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1895–1947 military force
This article is about the army of the British Indian Empire (1895–1947). For the current army of the Republic of India, see Indian Army. For the current army of Pakistan, see Pakistan Army.
The Indian Army during British rule, also referred to as the British Indian Army,[9][10] was the main military force of India until national independence in 1947.[9] Formed in 1895 by uniting the three Presidency Armies,[11] it was responsible for the defence of both British India and the princely states, which could also have their own armies. As stated in the Imperial Gazetteer of India, the "British Government has undertaken to protect the dominions of the Native princes from invasion and even from rebellion within: its army is organized for the defence not merely of British India, but of all possessions under the suzerainty of the King-Emperor."[12] The Indian Army was an important part of the forces of the British Empire, in India and abroad, particularly during the First World War and the Second World War.
The term Indian Army appears to have been first used informally, as a collective description of the Presidency armies, which collectively comprised the Bengal Army, the Madras Army and the Bombay Army, of the Presidencies of British India, particularly after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. In 1879, the Presidency armies were integrated into a system of four Commands with a central Commander-in-Chief.[11] On 1 April 1895, the Presidency armies were dissolved and unified into a single Indian Army, also divided into four Commands,[11] and the term "Indian Army" was officially used by 1903.[13][a] The Commands were later replaced by two "Armies" in 1908—the Northern and Southern Army—but the Command system was restored in 1920.[11][15][b]
The force is also sometimes referred to as the Army of the Indian Empire,[18][19][20] or Imperial Indian Army.[21][22] The Indian Army should not be confused with the Army of India, which was the Indian Army plus the British Army in India (British units sent to India).[23] With the partition of India and Pakistan on 15 August 1947, the army was reconstituted and divided between the two newDominions, with the process overseen by Field Marshal Sir Claude Auchinleck.[24][25] Independent India would, however, retain "much of the organizing framework" of the army.[13]
The Indian Army has its origins in the years after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, often called the Indian Mutiny in British histories, when in 1858 the Crown took over direct rule of British India from the East India Company. Before 1858, the precursor units of the Indian Army were units controlled by the Company and were paid for by their profits. These operated alongside units of the British Army, funded by the British government in London.[26]
The three Presidency armies remained separate forces, each with its own Commander-in-Chief. Overall operational control was exercised by the Commander-in-Chief of the Bengal Army, who was formally the Commander-in-Chief of the East Indies.[27] From 1861, most of the officer manpower was pooled in the three Presidential Staff Corps.[28] After the Second Afghan War a Commission of Enquiry recommended the abolition of the presidency armies. The Ordnance, Supply and Transport, and Pay branches were by then unified.[29]
The Punjab Frontier Force was under the direct control of the Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab during peacetime until 1886, when it came under the Commander-in-Chief, India.[29] The Hyderabad Contingent and other local corps remained under direct governmental control.[30] Standing higher formations – divisions and brigades – were abandoned in 1889.[31] No divisional staffs were maintained in peacetime, and troops were dispersed throughout the sub-continent, with internal security as their main function. In 1891 the three staff corps were merged into one Indian Staff Corps.[30]
Two years later the Madras and Bombay armies lost their posts of Commander-in-Chief.[30] In 1895, the Presidency Armies were abolished and the Indian Army created thereby was grouped into four commands: Bengal, Madras (including Burma), Bombay (including Sind, Quetta, and Aden), and the Punjab (including the North-West Frontier and the Punjab Frontier Force). Each was under the command of a lieutenant general, who answered directly to the C-in-C, India.[32]
The principles underlying the reforms were that the defence of the North-West Frontier against foreign aggression was the army's primary role and that all units were to have training and experience in that role on that frontier. Furthermore, the army's organisation should be the same in peace as in war, and maintaining internal security was for the army a secondary role, in support of the police.[40]
Lord Kitchener found the army scattered across the country in stations at brigade or regimental strength, and in effect, providing garrisons for most of the major cities.[31]
The reformed Indian Army was to be stationed in operational formations and concentrated in the north of the subcontinent. The Commander-in-Chief's plan called for nine fighting divisions grouped in two corps commands on the main axes through the North-West Frontier. Five divisions were to be grouped on the Lucknow–Peshawar–Khyber axis, and four divisions on the Bombay–Mhow–Quetta axis.[41] However, the cost of abandoning some thirty-four stations and building new ones in the proposed corps areas was considered prohibitive, and that aspect of the plan had to be modified.[42]
Army Headquarters retained the 9th (Secunderabad) Division and the Burma Division under its direct control.[42][43] The numbered divisions were organised so that on mobilisation they could deploy a complete infantry division, a cavalry brigade, and a number of troops for internal security or local frontier defence. Permanent divisional commands were formed with an establishment of staff officers under a major general.[42]
After the reforms ended in 1909, the Indian Army was organised along British lines, although it was always behind in terms of equipment. An Indian Army division consisted of three brigades each of four battalions. Three of these battalions were of the Indian Army, and one British. The Indian battalions were often segregated, with companies of different tribes, castes or religions. One and a half million volunteers came forward from the estimated population of 315 million in the Indian subcontinent.
