Jump to content

Dynamic range: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Kjmathew (talk | contribs)
90 edits
→Definition: Define the sense of usage of 'dynamic' in Dynamic Range
Kjmathew (talk | contribs)
90 edits
→Definition: Contrast sound vs hearing, rather than light and sound to better express the concept
Line 3: Line 3:


==Definition==
==Definition==
Dynamic range is the difference between the smallest and largest usable signal through a transmission or processing chain or storage medium.<ref>{{citation |title=Dynamic range |work=Electropedia |publisher=IEC |url=http://www.electropedia.org/iev/iev.nsf/display?openform&ievref=723-03-11}}</ref> It is measured as a ratio, or as a [[decimal|base-10]] ([[decibel]]) or [[Binary numeral system|base-2]] (doublings, [[bit]]s or [[Stops (Dynamic Range)|stop]]s) [[Logarithmic scale|logarithmic]] value. The word 'dynamic' as used in 'dynamic range' is in the sense of '[http://www.thefreedictionary.com/dynamic of or relating to variation of intensity]'. So the term 'dynamic range' when used to describe light or sound is, 'light intensity variation range' or 'sound intensity variation range'.
Dynamic range is the difference between the smallest and largest usable signal through a transmission or processing chain or storage medium.<ref>{{citation |title=Dynamic range |work=Electropedia |publisher=IEC |url=http://www.electropedia.org/iev/iev.nsf/display?openform&ievref=723-03-11}}</ref> It is measured as a ratio, or as a [[decimal|base-10]] ([[decibel]]) or [[Binary numeral system|base-2]] (doublings, [[bit]]s or [[Stops (Dynamic Range)|stop]]s) [[Logarithmic scale|logarithmic]] value. The word 'dynamic' as used in 'dynamic range' is in the sense of '[http://www.thefreedictionary.com/dynamic of or relating to variation of intensity]'. So the term 'dynamic range' when used to describe sound or hearing is, 'sound intensity variation range' or 'hearing intensity variation range'.


==Dynamic range and human perception==
==Dynamic range and human perception==

Revision as of 14:33, 28 April 2016

For other uses, see Dynamic range (disambiguation).

Dynamic range, abbreviated DR or DNR,[1] is the ratio between the largest and smallest values of a changeable quantity, such as in signals like sound and light.

Definition

Dynamic range is the difference between the smallest and largest usable signal through a transmission or processing chain or storage medium.[2] It is measured as a ratio, or as a base-10 (decibel) or base-2 (doublings, bits or stops) logarithmic value. The word 'dynamic' as used in 'dynamic range' is in the sense of 'of or relating to variation of intensity'. So the term 'dynamic range' when used to describe sound or hearing is, 'sound intensity variation range' or 'hearing intensity variation range'.

Dynamic range and human perception

Factor (power) Decibels Stops
1 0 0
2 3.01 1
3.16 5 1.66
4 6.02 2
5 6.99 2.32
8 9.03 3
10 10 3.32
16 12.0 4
20 13.0 4.32
31.6 15 4.98
32 15.1 5
50 17.0 5.64
100 20 6.64
1 000 30 9.97
1 024 30.1 10
10 000 40 13.3
100 000 50 16.6
1 000 000 60 19.9
1 048 576 60.2 20
100 000 000 80 26.6
1 073 741 824 90.3 30
10 000 000 000 100 33.2

The human senses of sight and hearing have a very high dynamic range. A human is capable of hearing (and usefully discerning) anything from a quiet murmur in a soundproofed room to the sound of the loudest heavy metal concert. Such a difference can exceed 100 dB which represents a factor of 100,000 in amplitude and a factor 10,000,000,000 in power.[3][4] A human can see objects in starlight (although colour differentiation is reduced at low light levels) or in bright sunlight, even though on a moonless night objects receive 1/1,000,000,000 of the illumination they would on a bright sunny day: that is a dynamic range of 90 dB.

A human cannot perform these feats of perception at both extremes of the scale at the same time. The eyes take time to adjust to different light levels, and the dynamic range of the human eye in a given scene is actually quite limited due to optical glare. The instantaneous dynamic range of human audio perception is similarly subject to masking so that, for example, a whisper cannot be heard in loud surroundings.

