Vés al contingut

Usuari:Vallue/Paolo Grossi: diferència entre les revisions

De la Viquipèdia, l'enciclopèdia lliure
Exploració interactiva de l'historial
← Edició anteriorEdició següent →
Contingut suprimit Contingut afegit
VisualWikitext
Contingut canviat per «{{Editant|Vallue|agost 2024}} {| class="wikitable" |+Evolució majors mercats importadors de Kiwki NZ 2020-202 amb valors en $NZ<ref>{{Ref-web|títol=Kiwifruit Trade - Information|url=https://www.hea.co.nz/2012-05-11-03-05-28/kiwifruit-trade|consulta=2024-08-31|editor=New Zealand Horticulture Export Authority}}</ref> |- ! rowspan=2 |Mercat ! colspan=2 |2020 ! colspan=2 |2021 ! colspan=2 |2022 |- ! {{vert header|stp=1|Volum}} ! {{vert header|stp=1|Valor}} ! {{vert...».
Etiquetes: Substitució editor visual
Cap resum de modificació
Etiquetes: editor visual Disambiguation links
Línia 1: Línia 1:

{{Editant|Vallue|agost 2024}}
[[File:Kiwi Fruit Orchard n.jpg|right|thumb|A kiwifruit orchard in the North Island of New Zealand]]

La '''industria del Kiwi a Nova Zelanda''' respresenta un dels principals fonts d'ingressos d'exportació [[Horticultura|hortícola]] per a l'[[economia de Nova Zelanda]]. Els neozelandesos van desenvolupar el primer [[kiwi]] comercialment viable ([[cultivar]]) i han desenvolupat els mercats d'exportació, creant la demanda d'aquesta [[fruita]] que actualment existeix. Avui dia, Nova Zelanda és el tercer país productor de kiwi, al costat de la [[Xina]] i [[Itàlia]],[1] i té aproximadament el 30% de la [[quota de mercat]]. A la temporada 2008-2009, el valor de les exportacions de kiwi de Nova Zelanda va ser d'1.450 milions de [[Dòlar neozelandès|dòlars neozelandesos]].<ref>{{Ref-publicació|article=Export Marketing Arrangements in Four New Zealand Agriculture Industries: An Institutional Perspective|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08974438.2011.621841|publicació=Journal of International Food & Agribusiness Marketing|data=2011-10|issn=0897-4438|pàgines=310–329|volum=23|exemplar=4|doi=10.1080/08974438.2011.621841|llengua=en|nom=Kåre|cognom=Skallerud|nom2=Svein Ottar|cognom2=Olsen}}</ref>

==Origen de la fruita==
El 1847, un agent de la [[Reial Societat d'Horticultura|Royal Horticultural Society]] de Londres va recollir exemplars d'aquesta planta planta originària de la Xina. Fins llavors el seu país d'origen no n'havia fet gaire cas per la seva viabilitat industrial.<ref>{{Ref-llibre|cognom=Morton|nom=Julia F,|títol=Fruits of Warm Climates|url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/index.html|data=1987|editorial=Creative Resource Systems|pàgines=293–300|isbn=0-9610184-1-0|capítol=Kiwifruit: Actinidia deliciosa|urlcapítol=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/kiwifruit_ars.html}}</ref> El cultiu del kiwi es difón a través de la Xina a principis del segle XX, quan les llavors van ser introduïdes a través de Nova Zelanda per [[Mary Isabel Fraser]], directora del [[Whanganui Girls' College]], la qual havia estat fent visites a [[Escola religiosa|escoles missioneres]] a [[Yichang]], Xina.<ref>{{Ref-publicació|article=1904—the year that kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa) came to New Zealand|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01140671.2004.9514276|publicació=New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science|data=2004-03|issn=0114-0671|pàgines=3–27|volum=32|exemplar=1|doi=10.1080/01140671.2004.9514276|llengua=en|nom=A. R.|cognom=Ferguson}}</ref> Les llavors van ser plantades l'any 1906 a un [[viver]] de Whanganui, per Alexander Allison, i les plantes van fructificar per primera vegada el 1910. L'horticultor neozelandès Hayward Wright va desenvolupar el conegut kiwi verd a [[Avondale (Auckland)|Avondale]], Nova Zelanda, al voltant de 1924. Aquest tipus de kiwi verd més tard va ser rebatejat. "Hayward" com a homenatge al seu creado.<ref>{{Ref-publicació|article=KIWIFRUIT: EVOLUTION OF A CROP|url=https://www.actahort.org/books/913/913_1.htm|publicació=Acta Horticulturae|data=2011-11|issn=0567-7572|pàgines=31–42|exemplar=913|doi=10.17660/actahortic.2011.913.1|nom=A.R.|cognom=Ferguson}}</ref><ref>{{Ref-publicació|article=KIWIFRUIT CULTIVARS: BREEDING AND SELECTION|url=https://www.actahort.org/books/498/498_4.htm|publicació=Acta Horticulturae|data=1999-08|issn=0567-7572|pàgines=43–52|exemplar=498|doi=10.17660/actahortic.1999.498.4|nom=A.R.|cognom=Ferguson}}</ref>

