King cobra: Difference between revisions
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The '''king cobra''' ('''''Ophiophagus hannah''''') is a [[Venomous snake|venomous]] [[snake]] [[Endemism|endemic]] to [[Asia]]. With an average length of {{cvt|3.18|to|4|m}} and a |
The '''king cobra''' ('''''Ophiophagus hannah''''') is a [[Venomous snake|venomous]] [[snake]] [[Endemism|endemic]] to [[Asia]]. The [[monotypic|sole member]] of the genus ''Ophiophagus'', it is not taxonomically a [[Naja|true cobra]], despite its common name and some resemblance. With an average length of {{cvt|3.18|to|4|m}} and a record length of {{cvt|5.85|m}},<ref name=mehrtens/> it is the world's longest venomous snake. The species has diversified colouration across [[habitats]], from black with white stripes to unbroken brownish grey. The king cobra is widely distributed albeit not commonly seen, with a range spanning from the [[Indian Subcontinent]] through [[Southeastern Asia]] to [[Southern China]]. It preys chiefly on other snakes, including [[Cannibalism|those of its own kind]]. This is the only ophidian that constructs an above-ground nest for its eggs, which are purposefully and meticulously gathered and protected by the female throughout the [[incubation period]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lillywhite |first1=Harvey B. |year=2014|title=How Snakes Work: Structure, Function and Behavior of the World's Snakes |location=New York City|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=241|isbn=978-0-19-538037-8|chapter-url=}}</ref> |
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The [[threat display]] of this [[elapidae|elapid]] includes spreading its neck-flap, raising its head upright, making eye contact, puffing, hissing and occasionally charging. Given the size of the snake, it is capable of striking at a considerable range and height, sometimes sustaining a bite. [[Envenomation]] from this species is [[Emergency department|medically significant]] and may result in a rapid fatality unless [[antivenom]] is administered in time. Despite the species' fearsome reputation, aggression toward humans usually only arises from an individual inadvertently exposing itself or being cornered. |
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Threatened by [[habitat destruction]], it has been listed as [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] on the [[IUCN Red List]] since 2010. Regarded as the national reptile of [[India]], it has an eminent position in the [[mythology]] and folk traditions of [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Myanmar]]. |
Threatened by [[habitat destruction]], it has been listed as [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]] on the [[IUCN Red List]] since 2010. Regarded as the national reptile of [[India]], it has an eminent position in the [[mythology]] and folk traditions of [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Myanmar]]. |
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''Naia vittata'' proposed by [[Walter Elliot (naturalist)|Walter Elliot]] in 1840 was a king cobra caught offshore near [[Chennai]] that was floating in a basket.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Elliot, W. |year=1840 |title=Description of a New Species of Naga, or Cobra de Capello |journal=Madras Journal of Literature and Science |volume=11 |pages=39–41 |url=https://archive.org/details/madrasjournalofl1118madr/page/n55}}</ref> |
''Naia vittata'' proposed by [[Walter Elliot (naturalist)|Walter Elliot]] in 1840 was a king cobra caught offshore near [[Chennai]] that was floating in a basket.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Elliot, W. |year=1840 |title=Description of a New Species of Naga, or Cobra de Capello |journal=Madras Journal of Literature and Science |volume=11 |pages=39–41 |url=https://archive.org/details/madrasjournalofl1118madr/page/n55}}</ref> |
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''Hamadryas elaps'' proposed by [[Albert Günther]] in 1858 were king cobra specimens from the [[Philippines]] and [[Borneo]]. Günther considered both ''N. bungarus'' and ''N. vittata'' a variety of ''H. elaps''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Günther |first1=A. |title=Catalogue of colubrine snakes in the collection of the British Museum |date=1858 |publisher=Printed by order of the Trustees |location=London |page=219 |url=https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcolub00brituoft/page/219}}</ref> |
''Hamadryas elaps'' proposed by [[Albert Günther]] in 1858 were king cobra specimens from the [[Philippines]] and [[Borneo]]. Günther considered both ''N. bungarus'' and ''N. vittata'' a variety of ''H. elaps''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Günther |first1=A. |title=Catalogue of colubrine snakes in the collection of the British Museum |date=1858 |publisher=Printed by order of the Trustees |location=London |page=219 |url=https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcolub00brituoft/page/219}}</ref> |
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The [[Genus (biology)|genus]] ''Ophiophagus'' was proposed by Günther in 1864.<ref>{{cite book |author=Günther, A. C. L. G. |year=1864 |title=The Reptiles of British India |publisher=Ray Society |location=London |chapter=''Ophiophagus'', Gthr. |pages= |
The [[Genus (biology)|genus]] ''Ophiophagus'' was proposed by Günther in 1864.<ref>{{cite book |author=Günther, A. C. L. G. |year=1864 |title=The Reptiles of British India |publisher=Ray Society |location=London |chapter=''Ophiophagus'', Gthr. |pages=340–2 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.42645/2015.42645.The-Reptiles-Of-British-India#page/n371/mode/2up}}</ref> The name is derived from its propensity to eat snakes.<ref name="OSHEA">{{cite book|last=O'Shea|first= M. |year=2005 |title=Venomous Snakes of the World |pages=96–97 |publisher=Princeton University Press|location= New Jersey, USA |isbn=978-0-691-12436-0}}</ref> |
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''Naja ingens'' proposed by [[:fr:Alexander Willem Michiel van Hasselt|Alexander Willem Michiel van Hasselt]] in 1882 was a king cobra captured near [[Tebing Tinggi]] in northern Sumatra.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Van Hasselt, A. W. M. |year=1882 |title=Eene Monster-Naja |journal=Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen |series=2 |volume=17 |pages= |
''Naja ingens'' proposed by [[:fr:Alexander Willem Michiel van Hasselt|Alexander Willem Michiel van Hasselt]] in 1882 was a king cobra captured near [[Tebing Tinggi]] in northern Sumatra.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Van Hasselt, A. W. M. |year=1882 |title=Eene Monster-Naja |journal=Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen |series=2 |volume=17 |pages=140–3 |url=https://archive.org/details/verslagenenmeded2171koni/page/n157}}</ref> |
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''Ophiophagus hannah'' was accepted as the [[Valid name (zoology)|valid name]] for the king cobra by [[Charles Mitchill Bogert]] in 1945 who argued that it differs significantly from ''Naja'' species.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bogert, C. M. |year=1945 |title=''Hamadryas'' Preoccupied for the King Cobra |journal=Copeia |volume=1945 |issue=1 |page=47 |doi=10.2307/1438180 |jstor=1438180}}</ref> |
''Ophiophagus hannah'' was accepted as the [[Valid name (zoology)|valid name]] for the king cobra by [[Charles Mitchill Bogert]] in 1945 who argued that it differs significantly from ''Naja'' species.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bogert, C. M. |year=1945 |title=''Hamadryas'' Preoccupied for the King Cobra |journal=Copeia |volume=1945 |issue=1 |page=47 |doi=10.2307/1438180 |jstor=1438180}}</ref> |
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A [[genetic analysis]] using [[cytochrome b]],<ref>{{cite journal |title=Phylogenetic Relationships of Elapid Snakes Based on Cytochrome b mtDNA Sequences |author-link=Joseph Bruno Slowinski |last1=Slowinski |first1=J. B. |last2=Keogh |first2=J. S. |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=157–164 |date=2000 |doi=10.1006/mpev.1999.0725 |pmid=10764543 |url=https://biology-assets.anu.edu.au/hosted_sites/Scott/2000slowinskikeoghmpe.pdf |access-date=14 October 2019 |archive-date=14 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190314230350/http://biology-assets.anu.edu.au/hosted_sites/Scott/2000slowinskikeoghmpe.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and a multigene analysis showed that the king cobra was an early offshoot of a [[genetic lineage]] giving rise to the [[mamba]]s, rather than the ''Naja'' cobras.<ref name="Figueroa16">{{Cite journal |last1=Figueroa |first1=A. |last2=McKelvy |first2=A. D. |last3=Grismer |first3=L. L. |last4=Bell |first4=C. D. |last5=Lailvaux |first5=S. P. |title=A species-level phylogeny of extant snakes with description of a new colubrid subfamily and genus |journal=PLOS ONE|year=2016 |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=e0161070 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0161070 |pmid=27603205 |pmc=5014348 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1161070F|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
A [[genetic analysis]] using [[cytochrome b]],<ref>{{cite journal |title=Phylogenetic Relationships of Elapid Snakes Based on Cytochrome b mtDNA Sequences |author-link=Joseph Bruno Slowinski |last1=Slowinski |first1=J. B. |last2=Keogh |first2=J. S. |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=157–164 |date=2000 |doi=10.1006/mpev.1999.0725 |pmid=10764543 |bibcode=2000MolPE..15..157S |url=https://biology-assets.anu.edu.au/hosted_sites/Scott/2000slowinskikeoghmpe.pdf |access-date=14 October 2019 |archive-date=14 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190314230350/http://biology-assets.anu.edu.au/hosted_sites/Scott/2000slowinskikeoghmpe.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and a multigene analysis showed that the king cobra was an early offshoot of a [[genetic lineage]] giving rise to the [[mamba]]s, rather than the ''Naja'' cobras.<ref name="Figueroa16">{{Cite journal |last1=Figueroa |first1=A. |last2=McKelvy |first2=A. D. |last3=Grismer |first3=L. L. |last4=Bell |first4=C. D. |last5=Lailvaux |first5=S. P. |title=A species-level phylogeny of extant snakes with description of a new colubrid subfamily and genus |journal=PLOS ONE|year=2016 |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=e0161070 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0161070 |pmid=27603205 |pmc=5014348 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1161070F|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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A [[Phylogeny|phylogenetic]] analysis of [[mitochondrial DNA]] showed that specimens from [[Surat Thani Province|Surattani]] and [[Nakhon Si Thammarat Province]]s in southern Thailand form a deeply [[Genetic divergence|divergent]] [[clade]] from those from northern Thailand, which grouped with specimens from Myanmar and Guangdong in southern China.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.5372/1905-7415.0802.289 |title=Phylogenetic analysis of the king cobra, ''Ophiophagus hannah'' in Thailand based on mitochondrial DNA sequences |journal=Asian Biomedicine |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=269–274 |year=2014|last1=Suntrarachun |first1=S. |last2=Chanhome |first2=L. |last3=Sumontha |first3=M.|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
