situation.
  • Subsequent letters (no. 26 and 27) discuss plans to relieve a widespread famine.

In the entry corresponding to the year 535–536, the early 7th century Mandaean Book of Kings relates, "were you to request a tenth of a peck of grain in the land Gawkāy for five staters, we would look but it would not be found,"[8] an exchange of 873 grams of grain for 43 grams of gold, reflecting the scarcity of grain during this time.

Michael the Syrian (1126–1199), a patriarch of the Syriac Orthodox Church, reported that during 536–537 the sun shone feebly for a year and a half.[9]

The Irish Annals[10][11][12] recorded the following:

The mid-10th-century Annales Cambriae record for the year 537:

In Chinese sources include:

  • The Annals of the Tang Dynasty, which mentions the “great cold” and “famine” that occurred in 536.
  • The Book of the Later Han, which describes the “year of great cold” and the “famine that occurred in the summer”.
  • The Zizhi Tongjian, a historical text that mentions the “great cold” and the “famine that occurred in the summer”.
  • Nanshi 南史 "History of the South" describes "a yellow ash-like substance from the sky"

Further phenomena were reported by independent contemporary sources:

  • Low temperatures, even snow during the summer (snow reportedly fell in August in China, which caused the harvest there to be delayed)[14]
  • Widespread crop failures[15]
  • "A dense, dry fog" in the Middle East, China and Europe[14]
  • Drought in Peru, which affected the Moche culture[14][16]

There are other sources of evidence regarding this period.[17][18][19][20]

Scientific evidence

Tree ring analysis by the dendrochronologist Mike Baillie, of the Queen's University of Belfast, shows abnormally little growth in Irish oak in 536 and another sharp drop in 542, after a partial recovery.[21] Ice cores from Greenland and Antarctica show evidence of substantial sulfate deposits in around 534 ± 2, which is evidence of an extensive acidic dust veil.[22]

Possible explanations

It was originally theorized that the climatic changes of AD 536 were caused by either volcanic eruptions (a phenomenon known as "volcanic winter") or impact events (meteorite or comet).[23][24][25]

In 2015, revision of polar ice core chronologies dated sulfate deposits and a cryptotephra layer to the exact year AD 536 (previously dated to AD 529 before revision).[26] This is strong evidence that a large explosive volcanic eruption caused the observed dimming and cooling, removing the need for an extraterrestrial explanation,[22][26] but an impact event around this time period cannot be ruled out.[27]

The source of volcanic eruption remains to be found but several proposed volcanoes have been rejected:

  • R. B. Stothers postulated the volcano Rabaul in New Britain, in Papua New Guinea.[28] The eruption is now thought to have occurred in the interval AD 667–699 based on wiggle-match radiocarbon dating.[29]
  • David Keys suggested the volcano Krakatoa by shifting a cataclysm in AD 416 recorded in Javanese Book of Kings to AD 535.[16] Drilling projects in Sunda Strait ruled out any possibility that an eruption took place during this time period.[30]
  • Robert Dull and colleagues proposed the large VEI-7, Tierra Blanca Joven (TBJ) eruption of the Ilopango caldera.[31][32] Identification of TBJ tephra in ice cores narrowed the eruption date to AD 429–433.[33]
  • Christopher Loveluck and his colleagues proposed Icelandic volcanos based on the shards from a Swiss glacier.[4][34][35] However, the cryptotephras dated exactly to AD 536 are geochemically distinct from Icelandic tephra,[36] and the shards in the Swiss glacier have large age uncertainty.[34]

Geochemical analysis of AD 536 cryptotephras distinguishes at least three synchronous eruptive events in North America.[26] Further analysis correlates one of the eruptions to a widespread Mono Craters tephra identified in northeast California.[26][37] The other two eruptions most likely originated from the eastern Aleutians and Northern Cordilleran volcanic province.[26][38]