Regimental battalions were not permanently allocated to particular divisions or brigades, but instead spent some years in one formation, and were then posted to another elsewhere. This rotating arrangement was intended both to provide all units with experience of active service on the Frontier, and to prevent them becoming 'localised' in static regimental stations.[42] In contrast, the divisional locations remained constant.
To emphasise that there was now only one Indian Army, and that all units were to be trained and deployed without regard for their regional origins, the regiments were renumbered into single sequences of cavalry, artillery, infantry of the line, and Gurkha Rifles.[42] Regimental designations were altered to remove all references to the former Presidential Armies.[32] Where appropriate subsidiary titles recalling other identifying details were adopted. Thus the 2nd Bengal Lancers became the 2nd Lancers (Gardner's Horse).
The new order began with the Bengal regiments, followed by the Punjab Frontier Force, then the regiments of Madras, the Hyderabad Contingent, and Bombay. Wherever possible a significant digit was retained in the new number.[32] Thus the 1st Sikh Infantry became the 51st Sikhs, the 1st Madras Pioneers became the 61st Pioneers, and the 1st Bombay Grenadiers became the 101st Grenadiers.
The Gurkha Regiments had developed into their own Line of rifle regiments since 1861. They were five of these until they were joined by the former 42nd, 43rd, & 44th Gurkha Regiments of the Bengal Army, who became the 6th, 7th, & 8th Gurkha Rifles. The numbers 42, 43, & 44 were allocated respectively to the Deoli and Erinpura Irregular Forces and the Mhairwara Battalion from Rajputana.[44]
The Queen's Own Corps of Guides, Punjab Frontier Force, composed of cavalry squadrons and infantry companies, was renamed the Queen's Own Corps of Guides (Lumsden's) but stayed numberless. The new regimental numbering and namings were notified in India Army Order 181, dated 2 October 1903.[47]
In 1903 the title of the Indian Staff Corps was abolished, and thereafter officers were simply appointed to 'the Indian Army.'[48] A General Staff was then created to deal with overall military policy, supervision of training in peacetime, conduct of operations in war, distribution of forces for internal security or external deployment, plans for future operations and collecting intelligence.[49] Functions were divided along British lines into two branches; the Adjutant-General, dealing with training, discipline, and personnel, and the Quartermaster-General, dealing with supplies, accommodation, and communications. In 1906 a General Branch was established to deal with military policy, organisation and deployment, mobilisation and war plans, and intelligence and the conduct of operations.[50] The Chiefs of the staff branches answered to the Chief of the General Staff, whose post was held by a Lieutenant-General.[49] To provide training for staff officers, the Indian Staff College was established in 1905, and permanently based at Quetta from 1907.[50]
With no intermediate chain of command, army headquarters was weighed down with minor administrative details. Divisional commanders were responsible not only for their active formations, but also for internal security and volunteer troops within their respective areas. On mobilisation, divisional staffs took the field, leaving no-one to maintain the local administration. Supporting services were insufficient, and many troops intended for the field force were not moved from their old stations into the areas of their new divisional command. These defects became clear during the First World War, and lead to further reorganisation.[51]
The Indian Army Act 1911 legislated the replacement of the Indian Articles of War 1869. It was passed by the Governor General.[52] It was under aspects of this law that the Army charged defendants during the Indian National Army Trials in 1945. It was replaced by the "Indian Army Act, 1950" after partition and independence.