A [[Phylogeny|phylogenetic]] analysis of [[mitochondrial DNA]] showed that specimens from [[Surat Thani Province|Surattani]] and [[Nakhon Si Thammarat Province]]s in southern Thailand form a deeply [[Genetic divergence|divergent]] [[clade]] from those from northern Thailand, which grouped with specimens from Myanmar and Guangdong in southern China.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.5372/1905-7415.0802.289 |title=Phylogenetic analysis of the king cobra, ''Ophiophagus hannah'' in Thailand based on mitochondrial DNA sequences |journal=Asian Biomedicine |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=269–274 |year=2014|last1=Suntrarachun |first1=S. |last2=Chanhome |first2=L. |last3=Sumontha |first3=M.|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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[[File:Baby king cobra neck pattern.JPG|thumb|A baby king cobra showing its chevron pattern on the back]] |
[[File:Baby king cobra neck pattern.JPG|thumb|A baby king cobra showing its chevron pattern on the back]] |
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The king cobra's skin is olive green with black and white bands on the trunk that converge to the head. The head is covered by 15 drab coloured and black edged shields. The muzzle is rounded, and the tongue black. It has two fangs and 3–5 maxillar teeth in the upper jaw, and two rows of teeth in the lower jaw. The nostrils are between two shields. The large eyes have a golden iris and round pupils. Its hood is oval shaped and covered with olive green smooth [[scale (anatomy)|scales]] and two black spots between the two lowest scales. Its cylindrical tail is yellowish green above and marked with black.<ref name=Cantor1836/> |
The king cobra's skin is olive green with black and white bands on the trunk that converge to the head. The head is covered by 15 drab coloured and black edged shields. The muzzle is rounded, and the tongue black. It has two fangs and 3–5 maxillar teeth in the upper jaw, and two rows of teeth in the lower jaw. The nostrils are between two shields. The large eyes have a golden iris and round pupils. Its hood is oval shaped and covered with olive green smooth [[scale (anatomy)|scales]] and two black spots between the two lowest scales. Its cylindrical tail is yellowish green above and marked with black.<ref name=Cantor1836/> |
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It has a pair of large [[occipital scales]] on top of the head, 17 to 19 rows of smooth oblique scales on the neck, and 15 rows on the body. Juveniles are black with [[chevron (insignia)|chevron]] shaped white, yellow or buff bars that point towards the head.<ref name=Smith1943>{{cite book |author=Smith, M. A. |year=1943 |title=The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma, including the whole of the Indo-Chinese Subregion |volume=((Reptilia and Amphibia. III. – Serpentes)) |location=London |publisher=Taylor and Francis |pages= |
It has a pair of large [[occipital scales]] on top of the head, 17 to 19 rows of smooth oblique scales on the neck, and 15 rows on the body. Juveniles are black with [[chevron (insignia)|chevron]] shaped white, yellow or buff bars that point towards the head.<ref name=Smith1943>{{cite book |author=Smith, M. A. |year=1943 |title=The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma, including the whole of the Indo-Chinese Subregion |volume=((Reptilia and Amphibia. III. – Serpentes)) |location=London |publisher=Taylor and Francis |pages=436–8 |chapter=''Naja hannah''. Hamadryad, King Cobra |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.62194/page/n447}}</ref> |
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Adult king cobras are {{cvt|3.18|to|4|m}} long. The longest known individual measured {{cvt|5.85|m}}.<ref name=mehrtens>{{cite book |last=Mehrtens |first=J. |title=Living Snakes of the World |chapter=King Cobra, Hamadryad (''Ophiophagus hannah'') |year=1987 |publisher=Sterling |location=New York |isbn=0-8069-6461-8 |page=263– |url=https://archive.org/details/livingsnakesofwo00mehr |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=Chanhome2011>{{cite journal |author1=Chanhome, L. |author2=Cox, M. J. |author3=Vasaruchapong, T. |author4=Chaiyabutr, N. |author5=Sitprija, V. |year=2011 |title=Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand |journal=Asian Biomedicine 5 |issue=3 |pages=311–328}}</ref> Ventral scales are uniformly oval shaped. Dorsal scales are placed in an oblique arrangement.<ref>{{cite book |author=Martin, D. L. |year=2012 |chapter=Identification of Reptile Skin Products Using Scale Morphology |pages=161–199 |title=Wildlife Forensics: Methods and Applications |editor1-last=J. E. Huffman, J. R. Wallace |location=Oxford |publisher= |
Adult king cobras are {{cvt|3.18|to|4|m}} long. The longest known individual measured {{cvt|5.85|m}}.<ref name=mehrtens>{{cite book |last=Mehrtens |first=J. |title=Living Snakes of the World |chapter=King Cobra, Hamadryad (''Ophiophagus hannah'') |year=1987 |publisher=Sterling |location=New York |isbn=0-8069-6461-8 |page=263– |url=https://archive.org/details/livingsnakesofwo00mehr |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=Chanhome2011>{{cite journal |author1=Chanhome, L. |author2=Cox, M. J. |author3=Vasaruchapong, T. |author4=Chaiyabutr, N. |author5=Sitprija, V. |year=2011 |title=Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand |journal=Asian Biomedicine |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=311–328 |doi=10.5372/1905-7415.0503.043 |doi-broken-date=26 July 2024 |url=https://sciendo.com/pdf/10.5372/1905-7415.0503.043}}</ref> Ventral scales are uniformly oval shaped. Dorsal scales are placed in an oblique arrangement.<ref>{{cite book |author=Martin, D. L. |year=2012 |chapter=Identification of Reptile Skin Products Using Scale Morphology |pages=161–199 |title=Wildlife Forensics: Methods and Applications |editor1-last=J. E. Huffman, J. R. Wallace |location=Oxford |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-119-95429-3 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EstjD_GgFvQC&pg=PT187 |access-date=4 October 2020 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210091855/https://books.google.com/books?id=EstjD_GgFvQC&pg=PT187 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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The king cobra is [[Sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]], with males being larger and paler in particular during the breeding season. Males captured in Kerala measured up to {{cvt|3.75|m}} and weighed up to {{cvt|10|kg}}. Females captured had a maximum length of {{cvt|2.75|m}} and a weight of {{cvt|5|kg}}.<ref name=Shankar2013/> |
The king cobra is [[Sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]], with males being larger and paler in particular during the breeding season. Males captured in Kerala measured up to {{cvt|3.75|m}} and weighed up to {{cvt|10|kg}}. Females captured had a maximum length of {{cvt|2.75|m}} and a weight of {{cvt|5|kg}}.<ref name=Shankar2013/> |
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The largest known king cobra was {{cvt|18|ft|4|in|m|order=flip}} long and captured in Thailand.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Burton, R. W. |year=1950 |title=The record hamadryad or king cobra [''Naja hannah'' (Cantor)] and lengths and weights of large specimens |journal=The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=49 |pages= |
The largest known king cobra was {{cvt|18|ft|4|in|m|order=flip}} long and captured in Thailand.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Burton, R. W. |year=1950 |title=The record hamadryad or king cobra [''Naja hannah'' (Cantor)] and lengths and weights of large specimens |journal=The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=49 |pages=561–2 |url=https://archive.org/details/journalofbo4919501951bomb/page/561}}</ref> |
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It differs from other cobra species by size and hood. It is larger, has a narrower and longer stripe on the neck.<ref name=VS>{{cite book |title=Venomous snakes of the world |author=O'Shea, M. |year=2008 |isbn= |
It differs from other cobra species by size and hood. It is larger, has a narrower and longer stripe on the neck.<ref name=VS>{{cite book |title=Venomous snakes of the world |author=O'Shea, M. |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84773-086-2 |publisher=Bloomsbury |location=London, Cape Town, Sydney, Auckland}}</ref> |
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== Distribution and habitat == |
== Distribution and habitat == |
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The king cobra has a wide distribution in South and Southeast Asia. It occurs up to an elevation of {{cvt|2000|m}} from the [[Terai]] in India and southern Nepal to the [[Brahmaputra River]] basin in Bhutan and northeast India, Bangladesh and to Myanmar, southern China, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines.<ref name=iucn /> |
The king cobra has a wide distribution in South and Southeast Asia. It occurs up to an elevation of {{cvt|2000|m}} from the [[Terai]] in India and southern Nepal to the [[Brahmaputra River]] basin in Bhutan and northeast India, Bangladesh and to Myanmar, southern China, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines.<ref name=iucn /> |
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In northern India, it has been recorded in [[Garhwal Himalaya|Garhwal]] and [[Kumaon division|Kumaon]], and in the [[Sivalik hills|Shivalik]] and [[terai]] regions of [[Uttarakhand]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name=GarhwalRecord>{{cite journal |author1=Singh, A. |author2=Joshi, R. |year=2016 |title=A first record of the King Cobra ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (Reptilia: Squamata: Elapidae) nest from Garhwal Himalaya, northern India |journal=Zoo's Print |volume=31 |pages=9–11}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Dolia, J. |year=2018 |title=Notes on the distribution and natural history of the King Cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah'' Cantor, 1836) from the Kumaon Hills of Uttarakhand, India |journal=Herpetology Notes |volume=11 |pages=217–222 |url=https://www.biotaxa.org/hn/article/viewFile/27841/31999 |access-date=16 October 2019 |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016103155/https://www.biotaxa.org/hn/article/viewFile/27841/31999 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kanaujia |first1=A. |last2=Kumar |first2=A. |last3=Kumar |first3=A. |year=2017 |title=Herpetofauna of Uttar Pradesh, India |journal=Biological Forum |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=118–130 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327860961}}</ref> In northeast India, the king cobra has been recorded in northern [[West Bengal]], [[Sikkim]], [[Assam]], [[Meghalaya]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Nagaland]], [[Manipur]] and [[Mizoram]].<ref name="Van Wallach et al 2014">{{cite book |title=Snakes of the world: A catalogue of living and extinct species |last1=Wallach |first1=V. |last2=Williams |first2=K.L. |last3=Boundy |first3=J. |author-link1=Van Wallach |year=2014 |publisher=CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group |location=Florida |isbn= |
