Examine individual changes

'{{Redirect|Feynman}} {{short description|American theoretical physicist}} {{featured article}} {{Use mdy dates|date=December 2019}} {{Infobox scientist | name = Richard Feynman | image = Richard Feynman Nobel.jpg | caption = Feynman {{c.}} 1965 | alt = Feynman in a jacket and tie, smiling | birth_name = Richard Phillips Feynman | other_names = Dick Feynman<ref>"Everybody called him Dick." – [[Freeman Dyson]]<br/>Quote from [https://www.webofstories.com/play/freeman.dyson/58 June 1998 interview with Silvan "Sam" Schweber], posted at webofstories.com on January 24, 2008 (view [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pToteaNcIdk on YouTube])</ref> | birth_date = {{birth date|1918|5|11|mf=y}} | birth_place = [[New York City]], U.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1988|2|15|1918|5|11|mf=y}} | death_place = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], U.S. | resting_place = Mountain View Cemetery and Mausoleum, [[Altadena, California]], U.S. | fields = [[Theoretical physics]] | workplaces = [[Cornell University]]<br />[[California Institute of Technology]] | alma_mater = [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] ([[Bachelor of Science|S.B. 1939]])<br />[[Princeton University]] ([[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D. 1942]]) | thesis_title = The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics | thesis_url = https://cds.cern.ch/record/101498/files/Thesis-1942-Feynman.pdf | thesis_year = 1942 | doctoral_advisor = [[John Archibald Wheeler]] | academic_advisors = | doctoral_students = {{Plainlist| * [[James M. Bardeen]] * [[Laurie Brown (physicist)|Laurie Mark Brown]] * [[Thomas Curtright]] * [[Albert Hibbs]] * [[Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz]] * [[George Zweig]] }} | notable_students = {{Plainlist| * [[Robert Barro]] * [[W. Daniel Hillis]] * [[Douglas D. Osheroff]] * [[Paul Steinhardt]] * [[Stephen Wolfram]] }} | known_for = {{collapsible list|title={{nbsp}}| [[Manhattan Project]]<br /> [[Acoustic wave equation]]<br /> [[Bethe–Feynman formula]]<br /> [[Feynman checkerboard]]<br /> [[Feynman diagram]]s<br /> [[Feynman gauge]]<br /> [[Feynman–Kac formula]]<br /> [[Feynman parametrization]]<br /> [[Feynman point]]<br /> [[Feynman propagator]]<br /> [[Feynman slash notation]]<br /> [[Feynman sprinkler]]<br /> [[Hellmann–Feynman theorem]]<br /> [[Jefimenko%27s_equations#Heaviside–Feynman_formula|Heaviside-Feynman formula]]<br /> [[V−A theory]]<br /> [[Brownian ratchet]]<br /> [[Feynman–Stueckelberg interpretation]]<br /> [[Nanotechnology]]<br /> [[One-electron universe]]<br /> [[Parton (particle physics)|Parton]]<br /> [[Path integral formulation]]<br /> [[Bongo drum|Playing the bongos]]<br /> [[Quantum cellular automata]]<br /> [[Quantum computing]]<br /> [[Quantum cellular automaton]]<br /> [[Quantum dissipation]]<br /> [[Quantum electrodynamics]]<br /> [[Quantum hydrodynamics]]<br /> [[Quantum turbulence]]<br /> [[Resummation]]<br /> [[Rogers Commission Report|Rogers Commission]]<br /> [[Shaft passer]]<br /> [[Sticky bead argument]]<br /> [[Synthetic molecular motor]]<br /> ''[[The Feynman Lectures on Physics]]''<br /> [[Universal quantum simulator]]<br /> [[Superfluid helium-4|Vortex ring model]]<br /> [[Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory]]<br /> [[Variational perturbation theory]]}} | influences = | influenced = | awards = {{Plainlist| * [[Albert Einstein Award]] (1954) * [[Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award|E. O. Lawrence Award]] (1962) * [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (1965) * [[Foreign Member of the Royal Society]] (1965) * [[Oersted Medal]] (1972) * [[National Medal of Science]] (1979)}} | signature = Richard Feynman signature.svg | spouse = {{marriage|Arline Greenbaum|1941|1945|end=died}}<br />{{marriage|Mary Louise Bell|1952|1956}}<br />{{marriage|Gweneth Howarth|1960}} | children = 2 }} '''Richard Phillips Feynman''' {{postnominals|country=GBR|ForMemRS}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|aɪ|n|m|ə|n}}; May 11, 1918 – February 15, 1988) was an American [[theoretical physicist]], known for his work in the [[path integral formulation]] of [[quantum mechanics]], the theory of [[quantum electrodynamics]], the physics of the [[superfluidity]] of supercooled [[liquid helium]], as well as his work in [[particle physics]] for which he proposed the [[parton model]]. For contributions to the development of quantum electrodynamics, Feynman received the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1965 jointly with [[Julian Schwinger]] and [[Shin'ichirō Tomonaga]]. Feynman developed a widely used pictorial representation scheme for the mathematical expressions describing the behavior of [[subatomic particle]]s, which later became known as [[Feynman diagram]]s. During his lifetime, Feynman became one of the best-known scientists in the world. In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journal ''[[Physics World]]'', he was ranked the seventh-greatest physicist of all time.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://media.caltech.edu/press_releases/12019|title=Physics World poll names Richard Feynman one of 10 greatest physicists of all time|publisher=[[California Institute of Technology]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321043038/http://media.caltech.edu/press_releases/12019|archive-date=March 21, 2012|access-date=December 1, 2012|date=December 2, 1999|first=Robert|last=Tindol}}</ref> He assisted in the [[Manhattan Project|development of the atomic bomb]] during World War II and became known to a wide public in the 1980s as a member of the [[Rogers Commission Report|Rogers Commission]], the panel that investigated the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' disaster]]. Along with his work in theoretical physics, Feynman has been credited with pioneering the field of [[quantum computing]] and introducing the concept of [[nanotechnology]]. He held the [[Richard C. Tolman]] [[Financial endowment#Endowed professorships|professorship]] in [[theoretical physics]] at the [[California Institute of Technology]]. Feynman was a keen popularizer of physics through both books and lectures, including a 1959 talk on top-down [[nanotechnology]] called ''[[There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom]]'' and the three-volume publication of his undergraduate lectures, ''[[The Feynman Lectures on Physics]]''. Feynman also became known through his semi-autobiographical books ''[[Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!]]'' and ''[[What Do You Care What Other People Think?]]'', and books written about him such as ''[[Tuva or Bust!]]'' by [[Ralph Leighton]] and the biography ''Genius: The Life and Science of Richard Feynman'' by [[James Gleick]]. == Early life == Feynman was born on May 11, 1918, in [[Queens]], [[New York City]],<ref name="nobelbio">{{cite web |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1965/feynman-bio.html |title=Richard P. Feynman – Biographical |publisher=The Nobel Foundation |access-date=April 23, 2013}}</ref> to Lucille {{nee|Phillips}}, a [[Homemaking|homemaker]], and Melville Arthur Feynman, a sales manager<ref name="turnbull">{{cite web |url=http://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Feynman.html |title=Richard Phillips Feynman |publisher=University of St. Andrews |author=J. J. O'Connor |author2=E. F. Robertson |date=August 2002 |access-date=April 23, 2013}}</ref> originally from [[Minsk]] in Belarus{{sfn|Oakes|2007|p=231}} (then part of the [[Russian Empire]]). Feynman was a [[Language delay|late talker]], and did not speak until after his third birthday. As an adult he spoke with a [[New York accent]]{{sfn|Chown|1985|p=34}}{{sfn|Close|2011|p=58}} strong enough to be perceived as an affectation or exaggeration{{sfn|Sykes|1994|p=54}}{{sfn|Friedman|2004|p=231}}—so much so that his friends [[Wolfgang Pauli]] and [[Hans Bethe]] once commented that Feynman spoke like a "bum".{{sfn|Sykes|1994|p=54}} The young Feynman was heavily influenced by his father, who encouraged him to ask questions to challenge orthodox thinking, and who was always ready to teach Feynman something new. From his mother, he gained the sense of humor that he had throughout his life. As a child, he had a talent for engineering,{{sfn|Feynman|1985|p=18}} maintained an experimental laboratory in his home, and delighted in repairing radios. This radio repairing was probably the first job Feynman had, and during this time he showed early signs of an aptitude for his later career in theoretical physics, when he would analyze the issues theoretically and arrive at the solutions.{{sfn|Feynman|1985|p=20}} When he was in grade school, he created a home burglar alarm system while his parents were out for the day running errands.{{sfn|Henderson|2011|p=8}} When Richard was five, his mother gave birth to a younger brother, Henry Phillips, who died at age four weeks.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=25–26}} Four years later, Richard's sister [[Joan Feynman|Joan]] was born and the family moved to [[Far Rockaway, Queens]].<ref name="turnbull" /> Though separated by nine years, Joan and Richard were close, and they both shared a curiosity about the world.<ref name=nytimes2020-09-10/> Though their mother thought women lacked the capacity to understand such things, Richard encouraged Joan's interest in astronomy, and Joan eventually became an astrophysicist.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.aas.org/cswa/status/2003/JANUARY2003/MyMotherTheScientist.html|title=My Mother, the Scientist |access-date=April 23, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160620130411/http://www.aas.org/cswa/status/2003/JANUARY2003/MyMotherTheScientist.html |archive-date=June 20, 2016 |first=Charles |last=Hirshberg |author-link=Charles Hirshberg |date=May 2002 |magazine=Popular Science |url-status=dead |via=www.aas.org }}</ref> ===Religion=== Feynman's parents were both from Jewish families<ref name="turnbull"/> but not religious, and by his youth, Feynman described himself as an "avowed [[atheist]]".{{sfn|Feynman|1988a|p=25}}{{sfn|Brian|2001|p=49|ps=: "Interviewer: Do you call yourself an agnostic or an atheist? Feynman: An atheist. Agnostic for me would be trying to weasel out and sound a little nicer than I am about this."}} Many years later, in a letter to [[Tina Levitan]], declining a request for information for her book on Jewish Nobel Prize winners, he stated, "To select, for approbation the peculiar elements that come from some supposedly Jewish heredity is to open the door to all kinds of nonsense on racial theory", adding, "at thirteen I was not only converted to other religious views, but I also stopped believing that the Jewish people are in any way 'the [[chosen people]]'".<ref name="Harrison">{{cite news|last=Harrison|first=John|title=Physics, bongos and the art of the nude|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/3643596/Physics-bongos-and-the-art-of-the-nude.html|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|access-date=April 23, 2013}}</ref> Later in his life, during a visit to the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America|Jewish Theological Seminary]], he encountered the [[Talmud]] for the first time. He saw that it contained the original text in a little square on the page, and surrounding it were commentaries written over time by different people. In this way the Talmud had evolved, and everything that was discussed was carefully recorded. Despite being impressed, Feynman was disappointed with the lack of interest for nature and the outside world expressed by the rabbis, who cared about only those questions which arise from the Talmud.{{sfn|Feynman|1985|pp=284–287}} == Education == Feynman attended [[Far Rockaway High School]], which was also attended by fellow Nobel laureates [[Burton Richter]] and [[Baruch Samuel Blumberg]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rockawave.com/articles/museum-tracks-down-frhs-nobel-laureates/ |title=Museum Tracks Down FRHS Nobel Laureates |last1=Schwach |first1=Howard |date=April 15, 2005 |publisher=The Wave |access-date=April 23, 2013}}</ref> Upon starting high school, Feynman was quickly promoted to a higher math class. An IQ test administered in high school estimated his [[Intelligence quotient|IQ]] at 125—high but "merely respectable", according to biographer [[James Gleick]].{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=30}}{{sfn|Carroll|1996|p=9|ps=: "The general experience of psychologists in applying tests would lead them to expect that Feynman would have made a much higher IQ if he had been properly tested." }} His sister Joan did better, allowing her to claim that she was smarter. Years later he declined to join [[Mensa International]], saying that his IQ was too low.{{sfn|Gribbin|Gribbin|1997|pp=19–20|ps=: Gleick says his IQ was 125; ''No Ordinary Genius'' says 123 }} Physicist [[Steve Hsu]] stated of the test: {{quote|I suspect that this test emphasized verbal, as opposed to mathematical, ability. Feynman received the highest score in the United States by a large margin on the notoriously difficult [[William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition|Putnam mathematics competition exam]] ... He also had the highest scores on record on the math/physics graduate admission exams at Princeton ... Feynman's cognitive abilities might have been a bit lopsided ... I recall looking at excerpts from a notebook Feynman kept while an undergraduate ... [it] contained a number of misspellings and grammatical errors. I doubt Feynman cared very much about such things.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/finding-the-next-einstein/201112/polymath-physicist-richard-feynmans-low-iq-and-finding-another |title=A Polymath Physicist On Richard Feynman's "Low" IQ And Finding Another Einstein: A conversation with Steve Hsu |author=Jonathan Wai |date=December 26, 2011 |website=Psychology Today |access-date=January 6, 2017}}</ref>}} When Feynman was 15, he taught himself [[trigonometry]], [[algebra|advanced algebra]], [[infinite series]], [[analytic geometry]], and both [[differential calculus|differential]] and [[integral calculus]].{{sfn|Schweber|1994|p=374}} Before entering college, he was experimenting with and deriving mathematical topics such as the [[half-derivative]] using his own notation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atomicarchive.com/Bios/Feynman.shtml |title=Richard Feynman – Biography |publisher=Atomic Archive |access-date=July 12, 2016}}</ref> He created special symbols for [[logarithm]], [[sine]], [[cosine]] and [[tangent (trigonometry)|tangent]] functions so they did not look like three variables multiplied together, and for the [[derivative]], to remove the temptation of canceling out the <math>d</math>'s in <math>d/dx</math>.{{sfn|Feynman|1985|p=24}}{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=15}} A member of the [[Arista – National Honor Society|Arista Honor Society]], in his last year in high school he won the [[New York University]] Math Championship.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|p=41}} His habit of direct characterization sometimes rattled more conventional thinkers; for example, one of his questions, when learning [[feline anatomy]], was "Do you have a map of the cat?" (referring to an anatomical chart).