Historic consequences

Main article: Late Antique Little Ice Age

The 536 event and ensuing famine have been suggested as an explanation for the deposition of hoards of gold by Scandinavian elites at the end of the Migration Period. The gold was possibly a sacrifice to appease the gods and get the sunlight back.[39][40] Mythological events such as the Fimbulwinter and Ragnarök are theorised to be based on the cultural memory of the event.[41]

A book written by David Keys speculates that the climate changes contributed to various developments, such as the emergence of the Plague of Justinian (541–549), the decline of the Avars, the migration of Mongol tribes towards the west, the end of the Sassanid Empire, the collapse of the Gupta Empire, the rise of Islam, the expansion of Turkic tribes, and the fall of Teotihuacán.[16] In 2000, a 3BM Television production (for WNET and Channel Four) capitalised upon Keys' book. The documentary, under the name Catastrophe! How the World Changed, was broadcast in the US as part of PBS's Secrets of the Dead series.[42]

However, Keys and Wohletz's ideas lack mainstream acceptance. Reviewing Keys' book, British archaeologist Ken Dark commented that "much of the apparent evidence presented in the book is highly debatable, based on poor sources or simply incorrect. [...] Nonetheless, both the global scope and the emphasis on the 6th century AD as a time of wide-ranging change are notable, and the book contains some obscure information that will be new to many. However, it fails to demonstrate its central thesis and does not offer a convincing explanation for the many changes discussed".[43]

The philologist Andrew Breeze in a recent book (2020) argues that some Arthurian events, including the Battle of Camlann, are historical, happening in 537 as a consequence of the famine associated with the climate change of the previous year.[44]

Historian Robert Bruton argues that this catastrophe played a role in the decline of the Roman Empire.[45]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The battle is dated 539 in some editions.