In northern India, it has been recorded in [[Garhwal Himalaya|Garhwal]] and [[Kumaon division|Kumaon]], and in the [[Sivalik hills|Shivalik]] and [[terai]] regions of [[Uttarakhand]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name=GarhwalRecord>{{cite journal |author1=Singh, A. |author2=Joshi, R. |year=2016 |title=A first record of the King Cobra ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (Reptilia: Squamata: Elapidae) nest from Garhwal Himalaya, northern India |journal=Zoo's Print |volume=31 |pages=9–11}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Dolia, J. |year=2018 |title=Notes on the distribution and natural history of the King Cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah'' Cantor, 1836) from the Kumaon Hills of Uttarakhand, India |journal=Herpetology Notes |volume=11 |pages=217–222 |url=https://www.biotaxa.org/hn/article/viewFile/27841/31999 |access-date=16 October 2019 |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016103155/https://www.biotaxa.org/hn/article/viewFile/27841/31999 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kanaujia |first1=A. |last2=Kumar |first2=A. |last3=Kumar |first3=A. |year=2017 |title=Herpetofauna of Uttar Pradesh, India |journal=Biological Forum |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=118–130 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327860961}}</ref> In northeast India, the king cobra has been recorded in northern [[West Bengal]], [[Sikkim]], [[Assam]], [[Meghalaya]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Nagaland]], [[Manipur]] and [[Mizoram]].<ref name="Van Wallach et al 2014">{{cite book |title=Snakes of the world: A catalogue of living and extinct species |last1=Wallach |first1=V. |last2=Williams |first2=K.L. |last3=Boundy |first3=J. |author-link1=Van Wallach |year=2014 |publisher=CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group |location=Florida |isbn=978-1-4822-0848-1 |pages=507–8}}</ref><ref name=SikkimKingCobra>{{cite journal |author1=Bashir, T. |author2=Poudyal, K. |author3=Bhattacharya, T. |author4=Sathyakumar, S. |author5=Subba, J. B. |year=2010 |title=Sighting of King Cobra ''Ophiophagus hannah'' in Sikkim, India: a new altitude record for the northeast |journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=990–1 |doi=10.11609/JoTT.o2438.990-1 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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In the [[Eastern Ghats]], it occurs from [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]] to coastal [[Odisha]], and also in [[Bihar]] and southern [[West Bengal]], especially the [[Sundarbans]].<ref name=Cantor1836/><ref name="Van Wallach et al 2014"/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Murthy, K.L.N. |author2=Murthy, K.V.R. |year=2012 |title=Sightings of King Cobra ''Ophiophagus hannah'' in northern coastal Andhra Pradesh |journal=Reptile Rap |volume=14 |pages=29–32}}</ref> In the Western Ghats, it was recorded in [[Kerala]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Maharashtra]], and also in [[Gujarat]].<ref name="Van Wallach et al 2014"/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Yadav, O. V. |author2=Yankanchi, S. R. |year=2015 |title={{as written|Occu|rence [sic]}} of ''Ophiophagus hannah'' Cantor, 1836 (Squamata, Elapidae) in Tillari, Maharashtra, India |journal=Herpetology Notes |volume=8 |pages= |
In the [[Eastern Ghats]], it occurs from [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]] to coastal [[Odisha]], and also in [[Bihar]] and southern [[West Bengal]], especially the [[Sundarbans]].<ref name=Cantor1836/><ref name="Van Wallach et al 2014"/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Murthy, K.L.N. |author2=Murthy, K.V.R. |year=2012 |title=Sightings of King Cobra ''Ophiophagus hannah'' in northern coastal Andhra Pradesh |journal=Reptile Rap |volume=14 |pages=29–32}}</ref> In the Western Ghats, it was recorded in [[Kerala]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Maharashtra]], and also in [[Gujarat]].<ref name="Van Wallach et al 2014"/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Yadav, O. V. |author2=Yankanchi, S. R. |year=2015 |title={{as written|Occu|rence [sic]}} of ''Ophiophagus hannah'' Cantor, 1836 (Squamata, Elapidae) in Tillari, Maharashtra, India |journal=Herpetology Notes |volume=8 |pages=493–4 |url=https://www.biotaxa.org/hn/article/download/12276/16040 |access-date=22 April 2022 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210091752/https://www.biotaxa.org/hn/article/download/12276/16040 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Shankar2013>{{cite journal |author1=Shankar, P. G. |author2=Ganesh, S. R. |author3=Whitaker, R. |author4=Prashanth, P. |year=2013 |title=King Cobra ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (Cantor, 1836) encounters in human-modified rainforests of the Western Ghats, India |journal=Hamadryad |issue=36 |pages=62–68 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308419322}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Palot, M. J. |year=2015 |title=A checklist of reptiles of Kerala, India |journal=Journal of Threatened Taxa |volume=7 |issue=13 |pages=8010–22 |doi=10.11609/jott.2002.7.13.8010-8022 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It also occurs on [[Baratang Island]] in the [[Great Andaman]] chain.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Manchi, S. |author2=Sankaran, R. |year=2009 |title=Predators of swiftlets and their nests in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands |journal=Indian Birds |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=118–120}}</ref> |
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== Behaviour and ecology== |
== Behaviour and ecology== |
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=== Diet === |
=== Diet === |
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[[File:King-Cobra-India.jpg|alt=King cobra in Pune|thumb|King cobra in [[Pune]], India]] |
[[File:King-Cobra-India.jpg|alt=King cobra in Pune|thumb|King cobra in [[Pune]], India]] |
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The king cobra is an [[apex predator]] and dominant over all other snakes except large [[Python (genus)|pythons]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Marshall, B.M. |author2=Strine, C.T. |author3=Jones, M.D. |author4=Theodorou, A. |author5=Amber, E. |author6=Waengsothorn, S. |author7=Suwanwaree, P. |author8=Goode, M. |title=Hits close to home: repeated persecution of King Cobras (''Ophiophagus hannah'') in northeastern Thailand |journal=Tropical Conservation Science |year=2018 |volume=11 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1177/1940082918818401 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Its diet consists primarily of other snakes and [[lizards]], including [[Indian cobra]], [[banded krait]], [[rat snake]], [[Pythonidae|pythons]], [[green whip snake]], [[Rhabdophis|keelback]], [[Lycodon fasciatus|banded wolf snake]] and [[Blyth's reticulated snake]].<ref name=Wall1924/> |
The king cobra is an [[apex predator]] and dominant over all other snakes except large [[Python (genus)|pythons]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Marshall, B.M. |author2=Strine, C.T. |author3=Jones, M.D. |author4=Theodorou, A. |author5=Amber, E. |author6=Waengsothorn, S. |author7=Suwanwaree, P. |author8=Goode, M. |title=Hits close to home: repeated persecution of King Cobras (''Ophiophagus hannah'') in northeastern Thailand |journal=Tropical Conservation Science |year=2018 |volume=11 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1177/1940082918818401 |doi-access=free|hdl=10150/632917 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Its diet consists primarily of other snakes and [[lizards]], including [[Indian cobra]], [[banded krait]], [[rat snake]], [[Pythonidae|pythons]], [[green whip snake]], [[Rhabdophis|keelback]], [[Lycodon fasciatus|banded wolf snake]] and [[Blyth's reticulated snake]].<ref name=Wall1924/> |
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It also hunts [[Malabar pit viper]] and [[Hypnale|hump-nosed pit viper]] by following their odour trails.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bhaisare, D. |author2=Ramanuj, V. |author3=Shankar, P. G. |author4=Vittala, M. |author5=Goode, M. |author6=Whitaker, R. |year=2010 |title=Observations on a wild King Cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah''), with emphasis on foraging and diet |journal=IRCF Reptiles & Amphibians |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=95–102}}</ref> In Singapore, one was observed swallowing a [[clouded monitor]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kurniawan, A. |author2=Lee, G. |author3=bin Tohed, N. |author4=Low, M.-R. |year=2018 |title=King cobra feeding on a monitor lizard at night |journal=Singapore Biodiversity Records |volume=2018 |page=63 |url=https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/app/uploads/2018/01/sbr2018-063.pdf |access-date=16 October 2019 |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016221554/https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/app/uploads/2018/01/sbr2018-063.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |
It also hunts [[Malabar pit viper]] and [[Hypnale|hump-nosed pit viper]] by following their odour trails.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bhaisare, D. |author2=Ramanuj, V. |author3=Shankar, P. G. |author4=Vittala, M. |author5=Goode, M. |author6=Whitaker, R. |year=2010 |title=Observations on a wild King Cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah''), with emphasis on foraging and diet |journal=IRCF Reptiles & Amphibians |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=95–102|doi=10.17161/randa.v17i2.16088 |s2cid=257621424 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In Singapore, one was observed swallowing a [[clouded monitor]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kurniawan, A. |author2=Lee, G. |author3=bin Tohed, N. |author4=Low, M.-R. |year=2018 |title=King cobra feeding on a monitor lizard at night |journal=Singapore Biodiversity Records |volume=2018 |page=63 |url=https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/app/uploads/2018/01/sbr2018-063.pdf |access-date=16 October 2019 |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016221554/https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/app/uploads/2018/01/sbr2018-063.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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When food is scarce, it also feeds on other small vertebrates, such as birds, and lizards. In some cases, the cobra constricts its prey using its muscular body, though this is uncommon. After a large meal, it lives for many months without another one because of its slow [[Metabolism|metabolic rate]].<ref name="mehrtens" /><ref name="coborn" /> |
When food is scarce, it also feeds on other small vertebrates, such as birds, and lizards. In some cases, the cobra constricts its prey using its muscular body, though this is uncommon. After a large meal, it lives for many months without another one because of its slow [[Metabolism|metabolic rate]].<ref name="mehrtens" /><ref name="coborn" /> |
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=== |
=== Defence === |