Punjabi Muslim soldiers, France, World War IKing George V inspecting Indian troops attached to the Royal Garrison Artillery at Le Cateau, 2 December 1918The 15th Sikh Regiment arrive in Marseille, France, on their way to fight the Germans during the First World War. The post card reads, "Gentlemen of India marching to chasten German hooligans"A Benét–Merciémachine gun section of 2nd Rajput Light Infantry in action in Flanders, during the winter of 1914–15
Prior to the outbreak of the First World War, the strength of the British Indian Army was 215,000. Either in 1914 or before, a ninth division had been formed, the 9th (Secunderabad) Division.[53] By November 1918, the Indian Army rose in size to 573,000 men.[54]
Before the war, the Indian government had decided that India could afford to provide two infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade in the event of a European war. Some 140,000 soldiers saw active service on the Western Front in France and Belgium – 90,000 in the front-line Indian Corps, and some 50,000 in auxiliary battalions. They felt that any more would jeopardise national security. More than four divisions were eventually sent as Indian Expeditionary Force A[55] formed the Indian Corps and the Indian Cavalry Corps that arrived on the Western Front in 1914. The high number of officer casualties the corps suffered early on had an effect on its later performance. British officers that understood the language, customs, and psychology of their men could not be quickly replaced, and the alien environment of the Western Front had some effect on the soldiers. However, the feared unrest in India never happened, and while the Indian Corps was transferred to the Middle East in 1915 India provided many more divisions for active service during the course of the war.[56] Indians' first engagement was on the Western Front within a month of the start of the war, at the First Battle of Ypres. In October/November 1914, the Baluchis of the 129th Duke of Connaught's Own, the first Indian contingent to be in contact with Germans at Hollebeke (and the only to inscribe 'Ypres 1914'), the sepoy Khudadad Khan maintaining the position until gravely wounded became the first Indian to win a Victoria Cross (Indians were eligible from 1911). In November, after a retreat, a scout section of the 1st Battalion 39th Garhwal Rifles under the leadership of Naik Darwan Singh Negi, then badly injured, reinvested lost trenches. For his gallantry he received the second VC.[57]
Nearly 700,000 troops then served in the Middle East, fighting against the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign.[58] There they were short of transportation for resupply and operated in extremely hot and dusty conditions. Led by Major General Sir Charles Townshend, they pushed on to capture Baghdad but they were repulsed by Ottoman forces.
Participants from the Indian subcontinent won 13,000 medals, including 12 Victoria Crosses. By the end of the war a total of 47,746 Indians had been reported dead or missing; 65,126 were wounded.[58]
After the First World War the British started the process of Indianisation, by which Indians were promoted into higher officer ranks. In a 1923 census, the British Indian Army consisted of 64,669 British-born soldiers and officers, with 187,432 Indian-born soldiers in comparison. Indian cadets were sent to study in Great Britain at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, and were given full commissions as King's Commissioned Indian Officers. The KCIOs were equivalent in every way to British commissioned officers and had full authority over British troops (unlike VCOs). Some KCIOs were attached to British Army units for a part of their careers.
In 1922, after wartime experience had shown that the maintenance of 130 separate single-battalion infantry regiments was unwieldy, a number of large (four to five battalion) regiments were created,[60] and numerous cavalry regiments amalgamated. The List of regiments of the Indian Army (1922) shows the reduced number of larger regiments. Until 1932 most Indian Army officers, both British and Indian, were trained at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, after that date the Indian officers increasingly received their training at the Indian Military Academy in Dehradun which was established that year.