Cultivation of the fuzzy kiwifruit spread from China in the early 20th century, when seeds were introduced to New Zealand by [[Mary Isabel Fraser]], the principal of [[Whanganui Girls' College]] who had been visiting mission schools in Yichang, China.<ref>{{cite web|title=Isabel Fraser: Hand carried the first kiwifruit seeds from China |url=http://zesprikiwi.com/about/history/isabel-fraser |publisher=Zespri |accessdate=4 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912030603/http://zesprikiwi.com/about/history/isabel-fraser |archivedate=12 September 2012 }}</ref> The seeds were planted in 1906 by a Whanganui nurseryman, Alexander Allison, with the vines first fruiting in 1910. A New Zealand horticulturalist developed the well-known green kiwifruit in [[Avondale, Auckland|Avondale]], New Zealand, around 1924. This well known green kiwifruit were later renamed "Hayward" as a tribute to its creator, Hayward Wright.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://php.truelogic.com.ar/zespri/about/history/hayward-wright|publisher=Zespri|title=Hayward Kiwifruits Namesake|accessdate=29 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20121229222444/http://php.truelogic.com.ar/zespri/about/history/hayward-wright|archivedate=29 December 2012}}</ref>

==Origins of the industry==
The first commercial planting of Chinese gooseberries occurred in 1937 by the [[orchard]]ist Jim MacLoughlin. He found that the vines were low maintenance and fruited well. By 1940, MacLoughlin purchased more property for Chinese gooseberry production. MacLoughlin's truck was commandeered for army use during the outbreak of war and as a result, he was forced to sell his property and enter into a shared cropping arrangement with another farmer. In 1955, MacLoughlin bought out his partner, purchasing his land back along with an additional 38 acres and planting it all to Chinese gooseberries.
During the war around 550 cases of the fruit were marketed each season with the fruit proving popular with American servicemen in New Zealand. This provided the opportunity for the previously domestically-consumed fruit industry to expand by exporting to an international market.

==Initial growth of the export market==
In 1952, MacLoughlin approached the New Zealand Fruit Federation who agreed to facilitate the shipping and marketing of the fruit to United States markets, this was New Zealand's first export of Chinese gooseberries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://php.truelogic.com.ar/zespri/about/history/jim-macloughlin|publisher=Zespri|title=First Commercial Kiwifruit Grower and Explorer|accessdate=29 November 2012|archive-date=29 December 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121229232605/http://php.truelogic.com.ar/zespri/about/history/jim-macloughlin|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to pioneering research into the transportability of the fruit by [[John Pilkington Hudson]] and others at the agriculture department in [[Wellington]], this was the first international export of the kiwifruit.<ref>ODNB entry: [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/99289 Retrieved 24 June 2011. Subscription required.]</ref>