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[[File:Elapidae - Ophiophagus hannah.JPG|thumb|upright|A king cobra in its defensive posture (mounted specimen at the [[Royal Ontario Museum]])]] |
[[File:Elapidae - Ophiophagus hannah.JPG|thumb|upright|A king cobra in its defensive posture (mounted specimen at the [[Royal Ontario Museum]])]] |
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The king cobra is not considered aggressive.<ref name="Tweedie">{{cite book |last=Tweedie |first=M. W. F. |title=The Snakes of Malaya |year=1983 |publisher=Singapore National Printers |
The king cobra is not considered aggressive.<ref name="Tweedie">{{cite book |last=Tweedie |first=M. W. F. |title=The Snakes of Malaya |year=1983 |publisher=Singapore National Printers |page=142 |oclc=686366097}}</ref> It usually avoids humans and slinks off when disturbed, but is known to aggressively defend incubating eggs and attack intruders rapidly. When alarmed, it raises the front part of its body, extends the [[hood (cobra anatomy)|hood]], shows the [[fang]]s and hisses loudly.<ref name=Wall1924>{{cite journal |author=Wall, F. |year=1924 |title=The Hamadryad or King Cobra ''Naja hannah'' (Cantor) |journal=The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=189–195 |url=https://archive.org/details/journalof301219241925bomb/page/n271}}</ref><ref name="Greene">{{cite book |last=Greene |first=H. W. |title=Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature |year=1997 |publisher=University of California Press |location=California, USA |isbn=0-520-22487-6 |chapter=Antipredator tactics of snakes |pages=103–111 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=io1TYkFAur8C&pg=PA111-IA1 |access-date=4 October 2020 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210091758/https://books.google.com/books?id=io1TYkFAur8C&pg=PA111-IA1 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Wild king cobras encountered in Singapore appeared to be placid, but reared up and struck in self defense when cornered.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lim, K. K. P. |author2=Leong, T. M. |author3=Lim, L. K. |year=2011 |title=The king cobra, ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (Cantor) in Singapore (Reptilia: Squamata: Elapidae) |journal=Nature in Singapore |volume=4 |pages=143–156 |url=https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/app/uploads/2017/06/2011nis143-156.pdf |access-date=16 October 2019 |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016154553/https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/app/uploads/2017/06/2011nis143-156.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |
Wild king cobras encountered in Singapore appeared to be placid, but reared up and struck in self defense when cornered.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lim, K. K. P. |author2=Leong, T. M. |author3=Lim, L. K. |year=2011 |title=The king cobra, ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (Cantor) in Singapore (Reptilia: Squamata: Elapidae) |journal=Nature in Singapore |volume=4 |pages=143–156 |url=https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/app/uploads/2017/06/2011nis143-156.pdf |access-date=16 October 2019 |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016154553/https://lkcnhm.nus.edu.sg/app/uploads/2017/06/2011nis143-156.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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The king cobra possesses a potent neurotoxic venom and death can occur in as little as 30 minutes after being bitten.<ref name=Tin-MyintMyint_al1991/> Most victims bitten by king cobras are [[snake charmers]].<ref name=Tin-MyintMyint_al1991>{{Cite journal |author=Tin-Myint |author2=Rai-Mra |author3=Maung-Chit |author4=Tun-Pe |author5=Warrell, D. |title=Bites by the king cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah'') in Myanmar: Successful treatment of severe neurotoxic envenoming |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Medicine |volume=80 |issue=293 |pages=751–762 |year=1991 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.qjmed.a068624 |pmid=1754675 }}</ref> Hospital records in Thailand indicate that bites from king cobras are very uncommon.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Viravan, C. |author2=Looareesuwan, S. |author3=Kosakarn, W. |author4=Wuthiekanun, V. |author5=McCarthy, C. J. |author6=Stimson, A. F. |author7=Warrell, D. A. |year=1992 |title=A national hospital-based survey of snakes responsible for bites in Thailand |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene |volume=86 |issue=1 |pages=100–106 |doi=10.1016/0035-9203(92)90463-m |pmid=1566285 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Pochanugool, C. |author2=Wilde, H. |author3=Bhanganada, K. |author4=Chanhome, L. |author5=Cox, M. J. |author6=Chaiyabutr, N. |author7=Sitprija, V. |year=1998 |title=Venomous snakebite in Thailand II: Clinical experience |journal= Military Medicine |volume=163 |issue=5 |pages=318–323 |doi=10.1093/milmed/163.5.318 |pmid=9597849 }}</ref> |
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The king cobra can be easily irritated by closely approaching objects or sudden movements. When raising its body, the king cobra can still move forward to strike with a long distance, and people may misjudge the safe zone. It can deliver multiple bites in a single attack.<ref name="Davidson">{{cite web |url=http://toxicology.ucsd.edu/Snakebite%20Protocols/Ophiopha.htm |title=Immediate First Aid |access-date=24 September 2011 |last=Davidson |first=T. |publisher=University of California, San Diego |archive-date=30 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100630032005/http://toxicology.ucsd.edu/Snakebite%20Protocols/Ophiopha.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> |
The king cobra can be easily irritated by closely approaching objects or sudden movements. When raising its body, the king cobra can still move forward to strike with a long distance, and people may misjudge the safe zone. It can deliver multiple bites in a single attack.<ref name="Davidson">{{cite web |url=http://toxicology.ucsd.edu/Snakebite%20Protocols/Ophiopha.htm |title=Immediate First Aid |access-date=24 September 2011 |last=Davidson |first=T. |publisher=University of California, San Diego |archive-date=30 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100630032005/http://toxicology.ucsd.edu/Snakebite%20Protocols/Ophiopha.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[File:Baby king cobra front view.JPG|thumb|upright|A captive juvenile king cobra in its defensive posture]] |
[[File:Baby king cobra front view.JPG|thumb|upright|A captive juvenile king cobra in its defensive posture]] |
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The female is [[Gravidity|gravid]] for 50 to 59 days.<ref name="Chanhome2011" /> |
The female is [[Gravidity|gravid]] for 50 to 59 days.<ref name="Chanhome2011" /> |
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The king cobra is the only snake that builds a nest using dry leaf litter, starting from late March to late May.<ref name=Whitaker_al2013>{{cite journal |author1=Whitaker, N. |author2=Shankar, P. G. |author3=Whitaker, R. |year=2013 |title=Nesting ecology of the King Cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah'') in India |journal=Hamadryad |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages= |
The king cobra is the only snake that builds a nest using dry [[leaf litter]], starting from late March to late May.<ref name=Whitaker_al2013>{{cite journal |author1=Whitaker, N. |author2=Shankar, P. G. |author3=Whitaker, R. |year=2013 |title=Nesting ecology of the King Cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah'') in India |journal=Hamadryad |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=101–7 |url=http://www.academia.edu/download/32064158/Whitaker_et_al_Nesting_Ecology_of_the_King_Cobra_(Ophiophagus_hannah)_in_India.pdf}}{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Most nests are located at the base of trees, are up to {{convert|55|cm|abbr=on}} high in the centre and {{convert|140|cm|abbr=on}} wide at the base. They consist of several layers and have mostly one chamber, into which the female lays eggs.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Hrima, V. L. |author2=Sailo, V. H. |author3=Fanai, Z. |author4=Lalronunga, S. |author5=Lalrinchhana, C. |year=2014 |chapter=Nesting ecology of the King Cobra, ''Ophiophagus hannah'', (Reptilia: Squamata: Elapidae) in Aizawl District, Mizoram, India |title=Issues and Trends of Wildlife Conservation in Northeast India |pages=268–274 |publisher=Mizo Academy of Sciences |location=Aizawl |editor1=Lalnuntluanga |editor2=Zothanzama, J. |editor3=Lalramliana |editor4=Lalduhthlana |editor5=Lalremsanga, H. T. |isbn=9788192432175 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263008786}}</ref> |
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Clutch size ranges from 7 to 43 eggs, with 6 to 38 eggs hatching after [[incubation period]]s of 66 to 105 days. Temperature inside nests is not steady but varies depending on elevation from {{Convert|13.5|to|37.4|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. Females stay by their nests between two and 77 days. Hatchlings are between {{convert|37.5|and|58.5|cm|abbr=on}} long and weigh {{convert|9|to|38|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Whitaker_al2013/> |
Clutch size ranges from 7 to 43 eggs, with 6 to 38 eggs hatching after [[incubation period]]s of 66 to 105 days. Temperature inside nests is not steady but varies depending on elevation from {{Convert|13.5|to|37.4|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. Females stay by their nests between two and 77 days. Hatchlings are between {{convert|37.5|and|58.5|cm|abbr=on}} long and weigh {{convert|9|to|38|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Whitaker_al2013/> |
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The venom of hatchlings is as potent as that of the adults. They may be brightly marked, but these colours often fade as they mature. They are alert and nervous, being highly aggressive if disturbed.<ref name="VS" /> |
The venom of hatchlings is as potent as that of the adults. They may be brightly marked, but these colours often fade as they mature. They are alert and nervous, being highly aggressive if disturbed.<ref name="VS" /> |
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The average lifespan of a wild king cobra is about 20 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/facts/king-cobra|title=King Cobra|website=[[National Geographic Society]]|date=10 September 2010 |access-date=2022-10-30|archive-date=22 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222125850/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/facts/king-cobra|url-status= |