At the outbreak of the Second World War, the Indian Army numbered 205,000 men and, as the war continued, this would rise to 2.5 million men to become the largest all–volunteer force in history. During this process, six corps would be raised; which consisted of the Indian III Corps, Indian IV Corps, Indian XV Corps, Indian XXI Corps (served with Tenth Army in the Middle East in 1942), Indian XXXIII Corps and Indian XXXIV Corps. Furthermore, the 2nd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, 14th, 17th, 19th, 20th, 21st, 23rd, 25th, 26th, 34th, 36th (later converted to an all-British formation), and 39th Indian Divisions were formed, as well as other forces. Additionally there were at one time or another four armoured divisions formed (the 31st, 32nd, 43rd, and 44th), and one airborne division, also designated the 44th. In matters of administration, weapons, training, and equipment, the Indian Army had considerable independence; for example, prior to the war the Indian Army adopted the Vickers–Berthier (VB) light machine gun instead of the Bren gun of the British Army, while continuing to manufacture and issue the older SMLE No. 1 Mk III rifle during the Second World War, instead of the Lee–Enfield No.4 Mk I issued to the British Army from the middle of the war.[61]
Particularly notable contributions of the Indian Army during that conflict were the:
The Germans and Japanese were relatively successful in recruiting combat forces from Indian prisoners of war. These forces were known as the Tiger Legion and the Indian National Army (INA). Indian nationalist leader Subhas Chandra Bose led the 40,000-strong INA. From a total of about 55,000 Indians taken prisoner in Malaya and Singapore in February 1942, about 30,000 joined the INA,[63] which fought Allied forces in the Burma Campaign. Others became guards at Japanese POW camps. The recruitment was the brainchild of Major Fujiwara Iwaichi who mentions in his memoirs that Captain Mohan Singh Deb, who surrendered after the Battle of Jitra became the founder of the INA.
Some Indian Army personnel resisted recruitment and remained POWs.[64] An unknown number captured in Malaya and Singapore were taken to Japanese-occupied areas of New Guinea as forced labour. Many of these men suffered severe hardships and brutality, similar to that experienced by other prisoners of Japan during the Second World War. About 6,000 of them survived until they were liberated by Australian or US forces, in 1943–45.[63]
During the later stages of the Second World War, from the fall of Singapore and the ending of ABDACOM in early 1942 until the formation of the South East Asia Command (SEAC) in August 1943, some American and Chinese units were placed under British military command.
Post Second World War
Lord Mountbatten inspecting the 17th Dogra Regiment at Singapore, 1945.Indian Army soldiers pass the saluting base in the Delhi Victory Week Parade, 7 March 1946.[65]
12 September 1946 the minister for external affairs in India, Jawaharlal Nehru demanded in a letter to the Commander in Chief and Defence Secretary, that a large-scale reform should be implemented to improve the Indian Army. Calcutta had been ravaged by large communal riots, but the British Indian Army was able to restore order. Nehru demanded with urgency, that the Indian Army should safeguard India's new democracy. Nehru was a nationalist and opposed India's "divide and rule" policy.[66]
As a result of the Partition of India in 1947, the formations, units, assets, and indigenous personnel of the Indian Army were divided between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan.[67] As Brian Lapping wrote, "By comparison with the two great provinces [Bengal & Punjab], partition of the army and the civil service was easy, though by any other standard, it was difficult, wasteful, and destructive. ... The men were transferred in their units. Regiments of Sikh and Hindu soldiers from the north-west frontier had to make their way through Muslim territory to get out of what was to be Pakistan."[68] Also in 1947 a final agreement was signed regarding the Gurkha regiments in the British Indian Army. Four Gurkha regiments, recruited from both eastern and western Nepal, would join the British Army. The remaining six Gurkha regiments of the British Indian Army joined the Dominion of India. During the transition period after partition, those Gurkha regiments that were in Pakistan, did their service, but were eventually moved back to India.[69]
The partition reduced the ethnic imbalance of the British Indian Army, which became the present-day Indian Army. But, the partition resulted in more ethnic imbalance in the Pakistani military, mainly because the new nation state of Pakistan was formed by joining West Punjab, NWFP, East Bengal, Baluchistan, and Sind. The new
Pakistan Army was mainly made up of soldiers from two of these provinces.[70] The Bangladesh Army, which was created from the Pakistan Army on the independence of Bangladesh, retain many British Indian Army traditions.[citation needed]
Writing in The Indian Army (1834), Sir John Malcolm, who had a lifetime's experience of Indian soldiering, wrote about the Bengal Presidency: "They consist largely of Rajpoots (Rajput), who are a distinguished race among the Khiteree (Kshatriya), or Brhamins (Brahmin) We may judge of the size of these men when we are told that the height below which no recruit is taken is five feet six inches. The great proportion of the Grenadiers are six feet and upwards."[71]
The meaning of the term Indian Army changed over time, initially as an informal collective term for the armies of the three presidencies–the Bengal Army, Madras Army and Bombay Army–between 1858 and 1894. In 1895, the Indian Army began its formal existence and was the "army of the government of India", including British and Indian (sepoy) units; this arrangement lasted until 1902.