References

  1. ^ Abbott, D. H.; Biscaye, P.; Cole-Dai, J.; Breger, D. (December 2008). "Magnetite and Silicate Spherules from the GISP2 Core at the 536 A.D. Horizon". AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2008. Vol. 41. pp. 41B–1454. Bibcode:2008AGUFMPP41B1454A. Abstract #PP41B-1454.
  2. ^ Harper, Kyle (2017). The Fate of Rome. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 253. ISBN 9780691166834.
  3. ^ Peregrine, Peter (2020). "Climate and social change at the start of the Late Antique Little Ice Age". The Holocene. 30 (11): 1643–1648. Bibcode:2020Holoc..30.1643P. doi:10.1177/0959683620941079. ISSN 0959-6836. S2CID 222179333. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
  4. ^ a b Gibbons, Ann (15 November 2018). "Why 536 was 'the worst year to be alive'". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aaw0632. ISSN 0036-8075. S2CID 189287084.
  5. ^ Procopius (1916). Procopius. Vol. 2: History of the [Vandalic] Wars, Books III and IV. Translated by Dewing, Henry Bronson. London, England: William Heinemann. p. 329. ISBN 978-0-674-99054-8.
  6. ^ Ochoa, George; Hoffman, Jennifer; Tin, Tina (2005). Climate: the force that shapes our world and the future of life on earth. Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale. ISBN 978-1-59486-288-5, gives this quote as "The Sun gave forth its light without brightness, like the moon during this whole year, and it seemed exceedingly like the Sun in eclipse".
  7. ^ Cassiodorus (1886). The Letters of Cassiodorus. Translated by Hodgkin, Thomas. London, England: Henry Frowde. pp. 518–520. See: "25. Senator, Praetorian Praefect, to his deputy Ambrosius, an Illustris."
  8. ^ Häberl, Charles G. (2022). The Book of Kings and the Explanations of This World. Liverpool: Liverpool. p. 77. doi:10.3828/9781800856271 (inactive 19 August 2024). ISBN 9781837642595. Retrieved 19 July 2024.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 (link)
  9. ^ Michel le Syrien (1901). Chronique de Michel le Syrien, Patriarche Jacobite d'Antoche [Chronicle of Michael the Syrian, Jacobite Patriarch of Syria] (in French). Vol. 2. Translated by Chabot, J. -B. Paris, France: Leroux. pp. 220–221. "Or, un peu auparavant, en l'an 848, il y eut un signe dans le soleil..., et le vin avait le goût de celui qui provient de raisins acides." (However, a little earlier, in the year 848 [according to the Greek calendar; AD 536/537 according to the Christian calendar], there was a sign in the sun. One had never seen it [before] and nowhere is it written that such [an event] had happened [previously] in the world. If it were not [true] that we found it recorded in most proven and credible writings, and confirmed by men worthy of belief, we would not have written it [here]; for it's difficult to conceive. So it is said that the sun was darkened and that its eclipse lasted a year and a half, that is, eighteen months. Every day it shone for about four hours and yet this light was only a feeble shadow. Everyone declared that it would not return to the state of its original light. Fruits did not ripen, and wine had the taste of what comes from sour grapes.)
  10. ^ Gaelic Irish Annals translations
  11. ^ "List of Published Texts at CELT". celt.ucc.ie.
  12. ^ "Annals of the Four Masters". celt.ucc.ie.
  13. ^ "Camlan | Robbins Library Digital Projects". Retrieved 31 July 2018.
  14. ^ a b c Ochoa, George; Hoffman, Jennifer; Tin, Tina (2005). Climate: the force that shapes our world and the future of life on earth. Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-59486-288-5.
  15. ^ Rosen, William (2007). Justinian's flea: Plague, Empire and the Birth of Europe. London, England: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0-224-07369-1.
  16. ^ a b c Keys, David Patrick (2000). Catastrophe: an investigation into the origins of the modern world. New York: Ballantine Pub. ISBN 978-0-345-40876-1.
  17. ^ Stothers, R. B.; Rampino, M. R. (1983). "Volcanic eruptions in the Mediterranean before AD 630 from written and archaeological sources". Journal of Geophysical Research. 88 (B8): 6357–6471. Bibcode:1983JGR....88.6357S. doi:10.1029/JB088iB08p06357. ISSN 0148-0227.