===Rebranding the Chinese gooseberry===
As the local popularity of this fruit increased, New Zealanders discarded the local Chinese name for the fruit (''yáng táo''{{efn|A name that originally referred to the kiwifruit, but often refers to the [[Carambola|starfruit]]<ref name="Sunny peach">{{cite web|url=http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=foodspice&dbid=41 |title=Kiwifruit |publisher=The World's Healthiest Foods |accessdate=4 January 2013}}</ref>}})<ref name="kiwi name">{{cite web
|url=http://zesprikiwi.com/about/history/kiwifruits-name
|title=Kiwifruit's name
|publisher=Zespri Kiwifruit
|accessdate=19 February 2013
|url-status=dead
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513100350/http://zesprikiwi.com/about/history/kiwifruits-name
|archivedate=13 May 2013
}}</ref> in favour of the name ''Chinese gooseberry''.<ref name="latimes">{{cite news
| url = https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-may-08-fo-kiwi8-story.html
| title = Kiwi, Act II
| last = Green | first = Emily
| newspaper = Los Angeles Times
| date=8 May 2002
|access-date=4 January 2013}}</ref> Among the exporters was the prominent produce company Turners and Growers, who were calling the berries ''melonettes'', because the local name for the fruit, ''Chinese gooseberry'', had political connotations due to the [[Cold War]], and to further distinguish it from European [[Gooseberry|gooseberries]], which are prone to a fungus called [[anthracnose]]. An American importer, Norman Sondag of San Francisco, complained that ''melonettes'' was as bad as ''Chinese gooseberry'' because melons and berries were both subject to high import tariffs, and instead asked for a short [[Māori language|Māori]] name that quickly connoted New Zealand.<ref name="latimes"/> In June 1959, during a meeting of Turners and Growers management in [[Auckland]], Jack Turner suggested the name ''kiwifruit'' after its furry brown appearance similar to the country's endemic flightless bird ''[[Kiwi (bird)|kiwi]]'';<ref name="Time">{{Cite magazine|last=Lui|first=Kevin|date=8 February 2017|title=How the Chinese Gooseberry Became the Kiwifruit|url=https://time.com/4662293/kiwifruit-chinese-gooseberry-new-zealand-history-fruit/|access-date=9 November 2021|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]|language=en}}</ref> this was adopted and later became the industry-wide name.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zesprikiwi.com/kiwi_name.htm |publisher=Zespri |title=How Kiwifruit Got Its Name |accessdate=9 July 2007 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928115413/http://www.zesprikiwi.com/kiwi_name.htm |archivedate=28 September 2007 }}</ref> In the 1960s and 1970s, [[Frieda Caplan]], founder of Los Alamitos-based [[Frieda's Inc.|Frieda's Inc]]., played a key role in popularising kiwifruit in the United States, convincing supermarket produce managers to carry the odd-looking fruit.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/05/17/business/what-s-new-in-exotic-fruit-putting-a-kiwi-in-every-lunch-box.html |title=What's New in Exotic Fruit: Putting a Kiwi in Every Lunch Box |newspaper=The New York Times|author=Sarah Lyall |date= 17 May 1987 |accessdate=10 November 2010}}</ref>

==Industry maturation==
The growth of the export market during this time was composed of individual growers, grower [[cooperative]]s, exporters and distributors. An attempt to develop a joint marketing effort saw the establishment of the Kiwifruit Export Promotion Committee in 1970, followed by the Kiwifruit Marketing Licensing Authority in 1977. The Kiwifruit Marketing Licensing Authority had the rights to establish market standards such as fruit size, quality and packaging of kiwifruit for export markets, the Authority also acted as an adviser to the government. This gave growers some control of licensing exporters.<ref name="tandfonline.com.ezproxy2.library.usyd.edu.au">{{cite journal|last1=Skallerud|first1=Kare|last2=Olsen|first2=Svein|year=2011|title=Export Marketing Arrangements in Four New Zealand Agriculture Industries: An Institutional Perspective|journal=Journal of International Food and Agribusiness Marketing|volume=23|issue=4|pages=310–329|doi=10.1080/08974438.2011.621841|s2cid=154770824}}</ref>

===Industry growth===
The total volume of kiwifruit exports rapidly increased from the late 1960s to early 1970s. During this time, the number or exporting firms also dramatically increased. By 1976, the total volume of fruit New Zealand produced had exceeded the volume domestically consumed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10289/5794/Economics_wp_1108.pdf?sequence=1 |title=New Zealand Kiwifruit Export Performance: Market Analysis and Revealed Comparative Advantage |publisher=University of Waikato |author=Sayeeda Bano and Frank Scrimgeour |date= June 2011|accessdate=28 November 2012}}</ref>

In 1974, kiwifruit was added to the [[consumer price index]] (CPI) [[Market basket|basket]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014|title=100 years of CPI – Basket changes {{!}} Stats NZ|url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/about-us/stats-nz-archive-website/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616113442if_/http://archive.stats.govt.nz/cpichanges/cpibasketchanges/index.html|archive-date=2020-06-16|access-date=|website=www.stats.govt.nz}}</ref>

==Loss of competitive advantage==
In the 1980s other countries began to export kiwifruit, and New Zealand lost its first-mover advantage. The seven licensed exporters in New Zealand were in fierce competition, driving down prices. This reduced grower profitability and caused fluctuations in both supply and demand.