The average lifespan of a wild king cobra is about 20 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/facts/king-cobra|title=King Cobra|website=[[National Geographic Society]]|date=10 September 2010 |access-date=2022-10-30|archive-date=22 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222125850/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/facts/king-cobra|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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King cobra was shown to be capable of facultative [[parthenogenesis]].<ref name = Card2021>{{cite journal |vauthors=Card DC, Vonk FJ, Smalbrugge S, Casewell NR, Wüster W, Castoe TA, Schuett GW, Booth W |title=Genome-wide data implicate terminal fusion automixis in king cobra facultative parthenogenesis |journal=Sci Rep |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=7271 |date=March 2021 |pmid=33790309 |pmc=8012631 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-86373-1 }}</ref> The parthenogenetic mechanism appears to be a variation of [[meiosis]] referred to as terminal fusion [[automixis]] in which there is fusion of the meiotic products formed at the anaphase II stage of meiosis.<ref name = Card2021/> |
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== Venom == |
== Venom == |
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[[File:Ophiophagus hannah skull.jpg|thumb| |
[[File:Ophiophagus hannah skull.jpg|thumb|Lateral view of a king cobra skull with fangs]] |
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The king cobra's [[venom]] consists of [[cytotoxin]]s and [[neurotoxin]]s, including [[alpha-neurotoxin]]s and [[three-finger toxin]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chang, L.-S. |author2=Liou, J.-C. |author3=Lin, S.-R. |author4=Huang, H.-B. |pmid=12056805 |year=2002 |title=Purification and characterization of a neurotoxin from the venom of ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (king cobra) |volume=294 |issue=3 |pages=574–578 |doi=10.1016/S0006-291X(02)00518-1 |journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=He, Y. Y. |author2=Lee, W. H. |author3=Zhang, Y. |year=2004 |title=Cloning and purification of alpha-neurotoxins from king cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah'') |journal=Toxicon |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=295–303 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.06.003|pmid=15302536 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Li, J. |author2=Zhang, H. |author3=Liu, J. |author4=Xu, K. |year=2006 |title=Novel genes encoding six kinds of three-finger toxins in ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (king cobra) and function characterization of two recombinant long-chain neurotoxins |journal=Biochemical Journal |volume=398 |issue=2 |pages=233–342 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060004|pmid=16689684 |pmc=1550305 }}</ref><ref name="HT">{{cite journal |pmid=20071329 |title=Structural and Functional Characterization of a Novel Homodimeric Three-finger Neurotoxin from the Venom of ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (King Cobra) |year=2010 |last1=Roy |first1=A. |last2=Zhou |first2=X. |last3=Chong |first3=M. Z. |last4=d'Hoedt |first4=D. |last5=Foo |first5=C. S. |last6=Rajagopalan |first6=N. |last7=Nirthanan |first7=S. |last8=Bertrand |first8=D. |last9=Sivaraman |first9=J. |volume=285 |issue=11 |pages=8302–8315 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M109.074161 |pmc=2832981 |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |last10=Kini|first10=R. M.|doi-access=free }}</ref> Other components have [[cardiotoxic]] effects.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rajagopalan, N. |author2=Pung, Y. F. |author3=Zhu, Y. Z. |author4=Wong, P. T. H. |author5=Kumar, P. P. |author6=Kini, R. M. |title=β-Cardiotoxin: A new three-finger toxin from ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (King Cobra) venom with beta-blocker activity |doi=10.1096/fj.07-8658com |year=2007 |journal=The FASEB Journal |volume=21 |issue=13 |pages=3685–3695 |pmid=17616557|s2cid=21235585 }}</ref> Its venom is produced in anatomical glands named postorbital venom glands.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vonk|first1=Freek J.|last2=Casewell|first2=Nicholas R.|last3=Henkel|first3=Christiaan V.|last4=Heimberg|first4=Alysha M.|last5=Jansen|first5=Hans J.|last6=McCleary|first6=Ryan J. R.|last7=Kerkkamp|first7=Harald M. E.|last8=Vos|first8=Rutger A.|last9=Guerreiro|first9=Isabel|last10=Calvete|first10=Juan J.|last11=Wüster|first11=Wolfgang|date=2013-12-17|title=The king cobra genome reveals dynamic gene evolution and adaptation in the snake venom system|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=110|issue=51|pages=20651–20656|doi=10.1073/pnas.1314702110|issn=0027-8424|pmid=24297900|pmc=3870661|bibcode=2013PNAS..11020651V|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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===Composition=== |
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[[Venom]] of the king cobra, produced by the postorbital venom glands, consists primarily of [[three-finger toxin]]s (3FTx) and [[Metalloproteinase|snake venom metalloproteinases]] (SVMPs).<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Li, J. |author2=Zhang, H. |author3=Liu, J. |author4=Xu, K. |year=2006 |title=Novel genes encoding six kinds of three-finger toxins in ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (king cobra) and function characterization of two recombinant long-chain neurotoxins |journal=Biochemical Journal |volume=398 |issue=2 |pages=233–342 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060004|pmid=16689684 |pmc=1550305 }}</ref><ref name="HT">{{cite journal |pmid=20071329 |title=Structural and Functional Characterization of a Novel Homodimeric Three-finger Neurotoxin from the Venom of ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (King Cobra) |year=2010 |last1=Roy |first1=A. |last2=Zhou |first2=X. |last3=Chong |first3=M. Z. |last4=d'Hoedt |first4=D. |last5=Foo |first5=C. S. |last6=Rajagopalan |first6=N. |last7=Nirthanan |first7=S. |last8=Bertrand |first8=D. |last9=Sivaraman |first9=J. |volume=285 |issue=11 |pages=8302–15 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M109.074161 |pmc=2832981 |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |last10=Kini|first10=R. M.|doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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Of all the 3FTx, [[alpha-neurotoxin]]s are the predominant and most lethal components when [[cytotoxins]] and [[cardiotoxin|beta-cardiotoxin]]s also exhibit toxicological activities.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chang, L.-S. |author2=Liou, J.-C. |author3=Lin, S.-R. |author4=Huang, H.-B. |pmid=12056805 |year=2002 |title=Purification and characterization of a neurotoxin from the venom of ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (king cobra) |volume=294 |issue=3 |pages=574–8 |doi=10.1016/S0006-291X(02)00518-1 |journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=He, Y. Y. |author2=Lee, W. H. |author3=Zhang, Y. |year=2004 |title=Cloning and purification of alpha-neurotoxins from king cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah'') |journal=Toxicon |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=295–303 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.06.003|pmid=15302536 |bibcode=2004Txcn...44..295H }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rajagopalan, N. |author2=Pung, Y. F. |author3=Zhu, Y. Z. |author4=Wong, P. T. H. |author5=Kumar, P. P. |author6=Kini, R. M. |title=β-Cardiotoxin: A new three-finger toxin from ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (King Cobra) venom with beta-blocker activity |doi=10.1096/fj.07-8658com |year=2007 |journal=The FASEB Journal |volume=21 |issue=13 |pages=3685–95 |doi-access=free |pmid=17616557|s2cid=21235585 }}</ref> It is reported that [[cytotoxicity]] of its venom varies significantly, depending upon the age and locality of an individual.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bianca Op den Brouw|author2=Manuel Fernandez-Rojo|author3=Tom Charlton|author4=Bryan G. Fry|author5=Maria P. Ikonomopoulou|pmid=12056805 |year=2023 |title=Malaysian and Chinese King Cobra Venom Cytotoxicity in Melanoma and Neonatal Foreskin Fibroblasts Is Mediated by Age and Geography |volume=15|issue=9 |doi=10.3390/toxins15090549|journal= Toxins|pages=574–8 |doi-access=free |pmc=10534572}}</ref> Clinical [[cardiotoxicity]] is not widely observed, nor is [[nephrotoxicity]] present among patients bitten by this species, presumably due to the low abundance of the toxins.<ref name="Davidson"/> |
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SVMPs are the second most protein family isolated from the king cobra's venom, accounting from 11.9% to 24.4% of total venom proteins.<ref name = Malaysian/><ref name = Indonesian>{{Cite journal|last1=Petras |first1=Daniel |last2=Heiss |first2=Paul |last3=Süssmuth |first3=Roderich D|last4=Calvete |first4=Juan J|date=2015-06-05|title=Venom Proteomics of Indonesian King Cobra, ''Ophiophagus hannah'': Integrating Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches|journal=Journal of Proteome Research|language=en|volume=14|issue=6|pages=2539–56|doi=10.1021/acs.jproteome.5b00305|issn=|pmid=25896403|pmc=|bibcode=|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name = Taiwanese>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Chien-Chun |last2=You|first2=Chen-Hsien|last3=Wang |first3=Po-Jung|last4=Yu|first4=Jau-Song|last5=Huang|first5=Guo-Jen|last6=Liu|first6=Chien-Hsin|last7=Hsieh|first7= Wen-Chin|last8=Lin|first8=Chih-Chuan|date=2017-12-15|title=Analysis of the efficacy of Taiwanese freeze-dried neurotoxic antivenom against ''Naja kaouthia'', ''Naja siamensis'' and ''Ophiophagus hannah'' through proteomics and animal model approaches|journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases|language=en|volume=11|issue=12|pages=e0006138|doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0006138|issn=|pmid=29244815|pmc=5747474|bibcode=|doi-access=free}}</ref> The abundance is much higher than that of most [[Naja|cobras]] which is usually less than 1%.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vonk|first1=Freek J.|last2=Casewell|first2=Nicholas R.|last3=Henkel|first3=Christiaan V.|last4=Heimberg|first4=Alysha M.|last5=Jansen|first5=Hans J.|last6=McCleary|first6=Ryan J. R.|last7=Kerkkamp|first7=Harald M. E.|last8=Vos|first8=Rutger A.|last9=Guerreiro|first9=Isabel|last10=Calvete|first10=Juan J.|last11=Wüster|first11=Wolfgang|date=2013-12-17|title=The king cobra genome reveals dynamic gene evolution and adaptation in the snake venom system|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=110|issue=51|pages=20651–6|doi=10.1073/pnas.1314702110 |pmid=24297900|pmc=3870661|bibcode=2013PNAS..11020651V|doi-access=free}}</ref> This protein family includes principal toxins responsible for [[vasculature]] damage and interference with [[haemostasis]], contributing to [[bleeding]] and [[coagulopathy]] caused by envenomation of [[vipers]]. While there are such haemorrhagins isolated from the king cobra's venom, they only induce species-sensitive haemorrhagic and lethal activities on rabbits and hares, but with minimal effects on mice.<ref name = haemorrhagins>{{Cite journal|last1=Tan|first1=N.H.|last2=Saifuddin|first2=M.N.|year=1990|title=solation and characterization of a hemorrhagin from the venom of ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (king cobra)|journal=Toxicon |language=en|volume=28|issue=4|pages=385–392|doi=10.1016/0041-0101(90)90076-j|issn=|pmid=2190359|pmc=|bibcode=1990Txcn...28..385T|doi-access=free}}</ref> Clinical pathophysiology of the king cobra's SVMPs has yet to be well studied, although its substantial quantity suggests involvement in tissue damage and necrosis as a result of inflammatory and proteolytic activities, which are instrumental for foraging and digestive purposes.<ref name = haemorrhagins/><ref name="Davidson"/> |