<!-- The book says "You mean a zoological chart!" but Feynman wanted diagrams about feline anatomy, not feline [[phylogeny]] -->{{sfn|Feynman|1985|p=72}} Feynman applied to [[Columbia University]] but was not accepted because of their [[Jewish quota|quota for the number of Jews admitted]].<ref name="turnbull" /> Instead, he attended the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], where he joined the [[Pi Lambda Phi]] fraternity.{{sfn|Gribbin|Gribbin|1997|pp=45–46}} Although he originally majored in mathematics, he later switched to electrical engineering, as he considered mathematics to be too abstract. Noticing that he "had gone too far", he then switched to physics, which he claimed was "somewhere in between".<ref>{{cite interview |last1=Feynman |first1=Richard |title=Richard Feynman – Session II |interviewer=Charles Weiner |date=March 5, 1966 |url=https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/5020-2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=May 25, 2017}}</ref> As an undergraduate, he published two papers in the ''[[Physical Review]]''.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|p=41}} One of these, which was co-written with [[Manuel Vallarta]], was entitled "The Scattering of Cosmic Rays by the Stars of a Galaxy".<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Scattering of Cosmic Rays by the Stars of a Galaxy |last=Vallarta, M. S. and Feynman |first= R. P. |journal=[[Physical Review]] |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=506–507 |date=March 1939 |publisher=American Physical Society |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.55.506.2 |bibcode=1939PhRv...55..506V |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/1877/1/VALpr39.pdf }}</ref> {{quote|Vallarta let his student in on a secret of mentor-protégé publishing: the senior scientist's name comes first. Feynman had his revenge a few years later, when Heisenberg concluded an entire book on cosmic rays with the phrase: "such an effect is not to be expected according to Vallarta and Feynman". When they next met, Feynman asked gleefully whether Vallarta had seen Heisenberg's book. Vallarta knew why Feynman was grinning. "Yes," he replied. "You're the last word in cosmic rays."{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=82}} }} The other was his senior thesis, on "Forces in Molecules",<ref>{{cite journal |title=Forces in Molecules|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3515/ |last=Feynman |first= R. P. |journal=[[Physical Review]] |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=340–343 |date=August 1939 |publisher=American Physical Society |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.56.340 |bibcode=1939PhRv...56..340F }}</ref> based on an idea by [[John C. Slater]], who was sufficiently impressed by the paper to have it published. Today, it is known as the [[Hellmann–Feynman theorem]].{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=71–78}} In 1939, Feynman received a [[bachelor's degree]]{{sfn|Gribbin|Gribbin|1997|p=56}} and was named a [[Putnam Fellow]].<ref name=MMA>{{cite web|title=Putnam Competition Individual and Team Winners |url=http://www.maa.org/programs/maa-awards/putnam-competition-individual-and-team-winners |publisher=Mathematical Association of America |access-date=March 8, 2014}}</ref> He attained a perfect score on the graduate school entrance exams to [[Princeton University]] in physics—an unprecedented feat—and an outstanding score in mathematics, but did poorly on the history and English portions. The head of the physics department there, [[Henry D. Smyth]], had another concern, writing to [[Philip M. Morse]] to ask: "Is Feynman Jewish? We have no definite rule against Jews but have to keep their proportion in our department reasonably small because of the difficulty of placing them."{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=84}} Morse conceded that Feynman was indeed Jewish, but reassured Smyth that Feynman's "physiognomy and manner, however, show no trace of this characteristic".{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=84}} Attendees at Feynman's first seminar, which was on the classical version of the [[Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory]], included [[Albert Einstein]], [[Wolfgang Pauli]], and [[John von Neumann]]. Pauli made the prescient comment that the theory would be extremely difficult to quantize, and Einstein said that one might try to apply this method to gravity in [[general relativity]],{{sfn|Feynman|1985|pp=77–80}} which [[Sir Fred Hoyle]] and [[Jayant Narlikar]] did much later as the [[Hoyle–Narlikar theory of gravity]].<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898186,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213230334/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898186,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 13, 2011 |title=Cosmology: Math Plus Mach Equals Far-Out Gravity |date=June 26, 1964 |magazine=Time |access-date=August 7, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=A New Theory of Gravitation |author1=F. Hoyle |author2=J. V. Narlikar |date=1964 |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society A]] |doi=10.1098/rspa.1964.0227 |bibcode = 1964RSPSA.282..191H |volume=282 |issue=1389 |pages=191–207|s2cid=59402270 }}</ref> Feynman received a Ph.D. from Princeton in 1942; his thesis advisor was [[John Archibald Wheeler]].{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=129–130}} In his doctoral thesis entitled "The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics",<ref>{{cite thesis |title=The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics |url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/101498/files/Thesis-1942-Feynman.pdf |access-date=July 12, 2016 |type=Ph.D. |publisher=[[Princeton University]] |year=1942 |first=Richard P. |last=Feynman }}</ref> Feynman applied the [[principle of stationary action]] to problems of quantum mechanics, inspired by a desire to quantize the [[Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory]] of electrodynamics, and laid the groundwork for the [[path integral formulation]] and [[Feynman diagram]]s.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=92–101}} A key insight was that [[positron]]s behaved like [[electron]]s moving backwards in time.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=92–101}} James Gleick wrote: {{quote|This was Richard Feynman nearing the crest of his powers. At twenty-three&nbsp;... there may now have been no physicist on earth who could match his exuberant command over the native materials of theoretical science. It was not just a facility at mathematics (though it had become clear&nbsp;... that the mathematical machinery emerging in the Wheeler–Feynman collaboration was beyond Wheeler's own ability). Feynman seemed to possess a frightening ease with the substance behind the equations, like Einstein at the same age, like the Soviet physicist [[Lev Landau]]—but few others.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=129–130}} |sign=|source=}} One of the conditions of Feynman's scholarship to Princeton was that he could not be married; nevertheless, he continued to see his high school sweetheart, Arline Greenbaum, and was determined to marry her once he had been awarded his Ph.D. despite the knowledge that she was seriously ill with [[tuberculosis]]. This was an incurable disease at the time, and she was not expected to live more than two years. On June 29, 1942, they took the [[Staten Island Ferry|ferry]] to [[Staten Island]], where they were married in the city office. The ceremony was attended by neither family nor friends and was witnessed by a pair of strangers. Feynman could only kiss Arline on the cheek. After the ceremony he took her to [[Deborah Heart and Lung Center|Deborah Hospital]], where he visited her on weekends.{{sfn|Gribbin|Gribbin|1997|pp=66–67}}{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=150–151}} == Manhattan Project == [[File:Richard Feynman Los Alamos ID badge.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Feynman's Los Alamos ID badge]] In 1941, with [[World War II]] raging in Europe but the United States not yet at war, Feynman spent the summer working on ballistics problems at the [[Frankford Arsenal]] in [[Pennsylvania]].{{sfn|Gribbin|Gribbin|1997|pp=63–64}}{{sfn|Feynman|1985|pp=99–103}} After the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] brought the United States into the war, Feynman was recruited by [[Robert R. Wilson]], who was working on means to produce [[enriched uranium]] for use in an [[atomic bomb]], as part of what would become the [[Manhattan Project]].{{sfn|Gribbin|Gribbin|1997|pp=64–65}}{{sfn|Feynman|1985|pp=107–108}} At the time, Feynman had not earned a graduate degree.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uY-u1qyRM5w&t=2m16s Richard Feynman Lecture – "Los Alamos From Below"], talk given at [[UCSB]] in 1975 (posted to YouTube on July 12, 2016)<br/>Quote:<br/>"I did not even have my degree when I started to work on stuff associated with the Manhattan Project."<br/>Later in this same talk, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uY-u1qyRM5w&t=5m34s at 5m34s], he explains that he took a six week vacation to finish his thesis so received his PhD prior to his arrival at Los Alamos.</ref> Wilson's team at Princeton was working on a device called an isotron, intended to electromagnetically separate [[uranium-235]] from [[uranium-238]]. This was done in a quite different manner from that used by the [[calutron]] that was under development by a team under Wilson's former mentor, [[Ernest O. Lawrence]], at the [[Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory|Radiation Laboratory]] of the [[University of California, Berkeley|University of California]]. On paper, the isotron was many times more efficient than the calutron, but Feynman and [[Paul Olum]] struggled to determine whether or not it was practical. Ultimately, on Lawrence's recommendation, the isotron project was abandoned.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=141–145}} At this juncture, in early 1943, [[Robert Oppenheimer]] was establishing the [[Los Alamos Laboratory]], a secret laboratory on a [[mesa]] in [[New Mexico]] where atomic bombs would be designed and built. An offer was made to the Princeton team to be redeployed there. "Like a bunch of professional soldiers," Wilson later recalled, "we signed up, en masse, to go to Los Alamos."{{sfn|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|p=59}} Like many other young physicists, Feynman soon fell under the spell of the charismatic Oppenheimer, who telephoned Feynman long distance from Chicago to inform him that he had found a [[sanatorium]] in [[Albuquerque, New Mexico]], for Arline. They were among the first to depart for New Mexico, leaving on a train on March 28, 1943. The railroad supplied Arline with a wheelchair, and Feynman paid extra for a private room for her.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=158–160}} At Los Alamos, Feynman was assigned to Hans Bethe's Theoretical (T) Division,{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=165–169}} and impressed Bethe enough to be made a group leader.{{sfn|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|pp=157–159}} He and Bethe developed the [[Bethe–Feynman formula]] for calculating the yield of a [[Nuclear weapon design|fission bomb]], which built upon previous work by [[Robert Serber]].{{sfn|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|p=183}} As a junior physicist, he was not central to the project. He administered the computation group of [[human computer]]s in the theoretical division. With [[Stanley Frankel]] and [[Nicholas Metropolis]], he assisted in establishing a system for using [[IBM]] [[punched card]]s for computation.{{sfn|Bashe|Johnson|Palmer|Pugh|1986|p=14}} He invented a new method of computing [[Logarithm#Calculation|logarithms]] that he later used on the [[Connection Machine]].{{sfn|Hillis|1989|p=78}}{{sfn|Feynman|1985|pp=125–129}} Other work at Los Alamos included calculating [[neutron]] equations for the Los Alamos "Water Boiler", a small [[nuclear reactor]], to measure how close an assembly of fissile material was to criticality.{{sfn|Galison|1998|pp=403–407}} On completing this work, Feynman was sent to the [[Clinton Engineer Works]] in [[Oak Ridge, Tennessee]], where the Manhattan Project had its [[uranium enrichment]] facilities. He aided the engineers there in devising safety procedures for material storage so that [[criticality accident]]s could be avoided, especially when [[enriched uranium]] came into contact with water, which acted as a [[neutron moderator]]. He insisted on giving the rank and file a lecture on nuclear physics so that they would realize the dangers.{{sfn|Galison|1998|pp=407–409}} He explained that while any amount of unenriched uranium could be safely stored, the enriched uranium had to be carefully handled. He developed a series of safety recommendations for the various grades of enrichments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2014/06/06/feynman-and-the-bomb/ |title=Feynman and the Bomb |website=Restricted Data |first=Alex |last=Wellerstein |date=June 6, 2014 |access-date=December 4, 2016 }}</ref> He was told that if the people at Oak Ridge gave him any difficulty with his proposals, he was to inform them that Los Alamos "could not be responsible for their safety otherwise".{{sfn|Feynman|1985|p=122}} [[File:Los Alamos colloquium.jpg|thumb|left|At the 1946 colloquium on the [[History of the Teller–Ulam design#Teller's "Super"|"Super"]] at the [[Los Alamos Laboratory]]. Feynman is in the second row, fourth from left, next to Oppenheimer]] Returning to Los Alamos, Feynman was put in charge of the group responsible for the theoretical work and calculations on the proposed [[uranium hydride bomb]], which ultimately proved to be infeasible.{{sfn|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|pp=157–159}}{{sfn|Galison|1998|pp=414–422}} He was sought out by physicist [[Niels Bohr]] for one-on-one discussions. He later discovered the reason: most of the other physicists were too much in awe of Bohr to argue with him. Feynman had no such inhibitions, vigorously pointing out anything he considered to be flawed in Bohr's thinking. He said he felt as much respect for Bohr as anyone else, but once anyone got him talking about physics, he would become so focused he forgot about social niceties. Perhaps because of this, Bohr never warmed to Feynman.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=257}}{{sfn|Gribbin|Gribbin|1997|pp=95–96}} At Los Alamos, which was isolated for security, Feynman amused himself by investigating the combination locks on the cabinets and desks of physicists. He often found that they left the lock combinations on the factory settings, wrote the combinations down, or used easily guessable combinations like dates.