Many of these troops took part in the Indian Mutiny, with the aim of reinstating the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II at Delhi, partly as a result of insensitive treatment by their British officers. During this period, the Company Raj relied heavily upon the armies of Princely states to quell the rebellion.
No. 4 (Hazara) Mountain Battery with RML 7-pounder mountain gun. Left to right Subadars (Sikhs) and Gunners (Punjabi Musalman) c. 1895.
The officer commanding the Army of India was the Commander-in-Chief, India who reported to the civilian Governor-General of India. The title was used before the creation of a unified British Indian Army; the first reported holder was then-Major Stringer Lawrence in 1748. Lawrence went to India with no larger command than a "small undisciplined garrison of two or three hundred men" facing a significant French presence.[72] In 1903, Lord Kitchener became the Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army. He instituted large-scale reforms, the greatest of which was the merger of the three armies of the Presidencies into a unified force. He formed higher level formations, eight army divisions, and brigaded Indian and British units. He left his command in 1909. Following Kitchener's reforms, the terminology used for the forces in India was altered. The Indian Army referred from that time to "the force recruited locally and permanently based in India, together with its expatriate British officers;"[73] the British Army in India referred to the British Army units posted to India for a tour of duty, and which would then be posted to other parts of the Empire or back to the UK. The Army of India was used to describe the combined forces of both the Indian Army and the British Army in India.
Indian Army postings were less prestigious than British Army positions, but the pay was significantly greater so that officers could live on their salaries instead of having to have a private income. Accordingly, vacancies in the Indian Army were much sought after and generally reserved for the higher placed officer-cadets graduating from the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. British officers in the Indian Army were expected to learn to speak the Indian languages of their men, who tended to be recruited from primarily Hindi speaking areas. Prominent British Indian Army officers included Lord Roberts, Lord Birdwood, Sir Claude Auchinleck ("The Auk") and Lord Slim.
Commissioned officers, British and Indian, held identical ranks to commissioned officers of the British Army. King's Commissioned Indian Officers (KCIOs), created from the 1920s, held equal powers to British officers. Viceroy's Commissioned Officers were Indians holding officer ranks. They were treated in almost all respects as commissioned officers, but had authority over Indian troops only, and were subordinate to all British King's (and Queen's) Commissioned Officers and KCIOs. They included Subedar Major or Risaldar-Major (Cavalry), equivalents to a British Major; Subedar or Risaldar (Cavalry) equivalents to Captain; and Jemadars equivalent to Lieutenant.
Soldier ranks included Sepoys or Sowars (Cavalry), equivalent to a British private. British Army ranks such as gunner and sapper were used by other corps.
^Known as Regimental Daffadar Major (RDM) in cavalry regiments and Battalion Havildar Major (BHM) when holder is in charge of a supervisory position within a battalion
^Known as Regimental Quartermaster Daffadar (RQMD) in cavalry regiments and Battalion Quartermaster Havildar (BQMH) when holder is in charge of a supervisory position within a battalion
^Mehta, Raj. "A Matter of Military Honour". Force: National Security and Aerospace Newsmagazine. Archived from the original on 15 April 2024. Retrieved 16 September 2024.
^"Commands Of The Indian Army". www.centrefordefencecareers.co.in. Centre for Defence Careers. 21 September 2020. Archived from the original on 21 June 2023. Retrieved 16 September 2024.