===Reaction to competition===
In the 1990s, the export arrangement was reorganised in response to pressure from increasing fruit supplies from competing overseas export markets. To regain profitability and stability, the New Zealand Government and growers colluded to establish a [[Single desk|single-desk]] export arrangement. This granted a monopoly on the marketing of kiwifruit to [[Zespri]] and mandated that all suppliers sell their products through this single buyer (see also [[monopsony]]) for all exports outside of Australasia.

All New Zealand kiwifruits are marketed under the brand-name label ''Zespri''. The branding move is also intended to distinguish New Zealand kiwifruit from other fruit and prevent other companies from gaining benefit from the New Zealand Kiwifruit Marketing Board's (a subsidiary of Zespri) activities.

Zespri International Ltd. is owned by 2,700 local growers through Zespri Group Ltd which was established in 2000.<ref name="tandfonline.com.ezproxy2.library.usyd.edu.au"/> Zespri has the role of promoting and selling kiwifruit in overseas markets as well as establishing regulations on which kiwifruit can be sold in the export markets.<ref name="tandfonline.com.ezproxy2.library.usyd.edu.au"/>

==State of the industry==
Turners & Growers began to challenge Zespri's export monopoly of New Zealand's kiwifruit industry in 2009 to gain the right to export their own kiwifruit varieties without using Zespri. However, in October 2011 the case was dropped in response to pressures from a new bacterial disease causing devastating losses in kiwifruit.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=10796703| title=German owners of Turners & Growers extend olive branch to Zespri|newspaper=The New Zealand Herald | date= 4 April 2012 | accessdate=29 November 2012}}</ref>

In November 2010, plant symptoms were discovered that suggested that ''Pseudomonas syringae'' pv. ''actinidiae'' (PSA), a variant of the bacterium ''[[Pseudomonas syringae]]'', were present in a [[Bay of Plenty]] kiwifruit orchard in the North Island.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/media/8-11-10/suspected-bacterial-vine-infection|title=Suspected Bacterial Vine Infection|date=8 November 2010|publisher=MAF Biosecurity New Zealand|accessdate=9 November 2010|archive-date=13 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113200914/http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/media/8-11-10/suspected-bacterial-vine-infection|url-status=dead}}</ref> Provisions of the [[Biosecurity Act 1993]] have been used to limit its spread. These measures were continued in 2011, but were largely unsuccessful with most orchards in the Bay of Plenty displaying some level of infection by November 2011. Some of the attacks in the Bay of Plenty were by the virulent strain PSA-V. The disease is worldwide, with serious attacks in Italy and France also in 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/pests/kiwifruit-vine-disease |title=''Kiwifruit vine disease'' by MAF Biosecurity NZ |access-date=4 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312133422/http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/pests/kiwifruit-vine-disease |archive-date=12 March 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/nelson-mail/features/primary-focus/4577177/More-virulent-PSA-strain-a-new-worry-for-kiwifruit-growers |title= More virulent PSA strain a new worry for kiwifruit growers |newspaper=The Dominion Post |first = Peter |last= Watson|date= 25 January 2011 |accessdate=4 September 2011}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/business/farming/5050782/Renewed-fears-as-PSA-devastates-European-orchards |title= Renewed fears as PSA devastates European orchards |newspaper=The Dominion Post |first = Andrea |last= Fox|date= 25 May 2011 |accessdate=4 September 2011}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=10747234 |title= Relief for kiwifruit industry |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |first = Owen |last= Hembry |date=25 August 2011 |accessdate=4 September 2011}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10747900 |title= Antibiotic vine spray 'crazy' |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |first = Andre |last= Hueber |date= 28 August 2011 |accessdate=4 September 2011}}</ref>

In mid-2013 a China-based Zespri subsidiary was fined nearly $1M for under-declaring customs duties, and the Serious Fraud Office launched an investigation into Zespri itself in October 2013.<ref>[http://www.radionz.co.nz/news/national/225373/serious-fraud-office-investigating-zespri Serious Fraud Office investigating Zespri]. ''Radio NZ''. 22 October 2013.</ref>