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=188–189}} He found one cabinet's combination by trying numbers he thought a physicist might use (it proved to be 27–18–28 after the base of [[natural logarithm]]s, ''[[e (number)|e]]'' = 2.71828 ...), and found that the three filing cabinets where a colleague kept research notes all had the same combination. He left notes in the cabinets as a prank, spooking his colleague, [[Frederic de Hoffmann]], into thinking a spy had gained access to them.{{sfn|Feynman|1985|pp=147–149}} Feynman's $380 monthly salary was about half the amount needed for his modest living expenses and Arline's medical bills, and they were forced to dip into her $3,300 in savings.{{sfn|Gribbin|Gribbin|1997|p=99}} On weekends he borrowed a car from his friend [[Klaus Fuchs]] to drive to Albuquerque to see Arline. {{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=184}}{{sfn|Gribbin|Gribbin|1997|p=96}} Asked who at Los Alamos was most likely to be a spy, Fuchs mentioned Feynman's safe cracking and frequent trips to Albuquerque;{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=184}} Fuchs himself later confessed to spying for the [[Soviet Union]].{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=296–297}} The [[FBI]] would compile a bulky file on Feynman,<ref>{{cite web |author1=Michael Morisy |author2=Robert Hovden |url=https://www.muckrock.com/news/archives/2012/jun/06/feynman-files-professors-invitation-past-iron-curt/ |title=The Feynman Files: The professor's invitation past the Iron Curtain |editor=J Pat Brown |date=June 6, 2012 |website=MuckRock |access-date=July 13, 2016 }}</ref> particularly in view of Feynman's [[Q clearance]].<ref>{{cite web|author=SAC (Special Agent in Charge ), Washington Field Office)|url=http://www.documentcloud.org/documents/366921-responsive-documents.html#p324|title=FOI Request FBI files on Richard Feynman Requested by Michael Morisy on March 12, 2012 for the Federal Bureau of Investigation of United States of America and fulfilled on March 21, 2012 |date=1955-01-26|access-date=2020-03-25|page=1(324)}}{{quote|text=In a report by SA{{redacted content|foia-exceptions=(b)(7)(c)}} at [[Albuquerque, New Mexico]], dated 3/14/50 captioned{{redacted content|foia-exceptions=(b)(7)(c)}}-R,"<!-- -R," with unbalanced double quote in original --> there is set forth the fact that RICHARD PHILLIPS [F]EYNMAN was employed at Los Alamos, New Mexico, on the atomic bomb project in the Theoretical Physics Division from April 1, 1943, to October 27, 1945. This individual, according to this report, was granted Atomic Energy Commission security clearance rating of '''Q clearance''' on 5/25/49.}}</ref> [[File:Feynman and Oppenheimer at Los Alamos.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|Feynman (center) with [[Robert Oppenheimer]] (immediately right of Feynman) at a [[Los Alamos Laboratory]] social function during the [[Manhattan Project]]]] Informed that Arline was dying, Feynman drove to Albuquerque and sat with her for hours until she died on June 16, 1945.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=200–202}} He then immersed himself in work on the project and was present at the [[Trinity nuclear test]]. Feynman claimed to be the only person to see the explosion without the very dark glasses or welder's lenses provided, reasoning that it was safe to look through a truck windshield, as it would screen out the harmful [[ultraviolet]] radiation. The immense brightness of the explosion made him duck to the truck's floor, where he saw a temporary "purple splotch" [[afterimage]].{{sfn|Feynman|1985|p=134}} == Cornell == Feynman nominally held an appointment at the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] as an assistant professor of physics, but was on unpaid leave during his involvement in the Manhattan Project.{{sfn|Gribbin|Gribbin|1997|p=101}} In 1945, he received a letter from Dean Mark Ingraham of the College of Letters and Science requesting his return to the university to teach in the coming academic year. His appointment was not extended when he did not commit to returning. In a talk given there several years later, Feynman quipped, "It's great to be back at the only university that ever had the good sense to fire me."<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00016-003-0142-6|title=Physics at the University of Wisconsin: A History |author=Robert H. March|journal=Physics in Perspective|volume=5|issue=2|pages=130–149|bibcode = 2003PhP.....5..130M |year=2003 |s2cid=120730710 }}</ref> As early as October 30, 1943, Bethe had written to the chairman of the physics department of his university, [[Cornell University|Cornell]], to recommend that Feynman be hired. On February 28, 1944, this was endorsed by [[Robert Bacher]],{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=161–164, 178–179}} also from Cornell,{{sfn|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|pp=47–52}} and one of the most senior scientists at Los Alamos.{{sfn|Hoddeson|Henriksen|Meade|Westfall|1993|p=316}} This led to an offer being made in August 1944, which Feynman accepted. Oppenheimer had also hoped to recruit Feynman to the University of California, but the head of the physics department, [[Raymond T. Birge]], was reluctant. He made Feynman an offer in May 1945, but Feynman turned it down. Cornell matched its salary offer of $3,900 per annum.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=161–164, 178–179}} Feynman became one of the first of the Los Alamos Laboratory's group leaders to depart, leaving for [[Ithaca, New York]], in October 1945.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=205}} Because Feynman was no longer working at the Los Alamos Laboratory, he was no longer exempt from [[the draft]]. At his induction, physical Army psychiatrists diagnosed Feynman as suffering from a mental illness and the Army gave him a [[Selective Service System#Classifications|4-F exemption]] on mental grounds.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=225}}{{sfn|Feynman|1985|pp=162–163}} His father died suddenly on October 8, 1946, and Feynman suffered from depression.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=171–174}} On October 17, 1946, he wrote a letter to Arline, expressing his deep love and heartbreak. The letter was sealed and only opened after his death. "Please excuse my not mailing this," the letter concluded, "but I don't know your new address."<ref>{{cite web |title=I love my wife. My wife is dead |date=February 15, 2012 |url=http://www.lettersofnote.com/2012/02/i-love-my-wife-my-wife-is-dead.html |website=Letters of Note |access-date=April 23, 2013}}</ref> Unable to focus on research problems, Feynman began tackling physics problems, not for utility, but for self-satisfaction.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=171–174}} One of these involved analyzing the physics of a twirling, [[Nutation|nutating]] disk as it is moving through the air, inspired by an incident in the cafeteria at Cornell when someone tossed a dinner plate in the air.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=227–229}} He read the work of Sir [[William Rowan Hamilton]] on [[quaternions]], and attempted unsuccessfully to use them to formulate a [[special relativity|relativistic]] theory of electrons. His work during this period, which used equations of rotation to express various spinning speeds, ultimately proved important to his Nobel Prize–winning work, yet because he felt burned out and had turned his attention to less immediately practical problems, he was surprised by the offers of professorships from other renowned universities, including the [[Institute for Advanced Study]], the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and the [[University of California, Berkeley]].{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=171–174}} [[File:Feynman EP Annihilation.svg|thumb|left|[[Feynman diagram]] of electron/positron annihilation]] Feynman was not the only frustrated theoretical physicist in the early post-war years. [[Quantum electrodynamics]] suffered from [[infinity|infinite]] integrals in [[perturbation theory]]. These were clear mathematical flaws in the theory, which Feynman and Wheeler had unsuccessfully attempted to work around.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=213–214}} "Theoreticians", noted [[Murray Gell-Mann]], "were in disgrace."{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=232}} In June 1947, leading American physicists met at the [[Shelter Island Conference]]. For Feynman, it was his "first big conference with big men&nbsp;... I had never gone to one like this one in peacetime."{{sfn|Mehra|1994|p=217}} The problems plaguing quantum electrodynamics were discussed, but the theoreticians were completely overshadowed by the achievements of the experimentalists, who reported the discovery of the [[Lamb shift]], the measurement of the [[magnetic moment]] of the electron, and [[Robert Marshak]]'s [[pi-meson|two-meson]] hypothesis.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=218–219}} Bethe took the lead from the work of [[Hans Kramers]], and derived a [[renormalization|renormalized]] non-relativistic quantum equation for the Lamb shift. The next step was to create a relativistic version. Feynman thought that he could do this, but when he went back to Bethe with his solution, it did not converge.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=223–228}} Feynman carefully worked through the problem again, applying the path integral formulation that he had used in his thesis. Like Bethe, he made the integral finite by applying a cut-off term. The result corresponded to Bethe's version.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=229–234}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1965/feynman-lecture.html |title=Richard P. Feynman – Nobel Lecture: The Development of the Space–Time View of Quantum Electrodynamics |date=December 11, 1965 |publisher=Nobel Foundation |access-date=July 14, 2016 }}</ref> Feynman presented his work to his peers at the [[Pocono Conference]] in 1948. It did not go well. [[Julian Schwinger]] gave a long presentation of his work in quantum electrodynamics, and Feynman then offered his version, entitled "Alternative Formulation of Quantum Electrodynamics". The unfamiliar [[Feynman diagrams]], used for the first time, puzzled the audience. Feynman failed to get his point across, and [[Paul Dirac]], Edward Teller and Niels Bohr all raised objections.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=246–248}}{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=256–258}} To [[Freeman Dyson]], one thing at least was clear: [[Shin'ichirō Tomonaga]], Schwinger and Feynman understood what they were talking about even if no one else did, but had not published anything. He was convinced that Feynman's formulation was easier to understand, and ultimately managed to convince Oppenheimer that this was the case.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=267–269}} Dyson published a paper in 1949, which added new rules to Feynman's that told how to implement renormalization.<ref>{{cite journal|first=F. J. |last=Dyson |author-link=Freeman Dyson |title= The radiation theories of Tomonaga, Schwinger, and Feynman |journal=[[Physical Review]] |volume=75|pages=486–502|year=1949|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.75.486|issue=3|bibcode = 1949PhRv...75..486D |doi-access=free }}</ref> Feynman was prompted to publish his ideas in the ''Physical Review'' in a series of papers over three years.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=271–272}} His 1948 papers on "A Relativistic Cut-Off for Classical Electrodynamics" attempted to explain what he had been unable to get across at Pocono.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=251–252}} His 1949 paper on "The Theory of Positrons" addressed the [[Schrödinger equation]] and [[Dirac equation]], and introduced what is now called the [[Feynman propagator]].{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=271–272}} Finally, in papers on the "Mathematical Formulation of the Quantum Theory of Electromagnetic Interaction" in 1950 and "An Operator Calculus Having Applications in Quantum Electrodynamics" in 1951, he developed the mathematical basis of his ideas, derived familiar formulae and advanced new ones.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=301–302}} While papers by others initially cited Schwinger, papers citing Feynman and employing Feynman diagrams appeared in 1950, and soon became prevalent.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=275–276}} Students learned and used the powerful new tool that Feynman had created. Computer programs were later written to compute Feynman diagrams, providing a tool of unprecedented power. It is possible to write such programs because the Feynman diagrams constitute a [[formal language]] with a [[formal grammar]]. [[Marc Kac]] provided the formal proofs of the summation under history, showing that the [[parabolic partial differential equation]] can be re-expressed as a sum under different histories (that is, an expectation operator), what is now known as the [[Feynman–Kac formula]], the use of which extends beyond physics to many applications of [[stochastic processes]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kac|first=Mark|title=On Distributions of Certain Wiener Functionals|journal=Transactions of the American Mathematical Society|author-link=Mark Kac|volume=65|issue=1|pages=1–13|jstor=1990512|year=1949|doi=10.2307/1990512|doi-access=free}}</ref> To Schwinger, however, the Feynman diagram was "pedagogy, not physics".{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=276}} By 1949, Feynman was becoming restless at Cornell. He never settled into a particular house or apartment, living in guest houses or student residences, or with married friends "until these arrangements became sexually volatile".{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=277}} He liked to date undergraduates, hire prostitutes, and sleep with the wives of friends.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=287}} He was not fond of Ithaca's cold winter weather, and pined for a warmer climate.{{sfn|Feynman|1985|pp=232–233}} Above all, at Cornell, he was always in the shadow of Hans Bethe.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=277}} Despite all of this, Feynman looked back favorably on the [[Telluride House]], where he resided for a large period of his Cornell career. In an interview, he described the House as "a group of boys that have been specially selected because of their scholarship, because of their cleverness or whatever it is, to be given free board and lodging and so on, because of their brains". He enjoyed the house's convenience and said that "it's there that I did the fundamental work" for which he won the [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]].<ref>{{cite interview |url=https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/5020-3 |title=Richard Feynman – Session III |date=March 5, 1966 |author-link=Richard Feynman |interviewer=Charles Weiner |publisher=American Institute of Physics |last1=Feynman |first1=Richard |access-date=June 19, 2016}}</ref>{{sfn|Feynman|2005|p=191}} == Caltech years == === Personal and political life === Feynman spent several weeks in [[Rio de Janeiro]] in July 1949.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|p=333}} That year, the Soviet Union [[Soviet atomic bomb project|detonated]] its [[RDS-1|first atomic bomb]], generating concerns about espionage.