In practice, it is difficult to achieve the full dynamic range experienced by humans using electronic equipment. Electronically reproduced audio and video often uses some trickery to fit original material with a wide dynamic range into a narrower recorded dynamic range that can more easily be stored and reproduced; these techniques are called dynamic range compression. For example, a good quality LCD display has a dynamic range of around 1000:1 (commercially the dynamic range is often called the "contrast ratio" meaning the full-on/full-off luminance ratio), and some of the latest CMOS image sensors now have measured dynamic ranges of about 23,000:1 (reported as 14.5 stops, or doublings, equivalent to binary bits).[5] Paper reflectance can achieve a dynamic range of about 100:1.[6] A professional ENG camcorder such as the Sony Digital Betacam achieves a dynamic range of greater than 90dB in audio recording.[7]

When showing a movie or a game, a display is able to show both shadowy nighttime scenes and bright outdoor sunlit scenes, but in fact the level of light coming from the display is much the same for both types of scene (perhaps different by a factor of 10). Knowing that the display does not have a huge dynamic range, the program makers do not attempt to make the nighttime scenes millions of times less bright than the daytime scenes, but instead use other cues to suggest night or day. A nighttime scene will usually contain duller colours and will often be lit with blue lighting, which reflects the way that the human eye sees colours at low light levels.

Examples of usage

Audio

Audio engineers often use dynamic range to describe the ratio of the amplitude of the loudest possible undistorted sine wave to the root mean square (rms) noise amplitude, say of a microphone or loudspeaker.[dubious – discuss]

The dynamic range of human hearing is roughly 140 dB,[8][9][failed verification] varying with frequency,[10] from the threshold of hearing (around −9 dB SPL[11][12][10] at 3 kHz) to the threshold of pain (from 120–140 dB SPL[13][14][15]). This wide dynamic range cannot be perceived all at once, however; the tensor tympani, stapedius muscle, and outer hair cells all act as mechanical dynamic range compressors to adjust the sensitivity of the ear to different ambient levels.[16]

The dynamic range of music as normally perceived in a concert hall doesn't exceed 80 dB, and human speech is normally perceived over a range of about 40 dB.[17]

The dynamic range differs from the ratio of the maximum to minimum amplitude a given device can record, as a properly dithered recording device can record signals well below the noise RMS amplitude (noise floor).

For example, if the ceiling of a device is 5V (rms) and the noise floor is 10µV (rms) then the dynamic range is 500000:1, or 114 dB:

In digital audio theory the dynamic range is limited by quantization error. The maximum achievable dynamic range for a digital audio system with Q-bit uniform quantization is calculated as the ratio of the largest sine-wave rms to rms noise is:[18]

The maximum achievable signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for a digital audio system with Q-bit uniform quantization is

The 16-bit compact disc has a theoretical undithered dynamic range of about 96 dB,[19][a] however, the perceived dynamic range of 16-bit audio can be 120 dB or more with noise-shaped dither, taking advantage of the frequency response of the human ear.[20][21]

Digital audio with undithered 20-bit digitization is theoretically capable of 120 dB dynamic range. 24-bit digital audio calculates to 144 dB dynamic range.[8] Most Digital audio workstations process audio with 32-bit floating-point representation which affords even higher dynamic range and so loss of dynamic range is no longer a concern in terms of digital audio processing. Low dynamic range audio mixes typically result from improper gain staging, imperfections in the analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversions, recording technique including ambient noise and intentional application of dynamic range compression.

Dynamic range in analog audio is the difference between low-level thermal noise in the electronic circuitry and high-level signal saturation resulting in increased distortion and, if pushed higher, clipping.[22] Multiple noise processes determine the noise floor of a system. Noise can be picked up from microphone self-noise, preamp noise, wiring and interconnection noise, media noise, etc.