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Ohanin, a minor vespryn protein component specific to this species, causes [[hypolocomotion]] and [[hyperalgesia]] in experimental mice. It is believed that it contributes to neurotoxicity on the [[central nervous system]] of the victim.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pung, Y. F. |author2=Kumar, S. V. |author3=Rajagopalan, N. |author4=Fry, B. G. |author5=Kumar, P. P. |author6=Kini, R. M. |pmid=16472942 |year=2006 |title=Ohanin, a novel protein from king cobra venom: Its cDNA and genomic organization |volume=371 |issue=2 |pages=246–256 |doi=10.1016/j.gene.2005.12.002 |journal=Gene}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | It can deliver up to 420 mg venom in dry weight (400–600 mg overall) per bite,<ref name="LD50"/> with a {{LD50}} toxicity in mice of 1.28 mg/kg through [[intravenous injection]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ganthavorn, S. |year=1969 |title=Toxicities of Thailand snake venoms and neutralization capacity of antivenin |journal=Toxicon |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=239–241 |doi=10.1016/0041-0101(69)90012-9 |pmid=5358069}}</ref> 1.5 to 1.7 mg/kg through [[subcutaneous injection]],<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Broad, A. J. |author2=Sutherland, S. K. |author3=Coulter, A. R. |year=1979 |title=The lethality in mice of dangerous Australian and other snake venom |journal=Toxicon |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages= |
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| ⚫ | and 1.644 mg/kg through [[intraperitoneal injection]].<ref name="LD50">{{cite web |url=http://www.seanthomas.net/oldsite/ld50tot.html |title=LD50 (Archived) |author=Séan Thomas |author2=Eugene Griessel |
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===Clinical management=== |
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The toxins affect the victim's [[central nervous system]], resulting in severe pain, blurred vision, [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]], [[drowsiness]], and eventually [[paralysis]]. If the envenomation is serious, it progresses to [[Cardiovascular system|cardiovascular]] collapse, and the victim falls into a [[coma]]. Death soon follows due to [[respiratory failure]]. The affected person can die within 30 minutes of envenomation.<ref name=Tin-MyintMyint_al1991/> Ohanin, a protein component of the venom, causes [[hypolocomotion]] and [[hyperalgesia]] in mammals.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pung, Y. F. |author2=Kumar, S. V. |author3=Rajagopalan, N. |author4=Fry, B. G. |author5=Kumar, P. P. |author6=Kini, R. M. |pmid=16472942 |year=2006 |title=Ohanin, a novel protein from king cobra venom: Its cDNA and genomic organization |volume=371 |issue=2 |pages=246–256 |doi=10.1016/j.gene.2005.12.002 |journal=Gene}}</ref> Large quantities of [[antivenom]] may be needed to reverse the progression of symptoms.<ref name="Davidson" /> |
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A king cobra's bite, and subsequent envenomation, is an immediate medical emergency in humans or domesticated animals, as, if not treated as soon as possible, death can occur in as little as 30 minutes.<ref name="Davidson" /><ref name=Tin-MyintMyint_al1991>{{Cite journal |author=Tin-Myint |author2=Rai-Mra |author3=Maung-Chit |author4=Tun-Pe |author5=Warrell, D. |title=Bites by the king cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah'') in Myanmar: Successful treatment of severe neurotoxic envenoming |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Medicine |volume=80 |issue=293 |pages=751–762 |year=1991 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.qjmed.a068624 |pmid=1754675 }}</ref> Local symptoms include dusky discolouration of skin, [[edema]] and pain; in severe cases, swelling extends proximally, with [[necrosis]] and tissue sloughing that may require amputation.<ref name="Davidson" /> Onset of general symptoms follows while the venom is targeting the victim's [[central nervous system]], resulting in blurred vision, [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]], [[drowsiness]], and eventual [[paralysis]]. If not treated promptly, it may progress to [[Cardiovascular system|cardiovascular]] collapse and, subsequently, [[coma]]. Death soon follows due to [[respiratory failure]], among other simultaneous and varied system and organ failures.<ref name="Davidson" /> |
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Polyvalent [[antivenom]] of [[equine]] origin is produced by [[Haffkine Institute]] and [[King Institute of Preventive Medicine and Research]] in India.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Whitaker, R. |author2=Whitaker, S. |year=2012 |title=Venom, antivenom production and the medically important snakes of India |journal=Current Science |volume=103 |issue=6 |pages=635–643 |url=http://www.she-india.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/CURRSCI_Venoms-Antivenoms-and-Snakes-of-Med-Imp_RWSW.pdf |access-date=16 October 2019 |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016182657/http://www.she-india.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/CURRSCI_Venoms-Antivenoms-and-Snakes-of-Med-Imp_RWSW.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |
Polyvalent [[antivenom]] of [[equine]] origin is produced by [[Haffkine Institute]] and [[King Institute of Preventive Medicine and Research]] in India.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Whitaker, R. |author2=Whitaker, S. |year=2012 |title=Venom, antivenom production and the medically important snakes of India |journal=Current Science |volume=103 |issue=6 |pages=635–643 |url=http://www.she-india.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/CURRSCI_Venoms-Antivenoms-and-Snakes-of-Med-Imp_RWSW.pdf |access-date=16 October 2019 |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016182657/http://www.she-india.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/CURRSCI_Venoms-Antivenoms-and-Snakes-of-Med-Imp_RWSW.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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A polyvalent antivenom produced by the Thai [[Red Cross]] Society can effectively |
A polyvalent antivenom produced by the Thai [[Red Cross]] Society can effectively neutralise venom of the king cobra.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Leong, P. K. |author2=Sim, S. M. |author3=Fung, S. Y. |author4=Sumana, K. |author5=Sitprija, V. |author6=Tan, N. H. |year=2012 |title=Cross Neutralization of Afro-Asian Cobra and Asian Krait Venoms by a Thai Polyvalent Snake Antivenom (Neuro Polyvalent Snake Antivenom) |journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |volume=6 |issue=6 |page=e1672 |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0001672|pmid=22679522 |doi-access=free |pmc=3367981 }}</ref> In [[India]] and [[Thailand]], a [[concoction]] (or liquid blend) of [[turmeric]] (''Curcuma longa'') and other potent, medically relevant herbs reportedly creates a strong resilience against the venom of the king cobra when ingested.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Ernst, C. H. |author2=Evelyn, M. |title=Venomous Reptiles of the United States, Canada, and Northern Mexico |volume=1: Heloderma, Micruroides, Micrurus, Pelamis, Agkistrodon, Sistrurus |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8018-9875-4 |pages=33–46 |chapter=Treatment of envenomation by reptiles |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o8DTAQffi4UC&pg=PA44}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Salama |first1=R. |last2=Sattayasai |first2=J. |last3=Gande |first3=A. K. |last4=Sattayasai |first4=N. |last5=Davis |first5=M. |last6=Lattmann |first6=E. |year=2012 |title=Identification and evaluation of agents isolated from traditionally used herbs against ''Ophiophagus hannah'' venom |journal=Drug Discoveries & Therapeutics |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=18–23 |pmid=22460424}}</ref> Proper and immediate treatments are critical to avoid death. Successful precedents include a client who recovered and was discharged in 10 days after being treated by accurate antivenom and [[inpatient care]].<ref name=Tin-MyintMyint_al1991/> |
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| ⚫ | It can deliver up to 420 mg venom in dry weight (400–600 mg overall) per bite,<ref name="LD50"/> with a {{LD50}} toxicity in mice of 1.28 mg/kg through [[intravenous injection]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ganthavorn, S. |year=1969 |title=Toxicities of Thailand snake venoms and neutralization capacity of antivenin |journal=Toxicon |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=239–241 |doi=10.1016/0041-0101(69)90012-9 |pmid=5358069|bibcode=1969Txcn....7..239G }}</ref> 1.5 to 1.7 mg/kg through [[subcutaneous injection]],<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Broad, A. J. |author2=Sutherland, S. K. |author3=Coulter, A. R. |year=1979 |title=The lethality in mice of dangerous Australian and other snake venom |journal=Toxicon |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=661–4 |url=http://www.kingsnake.com/aho/pdf/menu5/broad1979b.pdf |doi=10.1016/0041-0101(79)90245-9 |pmid=524395 |bibcode=1979Txcn...17..661B |access-date=14 October 2019 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331091804/http://www.kingsnake.com/aho/pdf/menu5/broad1979b.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Not all king cobra bites result in envenomation, but they are often considered for medical importance.<ref name="MG">{{cite web |last=Mathew, Gera |first=JL, T |title=Ophitoxaemia (Venomous snakebite) |url=http://www.priory.com/med/ophitoxaemia.htm |work=MEDICINE ON-LINE |access-date=20 October 2013 |archive-date=16 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416095224/http://www.priory.com//med/ophitoxaemia.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Clinical mortality rates vary between different regions and depend on many factors, such as local medical advancement. A Thai survey reports 10 deaths out of 35 patients received for king cobra bites, whose fatality rate posed (28%) is higher than those of other cobra species.<ref name="Norris">{{cite web |last=Norris MD |first=Robert L. |title=Cobra Envenomation |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/771918-overview#a0199 |publisher=Medscape |access-date=22 October 2013 |archive-date=22 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022050031/http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/771918-overview#a0199 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Department of Clinical Toxinology of the [[University of Adelaide]] gives this serpent a general untreated fatality rate of 50–60%, implying that the snake has about a half chance to deliver bites involving nonfatal quantities of venom.<ref name="UOA">{{cite web |url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0048 |title=''Ophiophagus hannah'' |publisher=University of Adelaide |access-date=14 September 2011 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305161617/http://toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=sn0048 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | and 1.644 mg/kg through [[intraperitoneal injection]].<ref name="LD50">{{cite web |url=http://www.seanthomas.net/oldsite/ld50tot.html |title=LD50 (Archived) |author=Séan Thomas |author2=Eugene Griessel |date=December 1999 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201062634/http://www.seanthomas.net/oldsite/ld50tot.html |archive-date=1 February 2012}}</ref><ref name="Engelmann">{{cite book |last=Engelmann |first=Wolf-Eberhard |title=Snakes: Biology, Behavior, and Relationship to Man |year=1981 |publisher=Leipzig Publishing; English version published by Exeter Books (1982) |location=Leipzig; English version NY, USA |isbn=0-89673-110-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/snakesbiologybeh0000enge/page/222 222] |url=https://archive.org/details/snakesbiologybeh0000enge/page/222 }}</ref><ref name="CRC Press">{{cite book |title=Handbook of clinical toxicology of animal venoms and poisons |publisher=CRC Press |volume=236 |year=1995 |location=USA |isbn=0-8493-4489-1}}</ref> For research purposes, up to 1 g of venom was obtained through milking.<ref name = Malaysian>{{Cite journal|last1=Tan|first1=Choo Hock|last2=Tan|first2=Kae Yi|last3=Fung|first3=Shin Yee|last4=Tan|first4=Nget Hong|date=2015-09-10|title=Venom-gland transcriptome and venom proteome of the Malaysian king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah)|journal=BMC Genomics|volume=16|issue=1|pages=687|doi=10.1186/s12864-015-1828-2|pmid=26358635|issn=1471-2164|pmc=4566206|doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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== Threats == |