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=278}} Fuchs was arrested as a Soviet spy in 1950 and the FBI questioned Bethe about Feynman's loyalty.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=296}} Physicist [[David Bohm]] was arrested on December 4, 1950{{sfn|Peat|1997|p=98}} and emigrated to Brazil in October 1951.{{sfn|Peat|1997|p=120}} Because of the fears of a nuclear war, a girlfriend told Feynman that he should also consider moving to South America.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=278}} He had a sabbatical coming for 1951–52,{{sfn|Mehra|1994|p=331}} and elected to spend it in Brazil, where he gave courses at the [[Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas]]. In Brazil, Feynman was impressed with ''[[samba]]'' music, and learned to play the ''frigideira'',{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=283–286}} a metal percussion instrument based on a frying pan ("{{ill|frigideira|pt}}.")<ref>{{cite book |last=Beck|first=John H |date=2013 |title=Encyclopedia of Percussion |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_Percussion/8U83AgAAQBAJ |quote=Frigideira: This metal instrument is a one-egg frying pan played with a metal rod...The left hand holds the instrument and muffles the inside with the middle finger. The right hand plays the rod on the outside (or bottom)..performing a rapid tremolo as the left wrist rotates the instrument.|publisher=Taylor & Francis|page= 155|isbn= 9781317747680}}</ref> He was an enthusiastic amateur player of bongo and conga drums and often played them in the pit orchestra in musicals.{{sfn|Feynman|1985|pp=322–327}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://calisphere.org/item/ca3d38126be7f368422ee9a6e0870667/|title=Calisphere: Richard Feynman playing the conga drum [full photo]|website=Calisphere|language=en|access-date=May 13, 2019}}</ref> He spent time in Rio with his friend Bohm but Bohm could not convince Feynman to investigate Bohm's ideas on physics.{{sfn|Peat|1997|pp=125–127}} Feynman did not return to Cornell. Bacher, who had been instrumental in bringing Feynman to Cornell, had lured him to the [[California Institute of Technology]] (Caltech). Part of the deal was that he could spend his first year on sabbatical in Brazil.{{sfn|Feynman|1985|pp=233–236}}{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=277}} He had become smitten by Mary Louise Bell from [[Neodesha, Kansas]]. They had met in a cafeteria in Cornell, where she had studied the history of Mexican art and textiles. She later followed him to Caltech, where he gave a lecture. While he was in Brazil, she taught classes on the history of furniture and interiors at [[Michigan State University]]. He proposed to her by mail from Rio de Janeiro, and they married in [[Boise, Idaho]], on June 28, 1952, shortly after he returned. They frequently quarreled and she was frightened by his violent temper. Their politics were different; although he registered and voted as a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]], she was more conservative, and her opinion on the 1954 [[Oppenheimer security hearing]] ("Where there's smoke there's fire") offended him. They separated on May 20, 1956. An interlocutory decree of divorce was entered on June 19, 1956, on the grounds of "extreme cruelty". The divorce became final on May 5, 1958.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=291–294}}<ref name="Who smeared Richard Feynman?">{{cite web |url=http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2014/07/11/smeared-richard-feynman/ |title=Who smeared Richard Feynman? |first=Alex |last=Wellerstein |date=July 11, 2014 |access-date=July 15, 2016 |publisher=Restricted Data }}</ref> {{quote box|width=30%|He begins working calculus problems in his head as soon as he awakens. He did calculus while driving in his car, while sitting in the living room, and while lying in bed at night.|Mary Louise Bell, divorce complaint{{sfn|Krauss|2011|p=168}} }} In the wake of the 1957 [[Sputnik crisis]], the U.S. government's interest in science rose for a time. Feynman was considered for a seat on the [[President's Science Advisory Committee]], but was not appointed. At this time, the FBI interviewed a woman close to Feynman, possibly his ex-wife Bell, who sent a written statement to [[J. Edgar Hoover]] on August 8, 1958:{{quote|I do not know—but I believe that Richard Feynman is either a Communist or very strongly pro-Communist—and as such is a very definite security risk. This man is, in my opinion, an extremely complex and dangerous person, a very dangerous person to have in a position of public trust&nbsp;... In matters of intrigue Richard Feynman is, I believe immensely clever—indeed a genius—and he is, I further believe, completely ruthless, unhampered by morals, ethics, or religion—and will stop at absolutely nothing to achieve his ends.<ref name="Who smeared Richard Feynman?" /> }} The U.S. government nevertheless sent Feynman to [[Geneva]] for the September 1958 [[Atoms for Peace]] Conference. On the beach at [[Lake Geneva]], he met Gweneth Howarth, who was from [[Ripponden]], [[Yorkshire]], and working in Switzerland as an ''au pair''. Feynman's love life had been turbulent since his divorce; his previous girlfriend had walked off with his [[Albert Einstein Award]] medal and, on the advice of an earlier girlfriend, had feigned pregnancy and extorted him into paying for an [[abortion]], then used the money to buy furniture. When Feynman found that Howarth was being paid only $25 a month, he offered her $20 a week to be his live-in maid. Feynman knew that this sort of behavior was illegal under the [[Mann Act]], so he had a friend, [[Matthew Sands]], act as her sponsor. Howarth pointed out that she already had two boyfriends, but decided to take Feynman up on his offer, and arrived in [[Altadena, California]], in June 1959. She made a point of dating other men, but Feynman proposed in early 1960. They were married on September 24, 1960, at the [[The Langham Huntington, Pasadena|Huntington Hotel]] in [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]]. They had a son, Carl, in 1962, and adopted a daughter, Michelle, in 1968.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=339–347}}{{sfn|Gribbin|Gribbin|1997|pp=151–153}} Besides their home in Altadena, they had a beach house in [[Baja California]], purchased with the money from Feynman's Nobel Prize.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://justalifestory.wordpress.com/2008/11/18/a-weekend-at-richard-feynmans-house/ |title=A Weekend at Richard Feynman's House |publisher=It's Just A Life Story |access-date=July 15, 2016 |date=November 19, 2008 }}</ref> Feynman tried [[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]] and [[ketamine]] at [[John C. Lilly|John Lilly]]'s [[Isolation tank|sensory deprivation]] tanks, as a way of studying consciousness.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=405–406}}{{sfn|Feynman|1985|pp=330–337}} He gave up alcohol when he began to show vague, early signs of [[alcoholism]], as he did not want to do anything that could damage his brain. Despite his curiosity about [[hallucination]]s, he was reluctant to experiment with [[LSD]].{{sfn|Feynman|1985|pp=204–205}} There had been protests over his alleged [[sexism]] in 1968, and again in 1972, but there is no evidence he discriminated against women.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=409–412}}<ref name="1999Tech">{{Cite web |url=http://tech.mit.edu/V119/N10/col10lipman.10c.html |title=Finding the Real Feynman |last=Lipman |first=Julia C |work=The Tech |quote=His career took place in a different era than ours, an era when Feynman, as a Caltech professor, didn’t have to think twice about asking a student to pose as a nude model for him. But even then, there were some who felt that his sexism contributed to a chilly environment for women in science. Protesters passing out leaflets referring to him as “Richard P. (for Pig) Feynman” objected to his use of sexist stories about “lady drivers” and clueless women in his lectures. [...] there's no evidence to suggest that he supported or practiced any kind of discrimination in science.|date=March 5, 1999 |access-date=October 9, 2019}}</ref> Feynman recalled protesters entering a hall and picketing a lecture he was about to make in San Francisco, calling him a "sexist pig". Seeing the protesters, as Feynman later recalled the incident, he addressed institutional sexism by saying that "women do indeed suffer prejudice and discrimination in physics".{{sfn|Feynman|1988a|p=74}} === Physics === At Caltech, Feynman investigated the physics of the [[superfluid]]ity of supercooled [[liquid helium]], where helium seems to display a complete lack of [[viscosity]] when flowing. Feynman provided a quantum-mechanical explanation for the Soviet physicist [[Lev Landau]]'s theory of superfluidity.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=299–303}} Applying the Schrödinger equation to the question showed that the superfluid was displaying quantum mechanical behavior observable on a macroscopic scale. This helped with the problem of [[superconductivity]], but the solution eluded Feynman.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pines|first1=David|title=Richard Feynman and Condensed Matter Physics|journal=Physics Today|volume=42|page=61|year=1989|doi=10.1063/1.881194|bibcode = 1989PhT....42b..61P|issue=2 }}</ref> It was solved with the [[BCS theory]] of superconductivity, proposed by [[John Bardeen]], [[Leon Neil Cooper]], and [[John Robert Schrieffer]] in 1957.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=299–303}} [[File:RichardFeynman-PaineMansionWoods1984 copyrightTamikoThiel bw.jpg|thumb|left|Richard Feynman at the [[Robert Treat Paine Estate]] in [[Waltham, Massachusetts]], in 1984]] Feynman, inspired by a desire to quantize the [[Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory]] of electrodynamics, laid the groundwork for the [[path integral formulation]] and [[Feynman diagram]]s.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=92–101}} With Murray Gell-Mann, Feynman developed a model of [[weak decay]], which showed that the current coupling in the process is a combination of vector and axial currents (an example of weak decay is the decay of a neutron into an electron, a proton, and an [[antineutrino]]). Although [[E. C. George Sudarshan]] and Robert Marshak developed the theory nearly simultaneously, Feynman's collaboration with [[Murray Gell-Mann]] was seen as seminal because the [[weak interaction]] was neatly described by the vector and axial currents. It thus combined the 1933 [[beta decay]] theory of [[Enrico Fermi]] with an explanation of [[parity violation]].{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=330–339}} Feynman attempted an explanation, called the [[parton model]], of the [[strong interaction]]s governing nucleon scattering. The parton model emerged as a complement to the [[quark model]] developed by Gell-Mann. The relationship between the two models was murky; Gell-Mann referred to Feynman's partons derisively as "put-ons". In the mid-1960s, physicists believed that quarks were just a bookkeeping device for symmetry numbers, not real particles; the statistics of the [[omega-minus particle]], if it were interpreted as three identical strange quarks bound together, seemed impossible if quarks were real.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=387–396}}{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=507–514}} The [[SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory]] [[deep inelastic scattering]] experiments of the late 1960s showed that [[nucleon]]s (protons and neutrons) contained point-like particles that scattered electrons. It was natural to identify these with quarks, but Feynman's parton model attempted to interpret the experimental data in a way that did not introduce additional hypotheses. For example, the data showed that some 45% of the energy momentum was carried by electrically neutral particles in the nucleon. These electrically neutral particles are now seen to be the [[gluon]]s that carry the forces between the quarks, and their three-valued color quantum number solves the omega-minus problem. Feynman did not dispute the quark model; for example, when the fifth quark was discovered in 1977, Feynman immediately pointed out to his students that the discovery implied the existence of a sixth quark, which was discovered in the decade after his death.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=387–396}}{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=516–519}} After the success of quantum electrodynamics, Feynman turned to [[quantum gravity]]. By analogy with the photon, which has spin 1, he investigated the consequences of a free massless spin 2 field and derived the [[Einstein field equation]] of general relativity, but little more. The computational device that Feynman discovered then for gravity, "ghosts", which are "particles" in the interior of his diagrams that have the "wrong" connection between spin and statistics, have proved invaluable in explaining the quantum particle behavior of the [[Yang–Mills theory|Yang–Mills theories]], for example, [[quantum chromodynamics]] and the [[electro-weak]] theory.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=505–507}} He did work on all four of the forces of nature: [[electromagnetic force|electromagnetic]], the [[weak force]], the [[strong force]] and gravity. John and Mary Gribbin state in their book on Feynman that "Nobody else has made such influential contributions to the investigation of all four of the interactions".{{sfn|Gribbin|Gribbin|p=189|1997}} Partly as a way to bring publicity to progress in physics, Feynman offered $1,000 prizes for two of his challenges in nanotechnology; one was claimed by [[William McLellan (nanotechnology)|William McLellan]] and the other by [[Tom Newman (scientist)|Tom Newman]].{{sfn|Gribbin|Gribbin|1997|p=170}} Feynman was also interested in the relationship between physics and computation. He was also one of the first scientists to conceive the possibility of [[quantum computer]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xootic.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/west.pdf |title=The Quantum Computer |last=West |first=Jacob |date=June 2003 |access-date=September 20, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315071736/http://www.xootic.nl/magazine/jul-2003/west.pdf |archive-date=March 15, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{sfn|Deutsch|1992|pp=57–61}} In the 1980s he began to spend his summers working at [[Thinking Machines Corporation]], helping to build some of the first parallel supercomputers and considering the construction of [[quantum computers]].