  18. ^ Stothers, R. B. (16 January 1984). "Mystery cloud of AD 536". Nature. 307 (5949): 344–345. Bibcode:1984Natur.307..344S. doi:10.1038/307344a0. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4233649.
  19. ^ Rampino, M. R.; Self, S.; Stothers, R. B. (1988). "Volcanic winters". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 16: 73–99. Bibcode:1988AREPS..16...73R. doi:10.1146/annurev.ea.16.050188.000445. ISSN 0084-6597.
  20. ^ Arjava, Antti (2005). "The mystery cloud of 536 CE in the Mediterranean sources". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 59: 73–94. doi:10.2307/4128751. ISSN 0070-7546. JSTOR 4128751.
  21. ^ Baillie, M. G. L. (1994). "Dendrochronology Raises Questions About the Nature of the AD 536 Dust-Veil Event." The Holocene, fig. 3, p. 215.
  22. ^ a b Larsen, L. B.; Vinther, B. M.; Briffa, K. R.; Melvin, T. M.; Clausen, H. B.; Jones, P. D.; Siggaard-Andersen, M.-L.; Hammer, C. U.; et al. (2008). "New ice core evidence for a volcanic cause of the A.D. 536 dust veil". Geophys. Res. Lett. 35 (4): L04708. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..35.4708L. doi:10.1029/2007GL032450. ISSN 0094-8276. S2CID 54703352. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2008.
  23. ^ Baillie, Michael G. L. (1999). Exodus to Arthur: Catastrophic Encounters with Comets. London, England: B.T. Batsford. ISBN 978-0-7134-8352-9.
  24. ^ Rigby, Emma; Symonds, Melissa; Ward-Thompson, Derek (February 2004). "A comet impact in AD 536?". Astronomy and Geophysics. 45 (1): 1.23–1.26. Bibcode:2004A&G....45a..23R. doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45123.x. ISSN 1366-8781. S2CID 121589992.
  25. ^ MacIntyre, Ferren (2002). "Simultaneous Settlement of Indo-Pacific Extrema?". Rapa Nui Journal. 16 (2): 96–104.
  26. ^ a b c d e Sigl, M.; Winstrup, M.; McConnell, J. R.; Welten, K. C.; Plunkett, G.; Ludlow, F.; Büntgen, U.; Caffee, M.; Chellman, N. (2015). "Timing and climate forcing of volcanic eruptions for the past 2,500 years". Nature. 523 (7562): 543–549. Bibcode:2015Natur.523..543S. doi:10.1038/nature14565. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 26153860. S2CID 4462058.
  27. ^ Abbott, Dallas H.; Breger, Dee; Biscaye, Pierre E.; Barron, John A.; Juhl, Robert A.; McCafferty, Patrick (1 September 2014). "What caused terrestrial dust loading and climate downturns between A.D. 533 and 540?". Volcanism, Impacts, and Mass Extinctions: Causes and Effects. doi:10.1130/2014.2505(23). ISBN 9780813725055. S2CID 129953699.
  28. ^ Stothers, R. B. (26 January 1984). "Mystery cloud of AD 536". Nature. 307 (5949): 344–345. Bibcode:1984Natur.307..344S. doi:10.1038/307344a0. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4233649.
  29. ^ McKee, Chris O.; Baillie, Michael G.; Reimer, Paula J. (4 July 2015). "A revised age of ad 667–699 for the latest major eruption at Rabaul". Bulletin of Volcanology. 77 (7): 65. Bibcode:2015BVol...77...65M. doi:10.1007/s00445-015-0954-7. ISSN 1432-0819. S2CID 132032440.
  30. ^ Southon, John; Mohtadi, Mahyar; Pol-Holz, Ricardo De (9 February 2013). "Planktonic Foram Dates from the Indonesian Arc: Marine 14C Reservoir Ages and a Mythical AD 535 Eruption of Krakatau". Radiocarbon. 55 (3): 1164–1172. Bibcode:2013Radcb..55.1164S. doi:10.1017/S0033822200048074. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 54647517.
  31. ^ Dull, R.; Southon, J. R.; Kutterolf, S.; Freundt, A.; Wahl, D.; Sheets, P. (13–17 December 2010). "Did the TBJ Ilopango eruption cause the AD 536 event?". AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts. 13: V13C–2370. Bibcode:2010AGUFM.V13C2370D.
  32. ^ Dull, Robert A.; Southon, John R.; Kutterolf, Steffen; Anchukaitis, Kevin J.; Freundt, Armin; Wahl, David B.; Sheets, Payson; Amaroli, Paul; Hernandez, Walter; Wiemann, Michael C.; Oppenheimer, Clive (October 2019). "Radiocarbon and geologic evidence reveal Ilopango volcano as a source of the colossal 'mystery' eruption of 539/40 CE" (PDF). Quaternary Science Reviews. 222: 105855. Bibcode:2019QSRv..22205855D. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.07.037. ISSN 0277-3791. S2CID 202190161.