Much of the [[plant breeding|breeding]] to refine the green kiwifruit and develop the gold Zespri was done by the [[Plant & Food Research]] Institute (formerly HortResearch) during the decades of 1970–1999.<ref name="knowles">{{cite web |last1=Knowles |first1=Mike |title=NZ kiwifruit: How a major brand emerged |url=http://www.fruitnet.com/eurofruit/article/172018/nz-kiwifruit-how-a-major-brand-emerged |website=www.fruitnet.com |publisher=Eurofruit |date=25 April 2017}}</ref>

In 1990, the New Zealand Kiwifruit Marketing Board opened an office for Europe in [[Antwerp]], [[Belgium]], which became the headquarters for European marketing of Zespri gold kiwifruit in 2010.<ref name=knowles/> The general name, "Zespri", has been used for marketing of all green and gold cultivars of kiwifruit from New Zealand since 2012.<ref name=knowles/><ref name="zespri">{{cite web |title=Zespri – Official Site |url=http://www.zespri.com/ |publisher=Zespri Group Ltd. |accessdate=10 September 2018 |date=2018}}</ref>

In 2017, New Zealand growers were acquiring additional land to grow Zespri gold kiwifruit under rising costs for a Zespri [[License#Trademark and brand licensing|license]] to meet global demand for the gold cultivar.<ref>{{cite news |last= Hutching |first=Gerard |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/farming/91288343/growers-pay-steep-prices-to-zespri-for-right-to-grow-gold-kiwifruit|title=Growers pay steep prices to Zespri for right to grow gold kiwifruit|work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |accessdate=10 September 2018 |date=7 April 2017}}</ref>

In mid-February 2020, the New Zealand Government agreed to pay NZ$40 million to 212 kiwifruit orchardists and [[Te Puke]]&ndash;based post harvest operator Seeka to settle a class action lawsuit alleging that the government was liable for losses caused by the incursion of ''[[Pseudomonas]]'', which swept through the [[Bay of Plenty]] region in 2010. Kiwifruit orchardists had initially challenged a [[Court of Appeal of New Zealand|Court of Appeal]] ruling that the Government could not be held liable for the damage caused by the pathogen despite the [[Ministry of Primary Industries (New Zealand)|Ministry of Primary Industries]] allowing the bacteria into the country through the import of kiwifruit pollen from China. As a result of the settlement, the appeal was withdrawn.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Morrison |first1=Tina |title=Government pays $40m to settle long-running kiwifruit Psa claim |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/300229318/government-pays-40m-to-settle-longrunning-kiwifruit-psa-claim |access-date=14 February 2021 |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213002010/https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/300229318/government-pays-40m-to-settle-longrunning-kiwifruit-psa-claim |archive-date=13 February 2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Kiwifruit growers' PSA case: Government agrees to pay sector $40 million |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/country/436347/kiwifruit-growers-psa-case-government-agrees-to-pay-sector-40-million |access-date=14 February 2021 |work=[[Radio New Zealand]] |date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213013325/https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/country/436347/kiwifruit-growers-psa-case-government-agrees-to-pay-sector-40-million |archive-date=13 February 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Invasive plant==
The kiwifruit vine has become an [[invasive species|invasive plant species]] in the [[Bay of Plenty Region]] due initially to the dumping of fruit next to [[The bush|bush]] remnants.<ref>W Lee, P Heenan, J Sullivan, P Williams "Limiting new invasive weeds in New Zealand—some emerging issues" ''Protect'' Spring 2001</ref> The [[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)|Department of Conservation]], responsible for protecting public land, classify ''[[Actinidia deliciosa]]'' as an environmental weed.<ref>{{cite book|last=Clayson|first=Howell|title=Consolidated list of environmental weeds in New Zealand|publisher=Department of Conservation|location=Wellington|date=May 2008|isbn=978-0-478-14412-3}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Agriculture in New Zealand]]

==References==
{{Referències}}

== Estadístiques ==
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Evolució majors mercats importadors de Kiwki NZ 2020-202 amb valors en $NZ<ref>{{Ref-web|títol=Kiwifruit Trade - Information|url=https://www.hea.co.nz/2012-05-11-03-05-28/kiwifruit-trade|consulta=2024-08-31|editor=New Zealand Horticulture Export Authority}}</ref>
|+Evolució majors mercats importadors de Kiwki NZ 2020-202 amb valors en $NZ<ref>{{Ref-web|títol=Kiwifruit Trade - Information|url=https://www.hea.co.nz/2012-05-11-03-05-28/kiwifruit-trade|consulta=2024-08-31|editor=New Zealand Horticulture Export Authority}}</ref>
Línia 99: Línia 179:
* [[Organització territorial d'Austràlia]]
* [[Organització territorial d'Austràlia]]
categoria: Administració territorial dels estats oceànics i Història d'austràlia
categoria: Administració territorial dels estats oceànics i Història d'austràlia