{{sfn|Hillis|1989|pp=78–83}}<ref>{{cite journal | last = Feynman | first = Richard | author-link = Richard Feynman | title = Simulating Physics with Computers | journal = International Journal of Theoretical Physics | volume = 21 | pages = 467–488 | year = 1982 | doi = 10.1007/BF02650179 |bibcode = 1982IJTP...21..467F | issue = 6–7 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.45.9310 | s2cid = 124545445 }}</ref> In 1984–1986, he developed a variational method for the approximate calculation of path integrals, which has led to a powerful method of converting divergent perturbation expansions into convergent strong-coupling expansions ([[variational perturbation theory]]) and, as a consequence, to the most accurate determination<ref>{{cite journal |title=Specific heat of liquid helium in zero gravity very near the lambda point |last=Kleinert |first=Hagen |journal=Physical Review D |volume=60 |page=085001 |year=1999 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.60.085001 |arxiv=hep-th/9812197 |bibcode=1999PhRvD..60h5001K |author-link=Hagen Kleinert |issue=8}}</ref> of [[critical exponent]]s measured in satellite experiments.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Specific heat of liquid helium in zero gravity very near the lambda point |last1=Lipa |first=J. A. |journal=Physical Review B |volume=68 |page=174518 |year=2003 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevB.68.174518 |last2=Nissen |first2=J. |last3=Stricker |first3=D. |last4=Swanson |first4=D. |last5=Chui |first5=T. |arxiv=cond-mat/0310163 |bibcode=2003PhRvB..68q4518L |issue=17|s2cid=55646571 }}</ref> At Caltech, he once chalked "What I cannot create I do not understand" on his blackboard.<ref name="Way2017">{{cite journal|last1=Way|first1=Michael|title=What I cannot create, I do not understand|journal=Journal of Cell Science|volume=130|issue=18|year=2017|pages=2941–2942|issn=1477-9137|doi=10.1242/jcs.209791}}</ref> === Pedagogy === In the early 1960s, Feynman acceded to a request to "spruce up" the teaching of undergraduates at Caltech. After three years devoted to the task, he produced a series of lectures that later became ''[[The Feynman Lectures on Physics]]''. He wanted a picture of a drumhead sprinkled with powder to show the modes of vibration at the beginning of the book. Concerned over the connections to drugs and rock and roll that could be made from the image, the publishers changed the cover to plain red, though they included a picture of him playing drums in the foreword. ''The Feynman Lectures on Physics'' occupied two physicists, [[Robert B. Leighton]] and Matthew Sands, as part-time co-authors for several years. Even though the books were not adopted by universities as textbooks, they continue to sell well because they provide a deep understanding of physics.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=357–364}} Many of his lectures and miscellaneous talks were turned into other books, including ''The Character of Physical Law'', ''[[QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter]]'', ''Statistical Mechanics'', ''Lectures on Gravitation'', and the ''Feynman Lectures on Computation''.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=12–13}} Feynman wrote about his experiences teaching physics undergraduates in Brazil. The students' studying habits and the Portuguese language textbooks were so devoid of any context or applications for their information that, in Feynman's opinion, the students were not learning physics at all. At the end of the year, Feynman was invited to give a lecture on his teaching experiences, and he agreed to do so, provided he could speak frankly, which he did.{{sfn|Feynman|1985|pp=241–246}}{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=336–341}} Feynman opposed [[rote learning]] or unthinking memorization and other teaching methods that emphasized form over function. ''Clear thinking'' and ''clear presentation'' were fundamental prerequisites for his attention. It could be perilous even to approach him unprepared, and he did not forget fools and pretenders.{{sfn|Bethe|1991|p=241}} In 1964, he served on the California State Curriculum Commission, which was responsible for approving textbooks to be used by schools in California. He was not impressed with what he found.{{sfn|Feynman|1985|pp=288–302}} Many of the mathematics texts covered subjects of use only to pure mathematicians as part of the "[[New Math]]". Elementary students were taught about [[Set (mathematics)|sets]], but:{{quote|It will perhaps surprise most people who have studied these textbooks to discover that the symbol ∪ or ∩ representing union and intersection of sets and the special use of the brackets { } and so forth, all the elaborate notation for sets that is given in these books, almost never appear in any writings in theoretical physics, in engineering, in business arithmetic, computer design, or other places where mathematics is being used. I see no need or reason for this all to be explained or to be taught in school. It is not a useful way to express one's self. It is not a cogent and simple way. It is claimed to be precise, but precise for what purpose?<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://calteches.library.caltech.edu/2362/1/feynman.pdf |title=New Textbooks for the "New" Mathematics |last=Feynman|first= Richard P.|journal=Engineering and Science|issn=0013-7812|volume=28|issue=6|pages=9–15|publisher= [[California Institute of Technology]] |date=March 1965 |access-date= June 15, 2016}}</ref>}} In April 1966, Feynman delivered an address to the [[National Science Teachers Association]], in which he suggested how students could be made to think like scientists, be open-minded, curious, and especially, to doubt. In the course of the lecture, he gave a definition of science, which he said came about by several stages. The evolution of intelligent life on planet Earth—creatures such as cats that play and learn from experience. The evolution of humans, who came to use language to pass knowledge from one individual to the next, so that the knowledge was not lost when an individual died. Unfortunately, incorrect knowledge could be passed down as well as correct knowledge, so another step was needed. [[Galileo]] and others started doubting the truth of what was passed down and to investigate ''[[ab initio]]'', from experience, what the true situation was—this was science.{{sfn|Feynman|1999|pp=184–185}} In 1974, Feynman delivered the Caltech commencement address on the topic of ''[[cargo cult science]]'', which has the semblance of science, but is only [[pseudoscience]] due to a lack of "a kind of scientific integrity, a principle of scientific thought that corresponds to a kind of utter honesty" on the part of the scientist. He instructed the graduating class that "The first principle is that you must not fool yourself—and you are the easiest person to fool. So you have to be very careful about that. After you've not fooled yourself, it's easy not to fool other scientists. You just have to be honest in a conventional way after that."<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://calteches.library.caltech.edu/51/2/CargoCult.pdf |title=Cargo Cult Science|last=Feynman|first= Richard P.|journal=Engineering and Science|issn=0013-7812|volume=37|issue=7|pages=10–13|publisher= [[California Institute of Technology]] |date= June 1974 |access-date= June 15, 2016}}</ref> Feynman served as doctoral advisor to 31 students.<ref name="31students">{{cite journal |last=Van Kortryk |first=T |title=The doctoral students of Richard Feynman |journal=Physics Today |date=May 2017 |doi=10.1063/PT.5.9100 |arxiv=1801.04574 |s2cid=119088526 }}</ref> In 1977, Feynman supported his colleague [[Jenijoy La Belle]], who had been hired as Caltech's first female professor in 1969, and filed suit with the [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]] after she was refused tenure in 1974. The EEOC ruled against Caltech in 1977, adding that La Belle had been paid less than male colleagues. La Belle finally received tenure in 1979. Many of Feynman's colleagues were surprised that he took her side, but he had gotten to know La Belle and liked and admired her.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=409–412}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oralhistories.library.caltech.edu/175/1/La_Belle,_J._OHO.pdf |title=Interview with Jenijoy La Belle |publisher=Caltech |access-date= June 15, 2016}}</ref> === ''Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!'' === {{Main|Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!}} In the 1960s, Feynman began thinking of writing an autobiography, and he began granting interviews to historians. In the 1980s, working with [[Ralph Leighton]] (Robert Leighton's son), he recorded chapters on [[tape recorder|audio tape]] that Ralph transcribed. The book was published in 1985 as ''Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!'' and became a best-seller.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=409–411}} Gell-Mann was upset by Feynman's account in the book of the weak interaction work, and threatened to sue, resulting in a correction being inserted in later editions.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=411}} This incident was just the latest provocation in decades of bad feeling between the two scientists. Gell-Mann often expressed frustration at the attention Feynman received;<ref>{{cite news |author-link=George Johnson (writer) |first=George |last=Johnson |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2000/07/the-jaguar-and-the-fox/378264/ |title=The Jaguar and the Fox |newspaper=[[The Atlantic]] |date= July 2001 |access-date=July 16, 2016 }}</ref> he remarked: "[Feynman] was a great scientist, but he spent a great deal of his effort generating anecdotes about himself."<ref name="Gell-Mann">{{youtube|rnMsgxIIQEE|title=Murray Gell-Mann talks about Richard Feynman in January 12, 2012 }}</ref> Feynman has been criticized for a chapter in the book entitled "You Just ''Ask'' Them", where he describes how he learned to seduce women at a bar he went to in the summer of 1946. A mentor taught him to ask a woman if she would sleep with him before buying her anything. He describes seeing women at the bar as "bitches" in his thoughts, and tells a story of how he told a woman named Ann that she was "worse than a whore" after Ann persuaded him to buy her sandwiches by telling him he could eat them at her place, but then, after he bought them, saying they actually couldn't eat together because another man was coming over. Later on that same evening, Ann returned to the bar to take Feynman to her place.{{sfn|Feynman|1985|pp=184–191}}{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=287–291, 341–345}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://qz.com/quartzy/1394785/replacing-names-in-science-after-metoo/ |title=In the aftermath of #MeToo, which names in science should be replaced? |first=Jane C. |last=Hu |publisher=Quartzy |date=September 19, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/09/opinion/urry-women-science/index.html |title=Male scientists, don't harass young female colleagues |first=Meg |last=Urry |publisher=CNN |date=August 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/10/lawrence-krauss-sexual-misconduct-me-too-arizona-state/573844/ |title=Lawrence Krauss and the Legacy of Harassment in Science: The theoretical physicist isn't the first celebrity scientist to be accused of sexual misconduct, but he is the first to face consequences |first=Marina |last=Koren |magazine=The Atlantic |date=October 24, 2018}}</ref> Feynman states at the end of the chapter that this behaviour wasn't typical of him: "So it worked even with an ordinary girl! But no matter how effective the lesson was, I never really used it after that. I didn't enjoy doing it that way. But it was interesting to know that things worked much differently from how I was brought up."{{sfn|Feynman|1985|p=191}} === ''Challenger'' disaster === {{Main|Space Shuttle Challenger disaster}} [[File:Challenger explosion.jpg|thumb|The 1986 [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' disaster]]]] Feynman played an [[Rogers Commission#Role of Richard Feynman|important role]] on the Presidential [[Rogers Commission]], which investigated the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|''Challenger'' disaster]]. He had been reluctant to participate, but was persuaded by advice from his wife.<ref name="1988_Orings">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1063/1.881143 |last=Feynman |first=Richard P |title=An Outsider's Inside View of the Challenger Inquiry |journal=Physics Today |year=1988b |volume= 41|issue=1 |pages=26–37 |quote=Gweneth... explained how she thought I would make a unique contribution—in a way that I am modest enough not to describe. Nevertheless, I believed what she said. So I said, 'OK. I'll accept.' |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/51304/1/challenger.pdf }}</ref> Feynman clashed several times with commission chairman [[William P. Rogers]]. During a break in one hearing, Rogers told commission member [[Neil Armstrong]], "Feynman is becoming a pain in the ass."{{sfn|Gleick|1992|p=423}} During a televised hearing, Feynman demonstrated that the material used in the shuttle's [[O-ring]]s became less resilient in cold weather by compressing a sample of the material in a clamp and immersing it in ice-cold water.<ref>{{Harvnb|Feynman|1988a|p=151}}</ref> The commission ultimately determined that the disaster was caused by the primary O-ring not properly sealing in unusually cold weather at [[Cape Canaveral]].<ref name="NYT_Feynman">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/09/21/reviews/feynman-obit.html |title=Richard Feynman Dead at 69; Leading Theoretical Physicist |accessdate=April 23, 2013 |author=James Gleick |date=February 17, 1988 |newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref> Feynman devoted the latter half of his book ''[[What Do You Care What Other People Think?]]'' to his experience on the Rogers Commission, straying from his usual convention of brief, light-hearted anecdotes to deliver an extended and sober narrative. Feynman's account reveals a disconnect between [[NASA]]'s engineers and executives that was far more striking than he expected. His interviews of NASA's high-ranking managers revealed startling misunderstandings of elementary concepts. For instance, NASA managers claimed that there was a 1 in 100,000 chance of a catastrophic failure aboard the Shuttle, but Feynman discovered that NASA's own engineers estimated the chance of a catastrophe at closer to 1 in 200. He concluded that NASA management's estimate of the reliability of the Space Shuttle was unrealistic, and he was particularly angered that NASA used it to recruit [[Christa McAuliffe]] into the Teacher-in-Space program. He warned in his appendix to the commission's report (which was included only after he threatened not to sign the report), "For a successful technology, reality must take precedence over public relations, for nature cannot be fooled."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/rogersrep/v2appf.htm |title=Appendix F – Personal observations on the reliability of the Shuttle |author=Richard Feynman |publisher=Kennedy Space Center |access-date=September 11, 2017}}</ref> === Recognition and awards === The first public recognition of Feynman's work came in 1954, when [[Lewis Strauss]], the chairman of the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission]] (AEC) notified him that he had won the [[Albert Einstein Award]], which was worth $15,000 and came with a gold medal. Because of Strauss's actions in stripping Oppenheimer of his security clearance, Feynman was reluctant to accept the award, but [[Isidor Isaac Rabi]] cautioned him: "You should never turn a man's generosity as a sword against him. Any virtue that a man has, even if he has many vices, should not be used as a tool against him."