Early 78 rpm phonograph discs had a dynamic range of up to 40 dB,[23] soon reduced to 30 dB and worse due to wear from repeated play. Vinyl microgroove phonograph records typically yield 55-65 dB, though the first play of the higher-fidelity outer rings can achieve a dynamic range of 70 dB.[24]

German magnetic tape in 1941 was reported to have had a dynamic range of 60 dB,[25] though modern day restoration experts of such tapes note 45-50 dB as the observed dynamic range.[26] Ampex tape recorders in the 1950s achieved 60 dB in practical usage,[25] though tape formulations such as Scotch 111 boasted 68 dB dynamic range.[27] In the 1960s, improvements in tape formulation processes resulted in 7 dB greater range,[27] and Ray Dolby developed the Dolby A-Type noise reduction system that increased low- and mid-frequency dynamic range on magnetic tape by 10 dB, and high-frequency by 15 dB, using companding (compression and expansion) of four frequency bands.[28] The peak of professional analog magnetic recording tape technology reached 90 dB dynamic range in the midband frequencies at 3% distortion, or about 80 dB in practical broadband applications.[27] The Dolby SR noise reduction system gave a 20 dB further increased range resulting in 110 dB in the midband frequencies at 3% distortion.[29] Compact Cassette tape performance ranges from 50 to 56 dB depending on tape formulation, with Metal Type IV tapes giving the greatest dynamic range, and systems such as XDR, dbx and Dolby noise reduction system increasing it further. Specialized bias and record head improvements by Nakamichi and Tandberg combined with Dolby C noise reduction yielded 72 dB dynamic range for the cassette.

The rugged elements of moving-coil microphones can have a dynamic range of up to 140 dB (at increased distortion), while condenser microphones are limited by the overloading of their associated electronic circuitry.[30] Practical considerations of acceptable distortion levels in microphones combined with typical practices in a recording studio result in a useful operating range of 125 dB.[31]

In 1981, researchers at Ampex determined that a dynamic range of 118 dB on a dithered digital audio stream was necessary for subjective noise-free playback of music in quiet listening environments.[32]

Since the early 1990s, it has been recommended by several authorities, including the Audio Engineering Society, that measurements of dynamic range be made with an audio signal present, which is then filtered out to get the noise floor.[33] This avoids questionable measurements based on the use of blank media, or muting circuits.

Electronics

Electronics engineers apply the term to:

  • the ratio of a specified maximum level of a parameter, such as power, current, voltage or frequency, to the minimum detectable value of that parameter. (See Audio system measurements.)
  • In a transmission system, the ratio of the overload level (the maximum signal power that the system can tolerate without distortion of the signal) to the noise level of the system.
  • In digital systems or devices, the ratio of maximum and minimum signal levels required to maintain a specified bit error ratio.
  • Optimization of bit width of digital data path (according to the dynamic ranges of signal) can reduce the area, cost, and power consumption of digital circuits and systems while improving their performance. Optimal bit width of digital data path is the smallest bit width that can satisfy the required signal-to-noise ratio and avoid overflow at the same time.[34][35][36][37][38][verification needed]
  • In audio and electronics applications, the ratio involved is often so huge that it is converted to a logarithm and specified in decibels.

Metrology

In metrology, such as when performed in support of science, engineering or manufacturing objectives, dynamic range refers to the range of values that can be measured by a sensor or metrology instrument. Often this dynamic range of measurement is limited at one end of the range by saturation of a sensing signal sensor or by physical limits that exist on the motion or other response capability of a mechanical indicator. The other end of the dynamic range of measurement is often limited by one or more sources of random noise or uncertainty in signal levels that may be described as the defining the sensitivity of the sensor or metrology device. When digital sensors or sensor signal converters are a component of the sensor or metrology device, the dynamic range of measurement will be also related to the number of binary digits (bits) used in a digital numeric representation in which the measured value is linearly related to the digital number. For example, a 12-bit digital sensor or converter can provide a dynamic range in which the ratio of the maximum measured value to the minimum measured value is up to 212 = 4096. With gamma correction, this limitation can be relaxed somewhat; for example, the 8-bit encoding used in sRGB image encoding represents a maximum to minimum ratio of about 3000.

Metrology systems and devices may use several basic methods to increase their basic dynamic range. These methods include averaging and other forms of filtering, repetition of measurements, nonlinear transformations to avoid saturation, etc. In more advance forms of metrology, such as multiwavelength digital holography, interferometry measurements made at different scales (different wavelengths) can be combined to retain the same low-end resolution while extending the upper end of the dynamic range of measurement by orders of magnitude.