<references />

Revisió del 11:28, 31 ago 2024

A kiwifruit orchard in the North Island of New Zealand

La industria del Kiwi a Nova Zelanda respresenta un dels principals fonts d'ingressos d'exportació hortícola per a l'economia de Nova Zelanda. Els neozelandesos van desenvolupar el primer kiwi comercialment viable (cultivar) i han desenvolupat els mercats d'exportació, creant la demanda d'aquesta fruita que actualment existeix. Avui dia, Nova Zelanda és el tercer país productor de kiwi, al costat de la Xina i Itàlia,[1] i té aproximadament el 30% de la quota de mercat. A la temporada 2008-2009, el valor de les exportacions de kiwi de Nova Zelanda va ser d'1.450 milions de dòlars neozelandesos.[1]

Origen de la fruita

El 1847, un agent de la Royal Horticultural Society de Londres va recollir exemplars d'aquesta planta planta originària de la Xina. Fins llavors el seu país d'origen no n'havia fet gaire cas per la seva viabilitat industrial.[2] El cultiu del kiwi es difón a través de la Xina a principis del segle XX, quan les llavors van ser introduïdes a través de Nova Zelanda per Mary Isabel Fraser, directora del Whanganui Girls' College, la qual havia estat fent visites a escoles missioneres a Yichang, Xina.[3] Les llavors van ser plantades l'any 1906 a un viver de Whanganui, per Alexander Allison, i les plantes van fructificar per primera vegada el 1910. L'horticultor neozelandès Hayward Wright va desenvolupar el conegut kiwi verd a Avondale, Nova Zelanda, al voltant de 1924. Aquest tipus de kiwi verd més tard va ser rebatejat. "Hayward" com a homenatge al seu creado.[4][5]

Cultivation of the fuzzy kiwifruit spread from China in the early 20th century, when seeds were introduced to New Zealand by Mary Isabel Fraser, the principal of Whanganui Girls' College who had been visiting mission schools in Yichang, China.[6] The seeds were planted in 1906 by a Whanganui nurseryman, Alexander Allison, with the vines first fruiting in 1910. A New Zealand horticulturalist developed the well-known green kiwifruit in Avondale, New Zealand, around 1924. This well known green kiwifruit were later renamed "Hayward" as a tribute to its creator, Hayward Wright.[7]

Origins of the industry

The first commercial planting of Chinese gooseberries occurred in 1937 by the orchardist Jim MacLoughlin. He found that the vines were low maintenance and fruited well. By 1940, MacLoughlin purchased more property for Chinese gooseberry production. MacLoughlin's truck was commandeered for army use during the outbreak of war and as a result, he was forced to sell his property and enter into a shared cropping arrangement with another farmer. In 1955, MacLoughlin bought out his partner, purchasing his land back along with an additional 38 acres and planting it all to Chinese gooseberries. During the war around 550 cases of the fruit were marketed each season with the fruit proving popular with American servicemen in New Zealand. This provided the opportunity for the previously domestically-consumed fruit industry to expand by exporting to an international market.

Initial growth of the export market

In 1952, MacLoughlin approached the New Zealand Fruit Federation who agreed to facilitate the shipping and marketing of the fruit to United States markets, this was New Zealand's first export of Chinese gooseberries.[8] Due to pioneering research into the transportability of the fruit by John Pilkington Hudson and others at the agriculture department in Wellington, this was the first international export of the kiwifruit.[9]