{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=295–296}} It was followed by the AEC's [[Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award]] in 1962.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://science.energy.gov/lawrence/award-laureates/ |title=Award Laureates |publisher=United States Department of Energy |access-date=July 15, 2016 }}</ref> Schwinger, Tomonaga and Feynman shared the 1965 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] "for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1965/ |title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1965 |publisher=The Nobel Foundation |access-date=July 15, 2016}}</ref> He was elected a [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1965#Foreign Members|Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1965]],<ref name="nobelbio" /><ref name=frs>{{Cite journal | last1 = Mehra | first1 = J.| doi = 10.1098/rsbm.2002.0007 | title = Richard Phillips Feynman 11 May 1918&nbsp;– 15 February 1988 | journal = [[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]] | volume = 48 | pages = 97–128 | year = 2002 | s2cid = 62221940}}</ref> received the [[Oersted Medal]] in 1972,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aapt.org/programs/awards/oersted.cfm |title=The Oersted Medal |publisher=[[American Association of Physics Teachers]] |access-date=July 15, 2016}}</ref> and the [[National Medal of Science]] in 1979.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nsf.gov/od/nms/recip_details.jsp?recip_id=126 |title=The President's National Medal of Science: Recipient Details |publisher=[[National Science Foundation]] |access-date=July 15, 2016}}</ref> He was elected a [[Member of the National Academy of Sciences]], but ultimately resigned<ref name="elitist">{{cite journal|url=https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/SPT/v8n3/toumey.html|publisher=[[Virginia Tech]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190319115654/https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/SPT/v8n3/toumey.html|archive-date=March 19, 2019|first=Chris |last=Toumey|year=2005|title=SPT v8n3 – Reviews – Feynman Unprocessed|issue=3|journal=Techné: Research in Philosophy and Technology|volume=8|doi=10.5840/techne20058314}}</ref><ref name=f1>{{Cite book|title=Perfectly reasonable deviations from the beaten track : the letters of Richard P. Feynman|date=2005|publisher=Basic Books|first1=Richard|last1=Feynman|last2=Feynman|first2= Michelle|isbn=0738206369|location=New York|oclc=57393623}}</ref> and is no longer listed by them.{{sfn|Feynman|1999|p=13}} == Death == In 1978, Feynman sought medical treatment for abdominal pains and was diagnosed with [[liposarcoma]], a rare form of cancer. Surgeons removed a tumor the size of a football that had crushed one kidney and his spleen. Further operations were performed in October 1986 and October 1987.{{sfn|Mehra|1994|pp=600–605}} He was again hospitalized at the [[UCLA Medical Center]] on February 3, 1988. A ruptured [[duodenal ulcer]] caused [[kidney failure]], and he declined to undergo the [[dialysis]] that might have prolonged his life for a few months. Watched over by his wife Gweneth, sister Joan, and cousin [[Frances Lewine]], he died on February 15, 1988, at age 69.{{sfn|Gleick|1992|pp=437–438}} When Feynman was nearing death, he asked his friend and colleague [[Danny Hillis]] why Hillis appeared so sad. Hillis replied that he thought Feynman was going to die soon. Feynman said that this sometimes bothered him, too, adding, when you get to be as old as he was, and have told so many stories to so many people, even when he was dead he would not be completely gone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://longnow.org/essays/richard-feynman-connection-machine/ |title=Video of Danny Hillis Speaking about his conversation with Feynman about his dying |publisher=The Long Now |access-date=December 13, 2016}}</ref> Near the end of his life, Feynman attempted to visit the [[Tuvan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (ASSR) in Russia, a dream thwarted by Cold War bureaucratic issues. The letter from the Soviet government authorizing the trip was not received until the day after he died. His daughter Michelle later made the journey.{{sfn|Gribbin|Gribbin|1997|pp=257–258}} His burial was at Mountain View Cemetery and Mausoleum in [[Altadena]], [[California]].<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |title=History Exhumed Via Computer Chip| url= http://articles.latimes.com/2005/jun/05/local/me-then5|date=June 5, 2005 |first=Cecilia |last=Rasmussen |access-date=January 30, 2017}}</ref> His [[last words]] were: "I'd hate to die twice. It's so boring."{{sfn|Gribbin|Gribbin|1997|pp=257–258}} == Popular legacy == {{See also|List of things named after Richard Feynman}} Aspects of Feynman's life have been portrayed in various media. Feynman was portrayed by [[Matthew Broderick]] in the 1996 biopic ''[[Infinity (film)|Infinity]]''.<ref>{{cite news|last=Holden|first=Stephen|title=A Man, a Woman and an Atomic Bomb|date=October 4, 1996|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9B0CE0D9153FF937A35753C1A960958260|access-date=June 18, 2017}}</ref> Actor [[Alan Alda]] commissioned playwright Peter Parnell to write a two-character play about a fictional day in the life of Feynman set two years before Feynman's death. The play, ''[[QED (play)|QED]]'', premiered at the [[Mark Taper Forum]] in Los Angeles in 2001 and was later presented at the [[Vivian Beaumont Theater]] on Broadway, with both presentations starring Alda as Richard Feynman.<ref>{{ibdb title|title=QED|id=13181}}</ref> [[Real Time Opera]] premiered its opera ''Feynman'' at the Norfolk (CT) Chamber Music Festival in June 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.realtimeopera.org/productions |title=Real Time Opera productions |publisher=[[Real Time Opera]] |access-date=January 30, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928180551/http://www.realtimeopera.org/productions |archive-date=September 28, 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2011, Feynman was the subject of a biographical [[graphic novel]] entitled simply ''Feynman'', written by [[Jim Ottaviani]] and illustrated by [[Leland Myrick]].{{sfn|Ottaviani|Myrick|2011}} In 2013, Feynman's role on the Rogers Commission was dramatised by the [[BBC]] in ''[[The Challenger Disaster|The Challenger]]'' (US title: ''The Challenger Disaster''), with [[William Hurt]] playing Feynman.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2013/the-challenger.html|publisher=BBC |title=The Challenger |access-date=March 18, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00zstkn|publisher=BBC Two |title=The Challenger |access-date=March 19, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=September 26, 2012 |first=Lesley |last=Goldberg |title=William Hurt to Star in Science Channel/BBC Challenger Docu-Drama (Exclusive) |access-date=January 30, 2017|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live-feed/william-hurt-science-channel-challenger-374576}}</ref> Feynman is commemorated in various ways. On May 4, 2005, the [[United States Postal Service]] issued the "American Scientists" commemorative set of four 37-cent self-adhesive stamps in several configurations. The scientists depicted were Richard Feynman, [[John von Neumann]], [[Barbara McClintock]], and [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]]. Feynman's stamp, sepia-toned, features a photograph of a 30-something Feynman and eight small Feynman diagrams.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.feynmangroup.com/who-is-feynman |title=Who is Richard Feynman? |publisher=feynmangroup.com |access-date=December 1, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105041708/http://www.feynmangroup.com/company/whos_feynman.cfm |archive-date=November 5, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The stamps were designed by [[Victor Stabin]] under the artistic direction of Carl T. Herrman.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=beyondtheperf.com |url=http://www.beyondtheperf.com/content/american-scientists-series-slideshow#4 |title=American Scientists Series Slideshow |access-date=December 1, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523141839/http://www.beyondtheperf.com/content/american-scientists-series-slideshow |archive-date=May 23, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Stamps MC">{{cite news|last=Lauer-Williams|first=Kathy|title=Carbon artist designs stamps|url=http://articles.mcall.com/2008-03-07/features/4010341_1_stamps-postal-service-richard-feynman|access-date=4 February 2012|newspaper=Morning Call|date=7 March 2008}}</ref><ref name=Newswire>{{cite web|title=USPS Press Release|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/celebrating-more-than-a-century-of-science-on-us-postage-stamps-54285652.html|work=USPS Press Release|publisher=PR Newswire|access-date=5 February 2012}}</ref> The main building for the Computing Division at [[Fermilab]] is named the "Feynman Computing Center" in his honor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fnal.gov/openhouse/computing/computing.html|title=Fermilab Open House: Computing Division|publisher=fnal.gov|access-date=December 1, 2012}}</ref> A photograph of Richard Feynman giving a lecture was part of the 1997 poster series commissioned by [[Apple Inc.]] for their "[[Think Different]]" advertising campaign.<ref>[http://techie-buzz.com/science/happy-birthday-feynman.html Great Mind Richard Feynman Birthday | Manhattan Project and Challenger Disaster | Quantum Electrodynamics | Biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527162821/http://techie-buzz.com/science/happy-birthday-feynman.html |date=May 27, 2011 }}. Techie-buzz.com (May 10, 2011). Retrieved on May 6, 2012.</ref> [[Sheldon Cooper]], a fictional theoretical physicist from the television series ''[[The Big Bang Theory]]'', is a Feynman fan who has emulated him on various occasions, once by playing the bongo drums.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.lamag.com/culturefiles/big-bang-theory-sheldons-top-5-moments/ |title=Big Bang Theory: Sheldon's Top 5 Moments |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Magazine]] |date=March 13, 2013 |first=Anthony |last=Miller |access-date=January 31, 2017}}</ref> On January 27, 2016, [[Bill Gates]] wrote an article "The Best Teacher I Never Had" describing Feynman's talents as a teacher which inspired Gates to create [[Project Tuva]] to place the videos of Feynman's [[Messenger Lectures]], ''[[The Character of Physical Law]]'', on a website for public viewing. In 2015 Gates made a video on why he thought Feynman was special. The video was made for the 50th anniversary of Feynman's 1965 Nobel Prize, in response to Caltech's request for thoughts on Feynman.<ref>{{cite web|title = The Best Teacher I Never Had|url = https://www.gatesnotes.com/Education/The-Best-Teacher-I-Never-Had|access-date = January 29, 2016|first = Bill|last = Gates |author-link=Bill Gates |publisher=The Gates Notes}}</ref> At [[CERN]], home of the [[Large Hadron Collider]], a street on the [[Meyrin]] site is named "[[List of streets at CERN|Route Feynman]]" after the physicist. == Bibliography == === Selected scientific works === * {{cite book|first=Richard P.|last=Feynman|title=The Principle of Least Action in Quantum Mechanics|year=1942|series=PhD Dissertation, Princeton University|publisher=World Scientific (with title "Feynman's Thesis: a New Approach to Quantum Theory")|publication-date=2005|editor=Laurie M. Brown|isbn=978-981-256-380-4|url=https://archive.org/details/feynmansthesisne00feyn_0|ref=none}} * {{cite journal|author1-link=John A. Wheeler|first1=John A.|last1=Wheeler|first2=Richard P.|last2= Feynman|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/11095/|title= Interaction with the Absorber as the Mechanism of Radiation|journal= [[Reviews of Modern Physics]]|volume= 17|pages=157–181|year=1945|doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.17.157|bibcode = 1945RvMP...17..157W|issue=2–3 |ref=none}} * {{cite book|first=Richard P.|last=Feynman|osti=4341197|title=A Theorem and its Application to Finite Tampers|publisher=[[Los Alamos National Laboratory|Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory]], [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission]]|year=1946|doi=10.2172/4341197|url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1016199/|ref=none}} * {{cite book|first1=Richard P.|last1=Feynman|author2-link=Thomas A. Welton|first2=T. A.|last2= Welton|osti=4381097|title=Neutron Diffusion in a Space Lattice of Fissionable and Absorbing Materials|publisher=[[Los Alamos National Laboratory|Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory]], [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission]]|year=1946|doi=10.2172/4381097|url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1018687/|ref=none}} * {{cite book|first1=Richard P.|last1=Feynman|author2-link=Nicholas Metropolis|last2=Metropolis|first2= N.|author3-link=Edward Teller|first3=E.|last3= Teller|osti=4417654|title=Equations of State of Elements Based on the Generalized Fermi-Thomas Theory|publisher=[[Los Alamos National Laboratory|Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory]], [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission]]|year=1947|doi=10.2172/4417654|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3519/1/FEYpr49a.pdf|ref=none}} * {{cite journal|first=Richard P.|last=Feynman|title=Space-time approach to non-relativistic quantum mechanics|journal= [[Reviews of Modern Physics]]|volume= 20|pages= 367–387|year=1948|doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.20.367|bibcode = 1948RvMP...20..367F|issue=2|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/47756/ |ref=none}} * {{cite journal |last=Feynman |first= Richard P. |title=A Relativistic Cut-Off for Classical Electrodynamics |journal=[[Physical Review]] |volume=74 |issue=8 |pages= 939–946 |year=1948 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.74.939 |bibcode=1948PhRv...74..939F|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3516/|ref=none}} * {{cite journal|first=Richard P.|last=Feynman|title=Relativistic Cut-Off for Quantum Electrodynamics|journal=[[Physical Review]]|volume= 74|pages=1430–1438|year=1948|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.74.1430|bibcode = 1948PhRv...74.1430F|issue=10 |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3517/|ref=none}} * {{cite journal|author1-link=John A. Wheeler|first1=John A.|last1=Wheeler|first2=Richard P.|last2= Feynman|title= Classical Electrodynamics in Terms of Direct Interparticle Action|journal= [[Reviews of Modern Physics]]|volume= 21|pages=425–433|year=1949|doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.21.425|bibcode = 1949RvMP...21..425W|issue=3 |url=http://cds.cern.ch/record/1062647/files/RevModPhys.21.425.pdf|ref=none|doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal|first=Richard P.