Music

In music, dynamic range is the difference between the quietest and loudest volume of an instrument, part or piece of music[citation needed]. In modern recording, this range is often limited through dynamic range compression, which allows for louder volume, but can make the recording sound less exciting or live.[39]

The term dynamic range may be confusing in music because it has two conflicting definitions, particularly in the understanding of the loudness war phenomenon.[40][41] Dynamic range may refer to micro-dynamics,[42][43][44] related to crest factor,[45][46] whereas the European Broadcasting Union, in EBU3342 Loudness Range, defines dynamic range as the difference between the quietest and loudest volume, a matter of macro-dynamics.[40][41][47][48][49][50]

Photography

A scene demanding high dynamic range.

Photographers use "dynamic range" for the luminance range of a scene being photographed, or the limits of luminance range that a given digital camera or film can capture, [51] or the opacity range of developed film images, or the "reflectance range" of images on photographic papers.

Graduated neutral density filters are used to decrease the dynamic range of scene luminance that can be captured on photographic film (or on the image sensor of a digital camera): The filter is positioned in front of the lens at the time the exposure is made; the top half is dark and the bottom half is clear. The dark area is placed over a scene's high-intensity region, such as the sky. The result is more even exposure in the focal plane, with increased detail in the shadows and low-light areas. Though this doesn't increase the fixed dynamic range available at the film or sensor, it stretches usable dynamic range in practice.[52]

The dynamic range of sensors used in digital photography is many times less than that of the human eye and generally not as wide as that of chemical photographic media. In the domain of digital imaging, algorithms have been developed to map the image differently in shadow and in highlight in order to better distribute the lighting range across the image. These techniques are known as local tone mapping, and usually involves overcoming the limited dynamic range of the sensor array by selectively combining multiple exposures of the same scene in order to retain detail in light and dark areas. The same approach has been used in chemical photography to capture an extremely wide dynamic range: A three-layer film with each underlying layer at 1/100 the sensitivity of the next higher one has, for example, been used to record nuclear-weapons tests.[53]

The most severe dynamic-range limitation in photography may not involve encoding, but rather reproduction to, say, a paper print or computer screen. In that case, not only local tone mapping, but also dynamic range adjustment can be effective in revealing detail throughout light and dark areas: The principle is the same as that of dodging and burning (using different lengths of exposures in different areas when making a photographic print) in the chemical darkroom. The principle is also similar to gain riding or automatic level control in audio work, which serves to keep a signal audible in a noisy listening environment and to avoid peak levels which overload the reproducing equipment, or which are unnaturally or uncomfortably loud.

Dynamic ranges of common devices
Device Stops Contrast
LCD 9.5 700:1 (250:1 – 1750:1)
Negative film (Kodak VISION3) 13[54] 8000:1
Human eye 10–14[55] 1000:1 – 15000:1
High-end DSLR camera (Nikon D810) 14.8[56] 28500:1

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The 96 dB figure is for a triangle or sine wave. Dynamic range is 98 dB for sine wave[18] (see Quantization noise model).