  33. ^ Smith, Victoria C.; Costa, Antonio; Aguirre-Díaz, Gerardo; Pedrazzi, Dario; Scifo, Andrea; Plunkett, Gill; Poret, Mattieu; Tournigand, Pierre-Yves; Miles, Dan; Dee, Michael W.; McConnell, Joseph R.; Sunyé-Puchol, Ivan; Harris, Pablo Dávila; Sigl, Michael; Pilcher, Jonathan R.; Chellman, Nathan; Gutiérrez, Eduardo (20 October 2020). "The magnitude and impact of the 431 CE Tierra Blanca Joven eruption of Ilopango, El Salvador". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (42): 26061–26068. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11726061S. doi:10.1073/pnas.2003008117. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 7584997. PMID 32989145.
  34. ^ a b Loveluck, Christopher P.; McCormick, Michael; Spaulding, Nicole E.; Clifford, Heather; Handley, Michael J.; Hartman, Laura; Hoffmann, Helene; Korotkikh, Elena V.; Kurbatov, Andrei V.; More, Alexander F.; Sneed, Sharon B.; Mayewski, Paul A. (14 November 2018). "Alpine ice-core evidence for the transformation of the European monetary system, AD 640–670". Antiquity. 92 (366): 1571–1585. doi:10.15184/aqy.2018.110. ISSN 0003-598X. S2CID 165543389.
  35. ^ https://www.science.org/content/article/why-536-was-worst-year-be-alive [bare URL]
  36. ^ Plunkett, Gill; Sigl, Michael; Pilcher, Jonathan R.; McConnell, Joseph R.; Chellman, Nathan; Steffensen, J.P.; Büntgen, Ulf (8 June 2020). "Smoking guns and volcanic ash: the importance of sparse tephras in Greenland ice cores". Polar Research. 39. doi:10.33265/polar.v39.3511. ISSN 0800-0395. S2CID 219672090.
  37. ^ Plunkett, Gill; Sigl, Michael; McConnell, Joseph R.; Pilcher, Jonathan R.; Chellman, Nathan J. (1 February 2023). "The significance of volcanic ash in Greenland ice cores during the Common Era". Quaternary Science Reviews. 301: 107936. Bibcode:2023QSRv..30107936P. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107936. ISSN 0277-3791. S2CID 181849906.
  38. ^ Plunkett, Gill; Sigl, Michael; Schwaiger, Hans F.; Tomlinson, Emma L.; Toohey, Matthew; McConnell, Joseph R.; Pilcher, Jonathan R.; Hasegawa, Takeshi; Siebe, Claus (18 January 2022). "No evidence for tephra in Greenland from the historic eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE: implications for geochronology and paleoclimatology". Climate of the Past. 18 (1): 45–65. Bibcode:2022CliPa..18...45P. doi:10.5194/cp-18-45-2022. hdl:2262/101944. ISSN 1814-9324.
  39. ^ Axboe, Morten (2001). "Året 536". Skalk (4): 28–32.
  40. ^ Axboe, Morten (1999). "The year 536 and the Scandinavian gold hoards" (PDF). Medieval Archaeology. 43: 186–188. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 12 January 2009.
  41. ^ Ström, Folke: Nordisk Hedendom, Studentlitteratur, Lund 2005, ISBN 91-44-00551-2 (first published 1961) among others, refer to the climate change theory.
  42. ^ Gunn, Joel D. (2000). The Years Without Summer: Tracing A.D. 536 and its Aftermath. British Archaeological Reports (BAR) International. Oxford, England: Archaeopress. ISBN 978-1-84171-074-7.
  43. ^ Dark, Ken (November 1999). "Jumbling old events with modern myths". British Archaeology (49). ISSN 1357-4442. Archived from the original on 25 February 2006. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
  44. ^ Breeze, Andrew (2020). British Battles 493–937: Mount Badon to Brunanburh. London, England: Anthem Press. pp. 13–24. doi:10.2307/j.ctvv4187r. ISBN 9781785272233. JSTOR j.ctvv4187r. S2CID 243164764.
  45. ^ Burton, Robert (7 April 2019). The Role of Climate Change in the Decline of the Roman Empire. Capstone Paper. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
  46. ^ Gao, Chaochao; Robock, Alan; Self, Stephen; Witter, Jeffrey B.; Steffenson, J. P.; Clausen, Henrik Brink; Siggaard-Andersen, Marie-Louise; Johnsen, Sigfus; Mayewski, Paul A.; Ammann, Caspar (2006). "The 1452 or 1453 A.D. Kuwae Eruption Signal Derived from Multiple Ice Core Records: Greatest Volcanic Sulfate Event of the Past 700 Years" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 111 (D12107): 11. Bibcode:2006JGRD..11112107G. doi:10.1029/2005JD006710. ISSN 0148-0227.

Further reading

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