|last=Feynman|title= The theory of positrons|journal= [[Physical Review]]|volume= 76|pages= 749–759|year=1949|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.76.749|bibcode = 1949PhRv...76..749F|issue=6|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3520/ |ref=none}} * {{cite journal|first=Richard P.|last=Feynman|title=Space-Time Approach to Quantum Electrodynamic|journal=[[Physical Review]]|volume= 76|pages=769–789|year=1949|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.76.769|bibcode = 1949PhRv...76..769F|issue=6|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3523/ |doi-access=free|ref=none}} * {{cite journal|first=Richard P.|last=Feynman|title=Mathematical formulation of the quantum theory of electromagnetic interaction|journal= [[Physical Review]]|volume= 80|pages= 440–457|year=1950|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.80.440|bibcode = 1950PhRv...80..440F|issue=3 |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3528/|ref=none}} * {{cite journal|first=Richard P.|last=Feynman|title= An Operator Calculus Having Applications in Quantum Electrodynamics|journal= [[Physical Review]]|volume= 84|issue=1|pages=108–128|year=1951|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.84.108|bibcode = 1951PhRv...84..108F|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3530/ |ref=none}} * {{cite journal|first=Richard P.|last=Feynman|title= The λ-Transition in Liquid Helium|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3536/|journal= [[Physical Review]]|volume= 90|pages=1116–1117|year=1953|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.90.1116.2|bibcode = 1953PhRv...90.1116F|issue=6 |ref=none}} * {{cite book|first1=Richard P.|last1=Feynman|author2-link=Frederic de Hoffmann|last2=de Hoffmann|first2= F.|author3-link=Robert Serber|last3=Serber|first3=R.|osti=4354998|title=Dispersion of the Neutron Emission in U235 Fission|publisher=[[Los Alamos National Laboratory|Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory]], [[United States Atomic Energy Commission|Atomic Energy Commission]]|year=1955|doi=10.2172/4354998|url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1026050/|ref=none}} * {{cite journal|pmid = 17774518|last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|publication-date=February 24, 1956|year=1956|title=Science and the Open Channel |volume=123|issue=3191|periodical=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|page=307|doi = 10.1126/science.123.3191.307|bibcode = 1956Sci...123..307F |doi-access=free|ref=none}} * {{cite journal|first1=M.|last1=Cohen| first2=Richard P.|last2= Feynman|title=Theory of Inelastic Scattering of Cold Neutrons from Liquid Helium|journal= [[Physical Review]]|volume= 107|issue=1|pages=13–24|year=1957|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.107.13|bibcode = 1957PhRv..107...13C|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/6093/ |ref=none}} * {{cite journal|first1=Richard P.|last1=Feynman|first2= F. L.|last2= Vernon|first3= R. W.|last3=Hellwarth|title=Geometric representation of the Schrödinger equation for solving maser equations|journal=J. Appl. Phys.|year=1957|doi=10.1063/1.1722572|volume=28|issue=1|page=49|bibcode = 1957JAP....28...49F |url=https://www.chem.uci.edu/~unicorn/249/Handouts/FeynmanPaper.pdf|ref=none}} * {{cite web|last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|url=http://www.its.caltech.edu/~feynman/plenty.html|title=Plenty of Room at the Bottom|publisher=Presentation to American Physical Society|year=1959|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211190050/http://www.its.caltech.edu/~feynman/plenty.html|archive-date=February 11, 2010|ref=none}} * {{cite journal|pmid = 13889186|last1=Edgar|first1=R. S.|last2=Feynman|first2=Richard P.|last3=Klein|first3=S.|last4=Lielausis|first4=I. |publication-date=February 1962|year=1962|title=Mapping experiments with r mutants of bacteriophage T4D |volume=47|periodical=[[Genetics (journal)|Genetics]]|pages=179–86|last5 = Steinberg|first5 = C. M. |pmc = 1210321|issue = 2|ref=none}} * {{cite journal |last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|url=http://profizgl.lu.lv/pluginfile.php/32795/mod_resource/content/0/WHAT_IS_SCIENCE_by_R.Feynman_1966.pdf |access-date=December 15, 2016 |title=What is Science? |orig-year=1966 |journal=The Physics Teacher |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=313–320|year=1968 |doi=10.1119/1.2351388|bibcode=1969PhTea...7..313F |ref=none}} Lecture presented at the fifteenth annual meeting of the National Science Teachers Association, 1966 in New York City * {{cite journal|pmid = 17791121|last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|publication-date=August 12, 1966|year=1966 |title=The Development of the Space-Time View of Quantum Electrodynamics |volume=153|issue=3737|periodical=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|pages=699–708|doi = 10.1126/science.153.3737.699|bibcode = 1966Sci...153..699F |ref=none}} * {{cite journal|pmid = 17778830|last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|publication-date=February 15, 1974|year=1974a|title=Structure of the proton |volume=183|issue=4125|periodical=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|pages=601–610|doi = 10.1126/science.183.4125.601|bibcode = 1974Sci...183..601F |jstor=1737688|publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science|s2cid=9938227|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/01919ebda9c72476a24111f7caa09fe5811a1720|ref=none}} * {{cite journal| url=http://calteches.library.caltech.edu/51/02/CargoCult.pdf|title = Cargo Cult Science| last = Feynman |first=Richard P. |journal= Engineering and Science|volume=37|issue=7| year= 1974|ref=none}} * {{cite journal|pmid = 9897894|last1=Feynman|first1=Richard P.|last2=Kleinert|first2=Hagen|author2-link=Hagen Kleinert|publication-date=December 1986|year=1986|title=Effective classical partition functions|volume=34|issue=6|periodical=Physical Review A|pages=5080–5084|doi = 10.1103/PhysRevA.34.5080|bibcode = 1986PhRvA..34.5080F |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/3553/1/FEYpra86.pdf|ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Feynman |first=Richard P. |url=https://history.nasa.gov/rogersrep/v2appf.htm |title=Rogers Commission Report, Volume 2 Appendix F – Personal Observations on Reliability of Shuttle |year=1986 |publisher=[[NASA]] |ref=none}} * {{cite book|title=Selected Papers of Richard Feynman: With Commentary|url=https://archive.org/details/selectedpapersof0000feyn|url-access=registration|first=Richard P.|last=Feynman|editor=Laurie M. Brown|editor-link=Laurie Brown (physicist)|publisher= World Scientific|series=20th Century Physics|year= 2000|isbn=978-981-02-4131-5|ref=none}} === Textbooks and lecture notes === [[File:The Feynman Lectures on Physics.jpg|thumb|right|The Feynman Lectures on Physics including Feynman's Tips on Physics: The Definitive and Extended Edition (2nd edition, 2005)]] ''[[The Feynman Lectures on Physics]]'' is perhaps his most accessible work for anyone with an interest in physics, compiled from lectures to [[Caltech]] undergraduates in 1961–1964. As news of the lectures' lucidity grew, professional physicists and graduate students began to drop in to listen. Co-authors [[Robert B. Leighton]] and [[Matthew Sands]], colleagues of Feynman, edited and illustrated them into book form. The work has endured and is useful to this day. {{anchor|Feynman's Tips}} They were edited and supplemented in 2005 with ''Feynman's Tips on Physics: A Problem-Solving Supplement to the Feynman Lectures on Physics'' by Michael Gottlieb and [[Ralph Leighton]] (Robert Leighton's son), with support from [[Kip Thorne]] and other physicists. * {{cite book |last1=Feynman |first1=Richard P. |last2=Leighton |first2=Robert B. |last3=Sands |first3=Matthew |title=The Feynman Lectures on Physics: The Definitive and Extended Edition |orig-year=1970 |year=2005 |publisher=Addison Wesley |edition=2nd |isbn=0-8053-9045-6 |ref=none}} Includes ''Feynman's Tips on Physics'' (with Michael Gottlieb and Ralph Leighton), which includes four previously unreleased lectures on problem solving, exercises by Robert Leighton and [[Rochus Eugen Vogt|Rochus Vogt]], and a historical essay by Matthew Sands. Three volumes; originally published as separate volumes in 1964 and 1966. * {{cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|title=Theory of Fundamental Processes|publisher= Addison Wesley|year= 1961|isbn= 0-8053-2507-7|ref=none}} * {{cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|title=Quantum Electrodynamics|publisher= Addison Wesley|year= 1962|isbn= 978-0-8053-2501-0|ref=none}} * {{cite book|last1=Feynman|first1=Richard P.|first2=Albert|last2=Hibbs|title=Quantum Mechanics and Path Integrals|publisher=McGraw Hill|year=1965|isbn=0-07-020650-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/quantummechanics0000feyn|ref=none}} * {{cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|title=The Character of Physical Law: The 1964 Messenger Lectures|publisher=MIT Press|year=1967|isbn=0-262-56003-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/characterofphysi0000feyn_u5j3|ref=none}} * {{cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|title=Statistical Mechanics: A Set of Lectures|url=https://archive.org/details/statisticalmecha00rich|url-access=registration|publisher=[[W. A. Benjamin]]|year= 1972|place=Reading, Mass|isbn=0-8053-2509-3|ref=none}} * {{cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|title=QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter|publisher= Princeton University Press|year=1985b|isbn= 0-691-02417-0|title-link=QED (book)|ref=none}} * {{cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|title=Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics: The 1986 Dirac Memorial Lectures|url=https://archive.org/details/elementarypartic0000feyn|url-access=registration|publisher= Cambridge University Press|year= 1987|isbn=0-521-34000-4|ref=none}} * {{cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|title=Lectures on Gravitation|url=https://archive.org/details/feynmanlectureso0000feyn_g4q1|url-access=registration|editor=Brian Hatfield|publisher= Addison Wesley Longman|year= 1995|isbn= 0-201-62734-5|ref=none}} * {{cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|year= 1997|edition= Vintage Press|isbn= 0-09-973621-7|publisher=Vintage|location=London|title-link=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|ref=none}} * {{cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard P.|title=Feynman Lectures on Computation|editor=[[Tony Hey]] and Robin W. Allen|publisher= Perseus Books Group|year= 2000|isbn=0-7382-0296-7|ref=none}} === Popular works === * {{cite book |first=Richard P. |last=Feynman |title=Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!: Adventures of a Curious Character|editor=Ralph Leighton |publisher=[[W. W. Norton]] & Co |year=1985 |isbn=0-393-01921-7| oclc=10925248}} * {{cite book |first=Richard P. |last=Feynman |title=What Do You Care What Other People Think?: Further Adventures of a Curious Character |editor=Ralph Leighton |publisher=W. W. Norton & Co |year=1988a |isbn=0-393-02659-0}} * ''No Ordinary Genius: The Illustrated Richard Feynman'', ed. Christopher Sykes, W. W. Norton & Co, 1996, {{ISBN|0-393-31393-X}}. * ''Six Easy Pieces: Essentials of Physics Explained by Its Most Brilliant Teacher'', Perseus Books, 1994, {{ISBN|0-201-40955-0}}. Listed by the Board of Directors of the [[Modern Library]] as one of the 100 best nonfiction books.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.modernlibrary.com/top-100/100-best-nonfiction/ |title=100 Best Nonfiction |publisher=Modern Library |access-date=November 12, 2016}}</ref> * ''Six Not So Easy Pieces: Einstein's Relativity, Symmetry and Space-Time'', Addison Wesley, 1997, {{ISBN|0-201-15026-3}}. * {{cite book |first=Richard P. |last=Feynman |title=The Meaning of It All: Thoughts of a Citizen Scientist |publisher=Perseus Publishing |year=1998 |location=Reading, Massachusetts |isbn=0-7382-0166-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/meaningofitallth0000feyn |ref=none}} * {{cite book |first=Richard P. |last=Feynman |title=The Pleasure of Finding Things Out: The Best Short Works of Richard P. Feynman |url=https://archive.org/details/pleasureoffindin00feyn |url-access=registration |editor-first=Jeffrey |editor-last=Robbins |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Perseus Books |year=1999 |isbn=0-7382-0108-1}} * ''Classic Feynman: All the Adventures of a Curious Character'', edited by Ralph Leighton, W. W. Norton & Co, 2005, {{ISBN|0-393-06132-9}}. Chronologically reordered omnibus volume of ''[[Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!]]'' and ''[[What Do You Care What Other People Think?]]'', with a bundled CD containing one of Feynman's signature lectures. === Audio and video recordings === * ''Safecracker Suite'' (a collection of drum pieces interspersed with Feynman telling anecdotes) * ''Los Alamos From Below'' (audio, talk given by Feynman at Santa Barbara on February 6, 1975) * ''Six Easy Pieces'' (original lectures upon which the book is based) * ''Six Not So Easy Pieces'' (original lectures upon which the book is based) * The Feynman Lectures on Physics: The Complete Audio Collection * Samples of Feynman's drumming, chanting and speech are included in the songs "Tuva Groove (Bolur Daa-Bol, Bolbas Daa-Bol)" and "Kargyraa Rap (Dürgen Chugaa)" on the album ''Back Tuva Future, The Adventure Continues'' by [[Kongar-ool Ondar]]. The [[hidden track]] on this album also includes excerpts from lectures without musical background. * The [[Messenger Lectures]], given at Cornell in 1964, in which he explains basic topics in physics. Available on [[Project Tuva]] free.