== Threats == |
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[[File:King cobra (37090441494).jpg|thumb|King cobra found in a packet of [[potato chips]] near [[Los Angeles]] in 2017]] |
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In Southeast Asia, the king cobra is threatened foremost by [[habitat destruction]] owing to [[deforestation]] and expansion of agricultural land. It is also threatened by [[ |
In Southeast Asia, the king cobra is threatened foremost by [[habitat destruction]] owing to [[deforestation]] and expansion of agricultural land. It is also threatened by [[wildlife smuggling]], as well as by [[poaching]], then sold as [[bushmeat]] or turned into snake leather, and for use in [[traditional Chinese medicine]].<ref name=iucn/> |
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== Conservation == |
== Conservation == |
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The king cobra is listed in [[CITES Appendix II]]. It is protected in China and Vietnam.<ref name=iucn /> |
The king cobra is listed in [[CITES Appendix II]]. It is protected in China and Vietnam.<ref name=iucn /> |
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In India, it is placed under Schedule II of [[Wildlife Protection Act, 1972]]. Killing a king cobra is punished with imprisonment of up to six years.<ref name="TOIKC">{{cite news |title=King cobra under threat, put on red list |author=Sivakumar, B. |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=2012 |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-02/chennai/32507498_1_longest-venomous-snake-king-cobras-iucn |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201000438/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-02/chennai/32507498_1_longest-venomous-snake-king-cobras-iucn |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-02-01}}</ref> |
In India, it is placed under Schedule II of [[Wildlife Protection Act, 1972]]. Killing a king cobra is punished with imprisonment of up to six years.<ref name="TOIKC">{{cite news |title=King cobra under threat, put on red list |author=Sivakumar, B. |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=2012 |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-02/chennai/32507498_1_longest-venomous-snake-king-cobras-iucn |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201000438/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-02/chennai/32507498_1_longest-venomous-snake-king-cobras-iucn |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-02-01}}</ref> In the [[Philippines]], king cobras (locally known as ''banakon'') are included under the list of threatened species in the country. It is protected under the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act (Republic Act No. 9147), which criminalises the killing, trade, and consumption of threatened species with certain exceptions (like indigenous subsistence hunting or immediate threats to human life), with a maximum penalty of two years imprisonment and a fine of [[Philippine peso|₱]]20,000.<ref>{{cite web |title=Republic Act No. 9147 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2001/07/30/republic-act-no-9417/ |website=Official Gazette |publisher=Republic of the Philippines |access-date=26 March 2023 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927021628/http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2001/07/30/republic-act-no-9417/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=How venomous is a king cobra and what should you do if you see one? Kuya Kim answers |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/scitech/content/865108/how-venomous-is-a-king-cobra-and-what-should-you-do-if-you-see-one-kuya-kim-answers/story/?just_in |access-date=26 March 2023 |work=GMA News Online |date=26 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Garcia |first1=Danilo |title=5 King Cobra nakumpiska sa NBI entrapment |url=https://www.philstar.com/pilipino-star-ngayon/metro/2021/12/23/2149615/5-king-cobra-nakumpiska-sa-nbi-entrapment |access-date=26 March 2023 |work=Pilipino Star Ngayon |date=23 December 2021}}</ref> |
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== Cultural significance == |
== Cultural significance == |
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The king cobra has an eminent position in the [[mythology]] and [[folklore]] of India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar.<ref name=Minton>{{cite book |author=Minton, S.A. Jr. |
The king cobra has an eminent position in the [[mythology]] and [[folklore]] of India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar.<ref name=Minton>{{cite book |author=Minton, S.A. Jr. |author2=Minton, M.R. |year=1980 |title=Venomous reptiles |url=https://archive.org/details/venomousreptiles0000mint |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |isbn=978-0-684-16626-1}}</ref> |
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A ritual in Myanmar involves a king cobra and a female snake charmer. The charmer is a priestess who is usually tattooed with three pictograms and kisses the snake on the top of its head at the end of the ritual.<ref name=Platt2012>{{cite journal |last1=Platt |first1=S.G. |last2=Ko |first2=W.K. |last3=Rainwater |first3=T.R. |year=2012 |title=On the Cobra Cults of Myanmar (Burma) |journal=Chicago Herpetological Society |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=17–20}}</ref> |
A ritual in Myanmar involves a king cobra and a female snake charmer. The charmer is a priestess who is usually tattooed with three pictograms and kisses the snake on the top of its head at the end of the ritual.<ref name=Platt2012>{{cite journal |last1=Platt |first1=S.G. |last2=Ko |first2=W.K. |last3=Rainwater |first3=T.R. |year=2012 |title=On the Cobra Cults of Myanmar (Burma) |journal=Chicago Herpetological Society |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=17–20}}</ref> |
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Members of the [[Pakokku]] clan tattoo themselves with ink mixed with cobra venom on their upper bodies in a weekly inoculation that they believe would [[mithridatism|protect]] them from the snake, though no scientific evidence supports this.<ref name=coborn>{{cite book |last=Coborn |first=J. |title=The Atlas of Snakes of the World |publisher=TFH Publications |year=1991 |pages=30, 452 |isbn=978-0-86622-749-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Murphy, J. C. |year=2010 |title=Secrets of the Snake Charmer: Snakes in the 21st Century |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=978-1-4502-2127-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmYFVB4HW_UC&pg=PA15}}</ref> |
Members of the [[Pakokku]] clan tattoo themselves with ink mixed with cobra venom on their upper bodies in a weekly inoculation that they believe would [[mithridatism|protect]] them from the snake, though no scientific evidence supports this.<ref name=coborn>{{cite book |last=Coborn |first=J. |title=The Atlas of Snakes of the World |publisher=TFH Publications |year=1991 |pages=30, 452 |isbn=978-0-86622-749-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Murphy, J. C. |year=2010 |title=Secrets of the Snake Charmer: Snakes in the 21st Century |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=978-1-4502-2127-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmYFVB4HW_UC&pg=PA15}}</ref> |
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Revision as of 21:35, 18 September 2024
| King cobra | |
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Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Reptilia |
| Order: | Squamata |
| Suborder: | Serpentes |
| Family: | Elapidae |
| Genus: | Ophiophagus Günther, 1864 |
| Species: | O. hannah
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| Binomial name | |
| Ophiophagus hannah Cantor, 1836
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Distribution of the king cobra
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| Synonyms | |
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Genus-level:
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The king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is a venomous snake endemic to Asia. The sole member of the genus Ophiophagus, it is not taxonomically a true cobra, despite its common name and some resemblance. With an average length of 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) and a record length of 5.85 m (19.2 ft),[2] it is the world's longest venomous snake. The species has diversified colouration across habitats, from black with white stripes to unbroken brownish grey. The king cobra is widely distributed albeit not commonly seen, with a range spanning from the Indian Subcontinent through Southeastern Asia to Southern China. It preys chiefly on other snakes, including those of its own kind. This is the only ophidian that constructs an above-ground nest for its eggs, which are purposefully and meticulously gathered and protected by the female throughout the incubation period.[3]
The threat display of this elapid includes spreading its neck-flap, raising its head upright, making eye contact, puffing, hissing and occasionally charging. Given the size of the snake, it is capable of striking at a considerable range and height, sometimes sustaining a bite. Envenomation from this species is medically significant and may result in a rapid fatality unless antivenom is administered in time. Despite the species' fearsome reputation, aggression toward humans usually only arises from an individual inadvertently exposing itself or being cornered.
Threatened by habitat destruction, it has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 2010. Regarded as the national reptile of India, it has an eminent position in the mythology and folk traditions of India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar.