^Mehta, Raj. "A Matter of Military Honour". Force: National Security and Aerospace Newsmagazine. Archived from the original on 15 April 2024. Retrieved 16 September 2024.
Nathan, R.; Lee-Warner, William; Carnduff, H. W. C.; Maclagan, E. D.; Walker, G. H. D.; Collen, Edwin; Nathan; Bythel, W. J.; Hemming, T. H. (1908). The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Assistance by A. W. Alcock. Oxford: The Claredon Press.
Raugh, Harold E. (2004). The Victorians at war, 1815–1914: an encyclopaedia of British military history. s.
Robson, Brian (2007). The Road to Kabul. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Spellmount. ISBN978-1-86227-416-7.
Roger, Alexander (2003). Battle Honours of the British Empire and Commonwealth Land Forces 1662–1991. Marlborough: Crowood Press. ISBN1-86126-637-5.
Smyth, John (1967). Bolo Whistler: the life of General Sir Lashmer Whistler: a study in leadership. London: Muller. OCLC59031387.
Spilsbury, Julian (2007). The Indian Mutiny. Jouve, France: Orion Publishing Group. p. 9. ISBN9780297856306.
Sumner, Ian (2001). The Indian Army 1914-1947. Illustrated by Mike Chappell. UK: Osprey Publishing. ISBN1-84176-196-6.
Weeks, John (1979). World War II Small Arms. New York: Galahad Books. ISBN0-88365-403-2.
Further reading
Barua, Pradeep (1997). "Strategies and Doctrines of Imperial Defence: Britain and India, 1919–45". Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 25 (2): 240–266. doi:10.1080/03086539708583000.
Cohen, Stephen P. (May 1969). "The Untouchable Soldier: Caste, Politics, and the Indian Army". The Journal of Asian Studies. 28 (3): 453–468. doi:10.2307/2943173. JSTOR2943173. (subscription required)
Duckers, Peter (2003). The British Indian Army 1860–1914. Shire Books. ISBN978-0-7478-0550-2.
Farrington, Anthony (1982). Guide to the records of the India Office Military Department, India Office Library and Records. India Office Library and Records. ISBN978-0-903359-30-6.
Gupta, Partha Sarathi; Deshpanda, Anirudh; Yong, Tan Tai; Sundaram, Chander S.; Roy, Kaushik; Kaul, Vivien Ashima (2002). The British Raj and its Indian Armed Forces, 1857–1939. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 98–124. ISBN0195658051.
Guy, Alan J.; Boyden, Peter B. (1997). Soldiers of the Raj, The Indian Army 1600–1947. National Army Museum Chelsea.
Heathcote, T. A. (1995). The Military in British India: The Development of British Land Forces in South Asia, 1600–1947. Manchester University Press.
Holmes, Richard. Sahib the British Soldier in India, 1750–1914.
Rose, Patrick (2017). Jeffreys, Alan (ed.). The Indian Army 1939–47: Experience and Development (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN978-1138110069.
Mason, Philip (1974). A Matter of Honour: An Account of the Indian Army, its Officers and Men. Macmillan.
Omissi, David (1994). The Sepoy and the Raj: The Indian Army, 1860–1940. London: Macmillan.
Roy, Pinaki. “Black Peepers who charged: Remembering the British-Indian Military Personnel of the Two World Wars”. Modernity of India: Ambiguities and Deformities. Eds. Sarkar, A.K., K. Chakraborty, and M. Dutta. Kolkata: Setu Prakashani, 2014 (ISBN978-93-80677-68-2). pp. 181–96.
Primary sources
Cross, J. P., and Buddhiman Gurung, eds. Gurkhas at War in Their Own Words: The Gurkha Experience 1939 to the Present (London: Greenhill, 2002),
Masters, John (1956). Bugles and a Tiger: Viking. (autobiographical account of his service as a junior British officer in a Gurkha regiment in the years leading up to World War II)
Omissi, David E. ed. Indian Voices of the Great War: Soldiers' Letters, 1914–18 (1999)
Francis J Short. Stories from the British Indian Army (2015)
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