Rebranding the Chinese gooseberry

As the local popularity of this fruit increased, New Zealanders discarded the local Chinese name for the fruit (yáng táo[a])[11] in favour of the name Chinese gooseberry.[12] Among the exporters was the prominent produce company Turners and Growers, who were calling the berries melonettes, because the local name for the fruit, Chinese gooseberry, had political connotations due to the Cold War, and to further distinguish it from European gooseberries, which are prone to a fungus called anthracnose. An American importer, Norman Sondag of San Francisco, complained that melonettes was as bad as Chinese gooseberry because melons and berries were both subject to high import tariffs, and instead asked for a short Māori name that quickly connoted New Zealand.[12] In June 1959, during a meeting of Turners and Growers management in Auckland, Jack Turner suggested the name kiwifruit after its furry brown appearance similar to the country's endemic flightless bird kiwi;[13] this was adopted and later became the industry-wide name.[14] In the 1960s and 1970s, Frieda Caplan, founder of Los Alamitos-based Frieda's Inc., played a key role in popularising kiwifruit in the United States, convincing supermarket produce managers to carry the odd-looking fruit.[15]

Industry maturation

The growth of the export market during this time was composed of individual growers, grower cooperatives, exporters and distributors. An attempt to develop a joint marketing effort saw the establishment of the Kiwifruit Export Promotion Committee in 1970, followed by the Kiwifruit Marketing Licensing Authority in 1977. The Kiwifruit Marketing Licensing Authority had the rights to establish market standards such as fruit size, quality and packaging of kiwifruit for export markets, the Authority also acted as an adviser to the government. This gave growers some control of licensing exporters.[16]

Industry growth

The total volume of kiwifruit exports rapidly increased from the late 1960s to early 1970s. During this time, the number or exporting firms also dramatically increased. By 1976, the total volume of fruit New Zealand produced had exceeded the volume domestically consumed.[17]

In 1974, kiwifruit was added to the consumer price index (CPI) basket.[18]

Loss of competitive advantage

In the 1980s other countries began to export kiwifruit, and New Zealand lost its first-mover advantage. The seven licensed exporters in New Zealand were in fierce competition, driving down prices. This reduced grower profitability and caused fluctuations in both supply and demand.

Reaction to competition

In the 1990s, the export arrangement was reorganised in response to pressure from increasing fruit supplies from competing overseas export markets. To regain profitability and stability, the New Zealand Government and growers colluded to establish a single-desk export arrangement. This granted a monopoly on the marketing of kiwifruit to Zespri and mandated that all suppliers sell their products through this single buyer (see also monopsony) for all exports outside of Australasia.

All New Zealand kiwifruits are marketed under the brand-name label Zespri. The branding move is also intended to distinguish New Zealand kiwifruit from other fruit and prevent other companies from gaining benefit from the New Zealand Kiwifruit Marketing Board's (a subsidiary of Zespri) activities.

Zespri International Ltd. is owned by 2,700 local growers through Zespri Group Ltd which was established in 2000.[16] Zespri has the role of promoting and selling kiwifruit in overseas markets as well as establishing regulations on which kiwifruit can be sold in the export markets.[16]

State of the industry

Turners & Growers began to challenge Zespri's export monopoly of New Zealand's kiwifruit industry in 2009 to gain the right to export their own kiwifruit varieties without using Zespri. However, in October 2011 the case was dropped in response to pressures from a new bacterial disease causing devastating losses in kiwifruit.[19]

In November 2010, plant symptoms were discovered that suggested that Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (PSA), a variant of the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae, were present in a Bay of Plenty kiwifruit orchard in the North Island.[20] Provisions of the Biosecurity Act 1993 have been used to limit its spread. These measures were continued in 2011, but were largely unsuccessful with most orchards in the Bay of Plenty displaying some level of infection by November 2011. Some of the attacks in the Bay of Plenty were by the virulent strain PSA-V. The disease is worldwide, with serious attacks in Italy and France also in 2011.[21] [22] [23] [24] [25]

In mid-2013 a China-based Zespri subsidiary was fined nearly $1M for under-declaring customs duties, and the Serious Fraud Office launched an investigation into Zespri itself in October 2013.[26]

Much of the breeding to refine the green kiwifruit and develop the gold Zespri was done by the Plant & Food Research Institute (formerly HortResearch) during the decades of 1970–1999.[27]

In 1990, the New Zealand Kiwifruit Marketing Board opened an office for Europe in Antwerp, Belgium, which became the headquarters for European marketing of Zespri gold kiwifruit in 2010.[27] The general name, "Zespri", has been used for marketing of all green and gold cultivars of kiwifruit from New Zealand since 2012.[27][28]

In 2017, New Zealand growers were acquiring additional land to grow Zespri gold kiwifruit under rising costs for a Zespri license to meet global demand for the gold cultivar.[29]