References

  1. ^ ISSCC Glossary http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/4242240/4242241/04242527.pdf
  2. ^ "Dynamic range", Electropedia, IEC
  3. ^ D. R. Campbell. "Aspects of Human Hearing" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-04-21. The dynamic range of human hearing is [approximately] 120 dB
  4. ^ "Sensitivity of Human Ear". Retrieved 2011-04-21. The practical dynamic range could be said to be from the threshold of hearing to the threshold of pain [130 dB]
  5. ^ "DXOmark Sensor Ranking". Retrieved 2015-06-12.
  6. ^ "Dynamic Range in Digital Photography". Retrieved 2011-07-11.
  7. ^ "Sony Product Detail Page MSWM2100/1". Sony Pro. Retrieved 2011-12-30.
  8. ^ a b Huber, David Miles; Runstein, Robert E. (2009). Modern Recording Techniques (7 ed.). Focal Press. p. 513. ISBN 0-240-81069-4. the overall dynamic range of human hearing roughly encompasses a full 140 dB
  9. ^ "Occupational Noise Exposure, CDC DHHS (NIOSH) Publication Number 98-126".
  10. ^ a b Montgomery, Christopher. "24/192 Music Downloads ...and why they make no sense". xiph.org. Retrieved 2016-03-17. The very quietest perceptible sound is about -8dbSPL
  11. ^ Jones, Pete R (November 20, 2014). "What's the quietest sound a human can hear?" (PDF). University College London. Retrieved 2016-03-16. On the other hand, you can also see in Figure 1 that our hearing is slightly more sensitive to frequencies just above 1 kHz, where thresholds can be as low as −9 dBSPL!
  12. ^ Feilding, Charles. "Lecture 007 Hearing II". College of Santa Fe Auditory Theory. Retrieved 2016-03-17. The peak sensitivities shown in this figure are equivalent to a sound pressure amplitude in the sound wave of 10 μPa or: about -6 dB(SPL). Note that this is for monaural listening to a sound presented at the front of the listener. For sounds presented on the listening side of the head there is a rise in peak sensitivity of about 6 dB [−12 dB SPL] due to the increase in pressure caused by reflection from the head.
  13. ^ Newman, Edwin B. (1972-01-01). "Speech and Hearing". American Institute of Physics handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 3–155. ISBN 007001485X. The upper limit for a tolerable intensity of sound rises substantially with increasing habituation. Moreover, a variety of subjective effects are reported, such as discomfort, tickle, pressure, and pain, each at a slightly different level. As a simple engineering estimate it can be said that naive listeners reach a limit at about 125 dB SPL and experienced listeners at 135 to 140 dB.
  14. ^ Nave, Carl R. (2006). "Threshold of Pain". HyperPhysics. SciLinks. Retrieved 2009-06-16. A nominal figure for the threshold of pain is 130 decibels ... Some sources quote 120 dB as the pain threshold
  15. ^ Franks, John R.; Stephenson, Mark R.; Merry, Carol J., eds. (June 1996). Preventing Occupational Hearing Loss - A Practical Guide (PDF). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. p. 88. Retrieved 2009-07-15. the threshold for pain is between 120 and 140 dB SPL.
  16. ^ "How The Ear Works". www.soundonsound.com. Retrieved 2016-03-18.
  17. ^ Eargle, John (2005). Handbook of Recording Engineering. Springer. p. 4. ISBN 0-387-28470-2.
  18. ^ a b Bernd Seeber (1998). Handbook of applied superconductivity. CRC Press. pp. 1861–1862. ISBN 978-0-7503-0377-4.
  19. ^ Fries, Bruce; Marty Fries (2005). Digital Audio Essentials. O'Reilly Media. p. 147. ISBN 0-596-00856-2. Digital audio at 16-bit resolution has a theoretical dynamic range of 96 dB, but the actual dynamic range is usually lower because of overhead from filters that are built into most audio systems." ... "Audio CDs achieve about a 90-dB signal-to-noise ratio.
  20. ^ Montgomery, Chris (March 25, 2012). "24/192 Music Downloads ...and why they make no sense". xiph.org. Retrieved 26 May 2013. With use of shaped dither, which moves quantization noise energy into frequencies where it's harder to hear, the effective dynamic range of 16 bit audio reaches 120dB in practice, more than fifteen times deeper than the 96dB claim. 120dB is greater than the difference between a mosquito somewhere in the same room and a jackhammer a foot away.... or the difference between a deserted 'soundproof' room and a sound loud enough to cause hearing damage in seconds. 16 bits is enough to store all we can hear, and will be enough forever.