Taxonomy
The king cobra is also referred to by the common name "hamadryad", especially in older literature. Hamadryas hannah was the scientific name used by Danish naturalist Theodore Edward Cantor in 1836 who described four king cobra specimens, three captured in the Sundarbans and one in the vicinity of Kolkata.[4] Naja bungarus was proposed by Hermann Schlegel in 1837 who described a king cobra zoological specimen from Java.[5] In 1838, Cantor proposed the name Hamadryas ophiophagus for the king cobra and explained that it has dental features intermediate between the genera Naja and Bungarus.[6] Naia vittata proposed by Walter Elliot in 1840 was a king cobra caught offshore near Chennai that was floating in a basket.[7] Hamadryas elaps proposed by Albert Günther in 1858 were king cobra specimens from the Philippines and Borneo. Günther considered both N. bungarus and N. vittata a variety of H. elaps.[8] The genus Ophiophagus was proposed by Günther in 1864.[9] The name is derived from its propensity to eat snakes.[10]
Naja ingens proposed by Alexander Willem Michiel van Hasselt in 1882 was a king cobra captured near Tebing Tinggi in northern Sumatra.[11]
Ophiophagus hannah was accepted as the valid name for the king cobra by Charles Mitchill Bogert in 1945 who argued that it differs significantly from Naja species.[12] A genetic analysis using cytochrome b,[13] and a multigene analysis showed that the king cobra was an early offshoot of a genetic lineage giving rise to the mambas, rather than the Naja cobras.[14]
A phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA showed that specimens from Surattani and Nakhon Si Thammarat Provinces in southern Thailand form a deeply divergent clade from those from northern Thailand, which grouped with specimens from Myanmar and Guangdong in southern China.[15]
Description
The king cobra's skin is olive green with black and white bands on the trunk that converge to the head. The head is covered by 15 drab coloured and black edged shields. The muzzle is rounded, and the tongue black. It has two fangs and 3–5 maxillar teeth in the upper jaw, and two rows of teeth in the lower jaw. The nostrils are between two shields. The large eyes have a golden iris and round pupils. Its hood is oval shaped and covered with olive green smooth scales and two black spots between the two lowest scales. Its cylindrical tail is yellowish green above and marked with black.[4] It has a pair of large occipital scales on top of the head, 17 to 19 rows of smooth oblique scales on the neck, and 15 rows on the body. Juveniles are black with chevron shaped white, yellow or buff bars that point towards the head.[16] Adult king cobras are 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) long. The longest known individual measured 5.85 m (19.2 ft).[2][17] Ventral scales are uniformly oval shaped. Dorsal scales are placed in an oblique arrangement.[18]
The king cobra is sexually dimorphic, with males being larger and paler in particular during the breeding season. Males captured in Kerala measured up to 3.75 m (12.3 ft) and weighed up to 10 kg (22 lb). Females captured had a maximum length of 2.75 m (9 ft 0 in) and a weight of 5 kg (11 lb).[19] The largest known king cobra was 5.59 m (18 ft 4 in) long and captured in Thailand.[20] It differs from other cobra species by size and hood. It is larger, has a narrower and longer stripe on the neck.[21]
Distribution and habitat
The king cobra has a wide distribution in South and Southeast Asia. It occurs up to an elevation of 2,000 m (6,600 ft) from the Terai in India and southern Nepal to the Brahmaputra River basin in Bhutan and northeast India, Bangladesh and to Myanmar, southern China, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines.[1]
In northern India, it has been recorded in Garhwal and Kumaon, and in the Shivalik and terai regions of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh.[22][23][24] In northeast India, the king cobra has been recorded in northern West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram.[25][26] In the Eastern Ghats, it occurs from Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh to coastal Odisha, and also in Bihar and southern West Bengal, especially the Sundarbans.[4][25][27] In the Western Ghats, it was recorded in Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra, and also in Gujarat.[25][28][19][29] It also occurs on Baratang Island in the Great Andaman chain.[30]
Behaviour and ecology
Captive king cobras with their hoods extended
Like other snakes, a king cobra receives chemical information via its forked tongue, which picks up scent particles and transfers them to a sensory receptor (Jacobson's organ) located in the roof of its mouth.[2] When it detects the scent of prey, it flicks its tongue to gauge the prey's location, with the twin forks of the tongue acting in stereo. It senses earth-borne vibration and detects moving prey almost 100 m (330 ft) away.[citation needed]
Following envenomation, it swallows its prey whole. Because of its flexible jaws, it can swallow prey much larger than its head. It is considered diurnal because it hunts during the day, but has also been seen at night, rarely.[2]
Diet
The king cobra is an apex predator and dominant over all other snakes except large pythons.[31] Its diet consists primarily of other snakes and lizards, including Indian cobra, banded krait, rat snake, pythons, green whip snake, keelback, banded wolf snake and Blyth's reticulated snake.[32] It also hunts Malabar pit viper and hump-nosed pit viper by following their odour trails.[33] In Singapore, one was observed swallowing a clouded monitor.[34] When food is scarce, it also feeds on other small vertebrates, such as birds, and lizards. In some cases, the cobra constricts its prey using its muscular body, though this is uncommon. After a large meal, it lives for many months without another one because of its slow metabolic rate.[2][35]
Defence
The king cobra is not considered aggressive.[36] It usually avoids humans and slinks off when disturbed, but is known to aggressively defend incubating eggs and attack intruders rapidly. When alarmed, it raises the front part of its body, extends the hood, shows the fangs and hisses loudly.[32][37] Wild king cobras encountered in Singapore appeared to be placid, but reared up and struck in self defense when cornered.[38]
The king cobra can be easily irritated by closely approaching objects or sudden movements. When raising its body, the king cobra can still move forward to strike with a long distance, and people may misjudge the safe zone. It can deliver multiple bites in a single attack.[39]
Growling hiss
The hiss of the king cobra is a much lower pitch than many other snakes and many people thus liken its call to a "growl" rather than a hiss. While the hisses of most snakes are of a broad-frequency span ranging from roughly 3,000 to 13,000 Hz with a dominant frequency near 7,500 Hz, king cobra growls consist solely of frequencies below 2,500 Hz, with a dominant frequency near 600 Hz, a much lower-sounding frequency closer to that of a human voice. Comparative anatomical morphometric analysis has led to a discovery of tracheal diverticula that function as low-frequency resonating chambers in king cobra and its prey, the rat snake, both of which can make similar growls.[40]
Reproduction
The female is gravid for 50 to 59 days.[17] The king cobra is the only snake that builds a nest using dry leaf litter, starting from late March to late May.[41] Most nests are located at the base of trees, are up to 55 cm (22 in) high in the centre and 140 cm (55 in) wide at the base. They consist of several layers and have mostly one chamber, into which the female lays eggs.[42] Clutch size ranges from 7 to 43 eggs, with 6 to 38 eggs hatching after incubation periods of 66 to 105 days. Temperature inside nests is not steady but varies depending on elevation from 13.5 to 37.4 °C (56.3 to 99.3 °F). Females stay by their nests between two and 77 days. Hatchlings are between 37.5 and 58.5 cm (14.8 and 23.0 in) long and weigh 9 to 38 g (0.32 to 1.34 oz).[41]
The venom of hatchlings is as potent as that of the adults. They may be brightly marked, but these colours often fade as they mature. They are alert and nervous, being highly aggressive if disturbed.[21]
The average lifespan of a wild king cobra is about 20 years.[43]
King cobra was shown to be capable of facultative parthenogenesis.[44] The parthenogenetic mechanism appears to be a variation of meiosis referred to as terminal fusion automixis in which there is fusion of the meiotic products formed at the anaphase II stage of meiosis.[44]
Venom
Composition
Venom of the king cobra, produced by the postorbital venom glands, consists primarily of three-finger toxins (3FTx) and snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs).[45][46]
Of all the 3FTx, alpha-neurotoxins are the predominant and most lethal components when cytotoxins and beta-cardiotoxins also exhibit toxicological activities.[47][48][49] It is reported that cytotoxicity of its venom varies significantly, depending upon the age and locality of an individual.[50] Clinical cardiotoxicity is not widely observed, nor is nephrotoxicity present among patients bitten by this species, presumably due to the low abundance of the toxins.[39]
SVMPs are the second most protein family isolated from the king cobra's venom, accounting from 11.9% to 24.4% of total venom proteins.[51][52][53] The abundance is much higher than that of most cobras which is usually less than 1%.[54] This protein family includes principal toxins responsible for vasculature damage and interference with haemostasis, contributing to bleeding and coagulopathy caused by envenomation of vipers. While there are such haemorrhagins isolated from the king cobra's venom, they only induce species-sensitive haemorrhagic and lethal activities on rabbits and hares, but with minimal effects on mice.[55] Clinical pathophysiology of the king cobra's SVMPs has yet to be well studied, although its substantial quantity suggests involvement in tissue damage and necrosis as a result of inflammatory and proteolytic activities, which are instrumental for foraging and digestive purposes.[55][39]
Ohanin, a minor vespryn protein component specific to this species, causes hypolocomotion and hyperalgesia in experimental mice. It is believed that it contributes to neurotoxicity on the central nervous system of the victim.[56]
Clinical management
A king cobra's bite, and subsequent envenomation, is an immediate medical emergency in humans or domesticated animals, as, if not treated as soon as possible, death can occur in as little as 30 minutes.[39][57] Local symptoms include dusky discolouration of skin, edema and pain; in severe cases, swelling extends proximally, with necrosis and tissue sloughing that may require amputation.[39] Onset of general symptoms follows while the venom is targeting the victim's central nervous system, resulting in blurred vision, vertigo, drowsiness, and eventual paralysis. If not treated promptly, it may progress to cardiovascular collapse and, subsequently, coma. Death soon follows due to respiratory failure, among other simultaneous and varied system and organ failures.[39]
Polyvalent antivenom of equine origin is produced by Haffkine Institute and King Institute of Preventive Medicine and Research in India.[58] A polyvalent antivenom produced by the Thai Red Cross Society can effectively neutralise venom of the king cobra.[59] In India and Thailand, a concoction (or liquid blend) of turmeric (Curcuma longa) and other potent, medically relevant herbs reportedly creates a strong resilience against the venom of the king cobra when ingested.[60][61] Proper and immediate treatments are critical to avoid death. Successful precedents include a client who recovered and was discharged in 10 days after being treated by accurate antivenom and inpatient care.[57]
It can deliver up to 420 mg venom in dry weight (400–600 mg overall) per bite,[62] with a LD50 toxicity in mice of 1.28 mg/kg through intravenous injection,[63] 1.5 to 1.7 mg/kg through subcutaneous injection,[64] and 1.644 mg/kg through intraperitoneal injection.[62][65][66] For research purposes, up to 1 g of venom was obtained through milking.[51]
Threats
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In Southeast Asia, the king cobra is threatened foremost by habitat destruction owing to deforestation and expansion of agricultural land. It is also threatened by wildlife smuggling, as well as by poaching, then sold as bushmeat or turned into snake leather, and for use in traditional Chinese medicine.[1]
Conservation
The king cobra is listed in CITES Appendix II. It is protected in China and Vietnam.[1] In India, it is placed under Schedule II of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Killing a king cobra is punished with imprisonment of up to six years.[67] In the Philippines, king cobras (locally known as banakon) are included under the list of threatened species in the country. It is protected under the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act (Republic Act No. 9147), which criminalises the killing, trade, and consumption of threatened species with certain exceptions (like indigenous subsistence hunting or immediate threats to human life), with a maximum penalty of two years imprisonment and a fine of ₱20,000.[68][69][70]
Cultural significance
The king cobra has an eminent position in the mythology and folklore of India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar.[71] A ritual in Myanmar involves a king cobra and a female snake charmer. The charmer is a priestess who is usually tattooed with three pictograms and kisses the snake on the top of its head at the end of the ritual.[72] Members of the Pakokku clan tattoo themselves with ink mixed with cobra venom on their upper bodies in a weekly inoculation that they believe would protect them from the snake, though no scientific evidence supports this.[35][73]
It is regarded as the national reptile of India.[74]
References
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External links
Wikispecies has information related to Ophiophagus hannah.
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Categories:
- IUCN Red List vulnerable species
- Apex predators
- Elapidae
- Reptiles of Borneo
- National symbols of India
- Reptiles described in 1836
- Reptiles of Bangladesh
- Reptiles of Bhutan
- Reptiles of Brunei
- Reptiles of Cambodia
- Reptiles of Hong Kong
- Reptiles of India
- Reptiles of Laos
- Reptiles of Nepal
- Reptiles of the Philippines
- Snakes of China
- Snakes of Indonesia
- Snakes of Malaysia
- Snakes of Myanmar
- Snakes of Thailand
- Snakes of Vietnam
- Taxa named by Theodore Edward Cantor