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cornell.edu/video/playlist/richard-feynman-messenger-lectures |title=Richard Feynman Messenger Lectures (1964) |publisher=Cornell University |access-date=November 12, 2016}}</ref> (See also the book ''[[The Character of Physical Law]]'') * Take the world from another point of view [videorecording] / with Richard Feynman; Films for the Hu (1972) * [http://www.vega.org.uk/video/subseries/8 The Douglas Robb Memorial Lectures], four public lectures of which the four chapters of the book ''[[QED (book)|QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter]]'' are transcripts. (1979) * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p018dvyg The Pleasure of Finding Things Out], ''BBC Horizon'' episode (1981) (not to be confused with the later published book of the same title) * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/feynman/ Richard Feynman: Fun to Imagine Collection], BBC Archive of six short films of Feynman talking in a style that is accessible to all about the physics behind common to all experiences. (1983) * ''Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics'' (1986) * ''Tiny Machines: The Feynman Talk on Nanotechnology'' (video, 1984) * ''Computers From the Inside Out'' (video) * Quantum Mechanical View of Reality: Workshop at Esalen (video, 1983) * Idiosyncratic Thinking Workshop (video, 1985) * Bits and Pieces—From ''Richard's Life and Times'' (video, 1988) * Strangeness Minus Three (video, ''BBC Horizon'' 1964) * ''No Ordinary Genius'' (video, Cristopher Sykes Documentary) * Richard Feynman—''[[List of Nova episodes#Season 21: 1993–1994|The Best Mind Since Einstein]]'' (video, Documentary) * The Motion of Planets Around the Sun (audio, sometimes titled "Feynman's Lost Lecture") * Nature of Matter (audio)<ref>{{cite web|last1=Feynman|first1=Richard |title=Richard Feynman's Poignant Letter to His Departed Wife Arline: Watch Actor Oscar Isaac Read It Live Onstage |url=http://www.openculture.com/2016/11/richard-feynmans-poignant-letter-to-his-departed-wife-arline-read-by-oscar-isaac.html|website=OpenCulture|access-date=December 2, 2016}}</ref> == Notes == {{Reflist|refs= <ref name=nytimes2020-09-10> {{cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/10/science/joan-feynman-dead.html | title = Joan Feynman, Who Shined Light on the Aurora Borealis, Dies at 93 | work = [[The New York Times]] | author = Katharine Q. “Kit” Seelye | date = 2020-09-10 | access-date = 2020-09-13 | quote = She graduated from Oberlin in 1948, the year she married Richard Hirshberg, also a scientist, whom she had met there; they separated in 1974 and later divorced. She married Mr. Ruzmaikin in 1992. In addition to him and her son Charles, she is survived by another son, Matthew; a daughter, Susan Hirshberg; and four grandchildren. Her brother died in 1988 at 69. }} </ref> }} {{reflist|group=Note}} == References == * {{cite book |title=IBM's Early Computers |last1=Bashe |first1=Charles J. |last2=Johnson |first2=Lyle R. |last3=Palmer |first3=John H. |last4=Pugh |first4=Emerson W. |year=1986 |publisher=MIT |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=0-262-02225-7 |oclc=12021988 |url=https://archive.org/details/ibmsearlycompute00bash }} * {{cite book |last=Bethe |first=Hans A. |author-link=Hans Bethe |title=The Road from Los Alamos |series=Masters of Modern Physics |volume=2 |location=New York |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=1991 |isbn=0-671-74012-1 |oclc=24734608 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/roadfromlosalamo00beth }} * {{cite book |last=Brian |first=Denis |title=The Voice of Genius: Conversations with Nobel Scientists and Other Luminaries |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Perseus |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7382-0447-5 |oclc=751292707}} * {{cite book |last=Carroll |first=John Bissell |author-link=John Bissell Carroll |editor-last=Sternberg |editor-first=Robert J. |editor-link=Robert J. Sternberg |editor-last2=Ben-Zeev |editor-first2=Talia |title=The Nature of Mathematical Thinking |year=1996 |location= Mahwah, New Jersey |publisher=L. Erlbaum Associates |isbn=978-0-8058-1799-7|oclc=34513302}} * {{cite journal |last=Chown |first=Marcus |author-link=Marcus Chown |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zhjOPdmyz1wC&pg=PA34 |title=Strangeness and Charm |journal=[[New Scientist]] |pages=34 |issn= 0262-4079 |date=May 2, 1985}} * {{cite book |last=Close |first=Frank |author-link=Frank Close |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Po1ijAJEvq0C&pg=PA58 |title=The Infinity Puzzle: The Personalities, Politics, and Extraordinary Science Behind the Higgs Boson |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-959350-7 |oclc=840427493}} * {{cite journal |last=Deutsch |first=David |author-link=David Deutsch|title=Quantum computation |journal=[[Physics World]] |issn=0953-8585 |date=June 1, 1992 |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=57–61 |doi=10.1088/2058-7058/5/6/38}} * {{cite book |last=Friedman |first=Jerome |author-link=Jerome Isaac Friedman |contribution=A Student's View of Fermi |title=Fermi Remembered|editor-first=James W. |editor-last=Cronin |editor-link=James Cronin |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2004 |isbn= 978-0-226-12111-6 |oclc=835230762}} * {{cite journal |last=Galison |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Galison |journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=391–434 |year=1998 |title=Feynman's War: Modelling Weapons, Modelling Nature |doi=10.1016/S1355-2198(98)00013-6 |bibcode=1998SHPMP..29..391G }} * {{cite book |last=Gleick |first=James |author-link=James Gleick |title=Genius: The Life and Science of Richard Feynman |publisher=[[Pantheon Books]] |year=1992 |isbn=0-679-40836-3|oclc=243743850}} * {{cite book |last1=Gribbin |first1=John |author-link1=John Gribbin |last2=Gribbin |first2=Mary |title=Richard Feynman: A Life in Science |publisher=Dutton |year=1997 |isbn=0-525-94124-X |oclc=636838499 |url=https://archive.org/details/richardfeynmanli00grib }} * {{cite book |last=Henderson |first=Harry |title=Richard Feynman: Quarks, Bombs, and Bongos |year=2011 |publisher=Chelsea House Publishers |isbn=978-0-8160-6176-1 |oclc=751114185}} * {{cite journal |last=Hillis |first=W. Daniel |author-link=W. Daniel Hillis |url=http://www.kurzweilai.net/articles/art0504.html?printable=1 |title=Richard Feynman and The Connection Machine |journal=[[Physics Today]] |volume=42 |issue=2 |page=78 |publisher=Institute of Physics |year=1989 |doi=10.1063/1.881196 |bibcode=1989PhT....42b..78H |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090728072503/http://www.kurzweilai.net/articles/art0504.html?printable=1 |archive-date=July 28, 2009}} * {{cite book |last1=Hoddeson |first1=Lillian|author-link=Lillian Hoddeson|first2=Paul W. |last2=Henriksen |first3=Roger A. |last3=Meade |first4=Catherine L. |last4=Westfall|author4-link= Catherine Westfall|title=Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945 |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1993 |isbn=0-521-44132-3 |oclc=26764320 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/criticalassembly0000unse }} * {{cite book |last=Krauss |first=Lawrence M. |author-link=Lawrence M. Krauss |year=2011 |title=Quantum Man: Richard Feynman's Life in Science |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-06471-1|oclc=601108916 |title-link=Quantum Man: Richard Feynman's Life in Science }} * {{cite book |last=Mehra |first=Jagdish|author-link=Jagdish Mehra |year=1994 |title=The Beat of a Different Drum: The Life and Science of Richard Feynman |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-19-853948-7|oclc=28507544}} * {{cite book |last= Oakes |first= Elizabeth H.|title= Encyclopedia of World Scientists, Revised edition |location=New York |publisher=Facts on File |date=2007 |isbn= 978-1-4381-1882-6|oclc=466364697}} * {{cite book |last=Peat |first=David |title=Infinite Potential: the Life and Times of David Bohm |location=Reading, Massachusetts |publisher=Addison Wesley |year=1997 |isbn=0-201-40635-7 |oclc=1014736570 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780201406351 }} * {{cite book |last=Schweber |first=Silvan S. |author-link=Silvan S. Schweber |title=QED and the Men Who Made It: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga |url=https://archive.org/details/qedmenwhomadeitd0000schw |url-access=registration |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-691-03327-7 |oclc=918243948}} * {{cite book |last=Sykes |first=Christopher |title=No Ordinary Genius: the Illustrated Richard Feynman |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton |year=1994 |isbn=0-393-03621-9 |oclc=924553844 |url=https://archive.org/details/noordinarygenius00feyn }} == Further reading == === Articles === * ''Physics Today'', [[American Institute of Physics]] magazine, February 1989 Issue. (Vol. 42, No. 2.) Special Feynman memorial issue containing non-technical articles on Feynman's life and work in physics. * {{cite journal |url=http://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechES:51.1.Feynman |title=Mr. Feynman Goes to Washington |first=Richard P. |last=Feynman |editor=Ralph Leighton |journal=Engineering and Science |volume=51 |issue=1 |publisher=Caltech |year=1987 |pages=6–22 |issn=0013-7812|ref=none}} === Books === * Brown, Laurie M. and [[Rigden, John S.]] (editors) (1993) ''Most of the Good Stuff: Memories of Richard Feynman'' Simon & Schuster, New York, {{ISBN|0-88318-870-8}}. Commentary by Joan Feynman, [[John Archibald Wheeler|John Wheeler]], [[Hans Bethe]], [[Julian Schwinger]], [[Murray Gell-Mann]], [[Daniel Hillis]], [[David Goodstein]], [[Freeman Dyson]], and Laurie Brown * [[Freeman Dyson|Dyson, Freeman]] (1979) ''Disturbing the Universe''. Harper and Row. {{ISBN|0-06-011108-9}}. Dyson's autobiography. The chapters "A Scientific Apprenticeship" and "A Ride to Albuquerque" describe his impressions of Feynman in the period 1947–48 when Dyson was a graduate student at Cornell * {{cite book |editor-last=Feynman |editor-first=Michelle |title=Perfectly Reasonable Deviations from the Beaten Track: The Letters of Richard P. Feynman |publisher=Basic Books |year=2005 |isbn=0-7382-0636-9}} (Published in the UK under the title: ''Don't You Have Time to Think?'', with additional commentary by Michelle Feynman, [[Allen Lane]], 2005, {{ISBN|0-7139-9847-4}}.) * {{cite book |last=Krauss |first=Lawrence M. |author-link=Lawrence M. Krauss |year=2011 |title=Quantum Man: Richard Feynman's Life in Science |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-06471-1|oclc=601108916 |title-link=Quantum Man: Richard Feynman's Life in Science |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Leighton |first=Ralph |title=Tuva or Bust!: Richard Feynman's last journey |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=2000 |isbn=0-393-32069-3 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=LeVine |first=Harry |year=2009 |title=The Great Explainer: The Story of Richard Feynman |publisher=Morgan Reynolds |location=Greensboro, North Carolina |isbn=978-1-59935-113-1 |ref=none}}; for high school readers * {{cite book |last=Milburn |first=Gerald J. |author-link=Gerard J. Milburn |year=1998 |title=The Feynman Processor: Quantum Entanglement and the Computing Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/feynmanprocessor0000milb_f8a8 |url-access=registration |location=Reading, Massachusetts |publisher=Perseus Books |isbn=0-7382-0173-1 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Mlodinow |first=Leonard |author-link=Leonard Mlodinow |year=2003 |title=Feynman's Rainbow: A Search For Beauty In Physics And In Life |url=https://archive.org/details/feynmansrainbow00leon |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Warner Books |isbn=0-446-69251-4 |ref=none}} Published in the United Kingdom as ''Some Time With Feynman'' * {{cite book |last1=Ottaviani |first1=Jim |author-link=Jim Ottaviani |first2=Leland |last2=Myrick |author-link2=Leland Myrick |title=Feynman: The Graphic Novel |location=New York |publisher=First Second |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-59643-259-8 |oclc=664838951}} === Films and plays === * ''[[Infinity (film)|Infinity]]'', a movie both directed by and starring [[Matthew Broderick]] as Feynman, depicting his love affair with his first wife and ending with the Trinity test. 1996. * [[Peter Parnell|Parnell, Peter]] (2002), ''[[QED (play)|QED]]'', Applause Books, {{ISBN|978-1-55783-592-5}} (play). * Whittell, Crispin (2006), ''Clever Dick'', Oberon Books, (play) * "The Quest for Tannu Tuva", with Richard Feynman and Ralph Leighton. 1987, ''BBC Horizon'' and ''PBS Nova'' (entitled "Last Journey of a Genius"). * ''No Ordinary Genius'', a two-part documentary about Feynman's life and work, with contributions from colleagues, friends and family. 1993, ''BBC Horizon'' and ''PBS Nova'' (a one-hour version, under the title ''The Best Mind Since Einstein'') (2 × 50-minute films) * ''[[The Challenger Disaster|The Challenger]]'' (2013), a BBC Two factual drama starring [[William Hurt]], tells the story of American Nobel prize-winning physicist Richard Feynman's determination to reveal the truth behind the 1986 [[space shuttle Challenger disaster|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' disaster]]. * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p016d3kk ''The Fantastic Mr Feynman'']. One hour documentary. 2013, BBC TV. * ''How We Built The Bomb'', a docudrama about The Manhattan Project at Los Alamos. Feynman is played by actor/playwright [[Michael Raver]]. 2015. == External links == {{external media| float = right| video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?186829-1/perfectly-reasonable-deviations-beaten-track Presentation by Michelle Feynman on ''Perfectly Reasonable Deviations from the Beaten Track'', May 9, 2005], [[C-SPAN]]}} * {{official website|http://www.richardfeynman.com/}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061026042610/http://www.feynmanlectures.info/ The Feynman Lectures on Physics Website] by Michael Gottlieb, assisted by Rudolf Pfeiffer and Caltech * [http://www.feynman.com/ Feynman Online!], a site dedicated to Feynman * [http://longnow.org/essays/richard-feynman-and-connection-machine/ Feynman and the Connection Machine] * [http://www.aip.org/history-programs/oral-histories/search?search_api_views_fulltext=Richard+Feynman Richard Feynman (Interviews, with and about)] – [[American Institute of Physics]] * {{Nobelprize}} including the Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1965 ''The Development of the Space–Time View of Quantum Electrodynamics'' {{Subject bar | portal1=Nuclear technology | portal2=Physics | portal3=History of science | portal4=United States | portal5=Biography | portal6=World War II | commons=y | q=y | d=Q39246 }} {{Richard Feynman}} {{Nobel Prize in Physics Laureates 1951–1975}} {{1965 Nobel Prize winners}} {{Manhattan Project}} {{Authority control}} <!-- Please do not add Jewish categories – as stated in the article, Feynman actively declined to be labelled "Jewish" --> {{DEFAULTSORT:Feynman, Richard}} [[Category:Richard Feynman| ]] [[Category:1918 births]] [[Category:1988 deaths]] [[Category:20th-century American physicists]] [[Category:American atheists]] [[Category:20th-century atheists]] [[Category:American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent]] [[Category:American Nobel laureates]] [[Category:American skeptics]] [[Category:California Institute of Technology faculty]] [[Category:Deaths from cancer in California]] [[Category:Cellular automatists]] [[Category:Cornell University faculty]] [[Category:Deaths from liposarcoma]] [[Category:Experimental physicists]] [[Category:Far Rockaway High School alumni]] [[Category:Foreign Members of the Royal Society]] [[Category:Manhattan Project people]] [[Category:American nanotechnologists]] [[Category:National Medal of Science laureates]] [[Category:Niels Bohr International Gold Medal recipients]] [[Category:Nobel laureates in Physics]] [[Category:Nuclear weapons scientists and engineers]] [[Category:Particle physicists]] [[Category:People from Far Rockaway, Queens]] [[Category:Princeton University alumni]] [[Category:Putnam Fellows]] [[Category:Quantum computing]] [[Category:Quantum electrodynamics]] [[Category:Scientists from California]] [[Category:Scientists from New York (state)]] [[Category:Sloan Research Fellows]] [[Category:Space Shuttle Challenger disaster]] [[Category:American textbook writers]] [[Category:Quantum physicists]] [[Category:American relativity theorists]] [[Category:Quantum gravity physicists]] [[Category:United States Army civilians]] [[Category:MIT Department of Physics alumni]] [[Category:Fellows of the American Physical Society]]'