  21. ^ Stuart, J. Robert (1997). "Coding High Quality Digital Audio" (PDF). Meridian Audio Ltd. Retrieved 2016-02-25. One of the great discoveries in PCM was that, by adding a small random noise (that we call dither) the truncation effect can disappear. Even more important was the realisation that there is a right sort of random noise to add, and that when the right dither is used, the resolution of the digital system becomes infinite.
  22. ^ Huber, Runstein 2009, pp. 416, 487
  23. ^ Audio Engineering Society. E-Library. Jerry B. Minter. April 1956. Recent Developments in Precision Master Recording Lathes
  24. ^ Day, Timothy (2002). A Century of Recorded Music: Listening to Musical History. Yale University Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-300-09401-9.
  25. ^ a b Daniel, Eric D.; C. Denis Mee; Mark H. Clark (1998). Magnetic Recording: The First 100 Years. Wiley-IEEE Press. p. 64. ISBN 0-7803-4709-9.
  26. ^ Audio Engineering Society. Richard L. Hess. July/August 2001. The Jack Mullin//Bill Palmer tape restoration project
  27. ^ a b c Eargle, 2005, p. 158.
  28. ^ Eargle, 2005, p. 169.
  29. ^ Eargle, 2005, p. 172.
  30. ^ Huber, Runstein 2009, p. 127
  31. ^ Eargle, 2005, p. 75.
  32. ^ Audio Engineering Society. E-Library. Louis D. Fielder. May 1981. Dynamic Range Requirement for Subjective Noise Free Reproduction of Music
  33. ^ AES-6id-2000
  34. ^ Bin Wu, Jianwen Zhu, Farid Najm, Dynamic Range Estimation. IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems, 2006. P.1618-1636
  35. ^ Bin Wu, Jianwen Zhu, Farid Najm, An analytical approach for dynamic range estimation In ACM/IEEE 41st Design Automation Conference (DAC-04), San Diego, Calif., June 7-11, 2004.
  36. ^ Bin Wu, Jianwen Zhu, Farid Najm, Dynamic range estimation for nonlinear systems. In IEEE/ACM International Conference on Computer-Aided Design (ICCAD-04), San Jose, Calif., November 7-11, 2004.
  37. ^ Bin Wu, Jianwen Zhu, Farid Najm, A non-parametric approach for dynamic range estimation of nonlinear systems. In ACM/IEEE 42nd Design Automation Conference (DAC-05), pages 841–844, 2005.
  38. ^ Bin Wu, Dynamic range estimation for systems with control-flow structures. 13th International Symposium on Quality Electronic Design (ISQED-12),19-21 March 2012
  39. ^ "The Death Of Dynamic Range". CD Mastering Services. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
  40. ^ a b Deruty, Emmanuel (September 2011). "'Dynamic Range' & The Loudness War". Sound on Sound. Retrieved 2013-10-24.
  41. ^ a b Emmanuel Deruty, Damien Tardieu (January 2014). "About Dynamic Processing in Mainstream Music". Journal of the Audio Engineering Society. Retrieved 2014-06-06.
  42. ^ Katz, Robert (2002). "9". Mastering Audio. Amsterdam: Boston. p. 109. ISBN 0-240-80545-3.
  43. ^ Ian Shepherd. "Why the Loudness War hasn't reduced 'Loudness Range'". Retrieved 2014-02-06.
  44. ^ Jason Victor Serinus. "Winning the Loudness Wars". Stereophile. Retrieved 2014-02-06.
  45. ^ Earl Vickers (November 4, 2010). "The Loudness War: Background, Speculation and Recommendations" (PDF). AES 2010: Paper Sessions: Loudness and Dynamics. San Francisco: Audio Engineering Society. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
  46. ^ "Dynamic Range Meter".
  47. ^ EBU Tech 3342
  48. ^ "Measuring the Evolution of Contemporary Western Popular Music". Scientific Reports. 2. 26 July 2012. doi:10.1038/srep00521. Retrieved 26 July 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laydate=, |separator=, |trans_title=, |laysummary=, and |laysource= (help)
  49. ^ Jens Hjortkjær, Mads Walther-Hansen (January 2014). "Perceptual Effects of Dynamic Range Compression in Popular Music Recordings". Journal of the Audio Engineering Society. Retrieved 2014-06-06. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
  50. ^ Esben Skovenborg (April 2012). "Loudness Range (LRA) – Design and Evaluation". AES 132nd Convention. Retrieved 2014-10-25. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
  51. ^ Karol Myszkowski, Rafal Mantiuk, and Grzegorz Krawczyk (2008). High Dynamic Range Video. Morgan & Claypool Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59829-214-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  52. ^ Rob Sheppard (2006). The Magic of Digital Nature Photography. Sterling Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-57990-773-0.
  53. ^ The Militarily Critical Technologies List (1998), pages II-5-100 and II-5-107.
  54. ^ "Dynamic Range".
  55. ^ "Dynamic Range in Digital Photography". Retrieved 2010-12-30.
  56. ^ "Camera Sensor Ratings by DxOMark". DxO Labs. Retrieved February 2, 2015.

External list

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dynamic_range&oldid=717575183"