In mid-February 2020, the New Zealand Government agreed to pay NZ$40 million to 212 kiwifruit orchardists and Te Puke–based post harvest operator Seeka to settle a class action lawsuit alleging that the government was liable for losses caused by the incursion of Pseudomonas, which swept through the Bay of Plenty region in 2010. Kiwifruit orchardists had initially challenged a Court of Appeal ruling that the Government could not be held liable for the damage caused by the pathogen despite the Ministry of Primary Industries allowing the bacteria into the country through the import of kiwifruit pollen from China. As a result of the settlement, the appeal was withdrawn.[30][31]

Invasive plant

The kiwifruit vine has become an invasive plant species in the Bay of Plenty Region due initially to the dumping of fruit next to bush remnants.[32] The Department of Conservation, responsible for protecting public land, classify Actinidia deliciosa as an environmental weed.[33]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Skallerud, Kåre; Olsen, Svein Ottar «Export Marketing Arrangements in Four New Zealand Agriculture Industries: An Institutional Perspective» (en anglès). Journal of International Food & Agribusiness Marketing, 23, 4, 10-2011, pàg. 310–329. DOI: 10.1080/08974438.2011.621841. ISSN: 0897-4438.
  2. ↑ Morton, Julia F,. «Kiwifruit: Actinidia deliciosa». A: Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resource Systems, 1987, p. 293–300. ISBN 0-9610184-1-0. 
  3. ↑ Ferguson, A. R. «1904—the year that kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa) came to New Zealand» (en anglès). New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 32, 1, 3-2004, pàg. 3–27. DOI: 10.1080/01140671.2004.9514276. ISSN: 0114-0671.
  4. ↑ Ferguson, A.R. «KIWIFRUIT: EVOLUTION OF A CROP». Acta Horticulturae, 913, 11-2011, pàg. 31–42. DOI: 10.17660/actahortic.2011.913.1. ISSN: 0567-7572.
  5. ↑ Ferguson, A.R. «KIWIFRUIT CULTIVARS: BREEDING AND SELECTION». Acta Horticulturae, 498, 8-1999, pàg. 43–52. DOI: 10.17660/actahortic.1999.498.4. ISSN: 0567-7572.
  6. ↑ «Isabel Fraser: Hand carried the first kiwifruit seeds from China». Zespri. Arxivat de l'original el 12 September 2012. [Consulta: 4 gener 2013].
  7. ↑ «Hayward Kiwifruits Namesake». Zespri. Arxivat de l'original el 29 December 2012. [Consulta: 29 novembre 2012].
  8. ↑ «First Commercial Kiwifruit Grower and Explorer». Zespri. Arxivat de l'original el 29 December 2012. [Consulta: 29 novembre 2012].
  9. ↑ ODNB entry: Retrieved 24 June 2011. Subscription required.
  10. ↑ «Kiwifruit». The World's Healthiest Foods. [Consulta: 4 gener 2013].
  11. ↑ «Kiwifruit's name». Zespri Kiwifruit. Arxivat de l'original el 13 May 2013. [Consulta: 19 febrer 2013].
  12. ↑ 12,0 12,1 Green, Emily «Kiwi, Act II». , 08-05-2002.
  13. ↑ Lui, Kevin (8 February 2017). «How the Chinese Gooseberry Became the Kiwifruit». TIMEen. 
  14. ↑ «How Kiwifruit Got Its Name». Zespri. Arxivat de l'original el 28 September 2007. [Consulta: 9 juliol 2007].
  15. ↑ Sarah Lyall «What's New in Exotic Fruit: Putting a Kiwi in Every Lunch Box». , 17-05-1987 [Consulta: 10 novembre 2010].
  16. ↑ 16,0 16,1 16,2 Skallerud, Kare; Olsen, Svein «Export Marketing Arrangements in Four New Zealand Agriculture Industries: An Institutional Perspective». Journal of International Food and Agribusiness Marketing, vol. 23, 4, 2011, pàg. 310–329. DOI: 10.1080/08974438.2011.621841.
  17. ↑ Sayeeda Bano and Frank Scrimgeour. «New Zealand Kiwifruit Export Performance: Market Analysis and Revealed Comparative Advantage». University of Waikato, 01-06-2011. [Consulta: 28 novembre 2012].
  18. ↑ «100 years of CPI – Basket changes | Stats NZ». www.stats.govt.nz, 2014. Arxivat de l'original el 2020-06-16.
  19. ↑ «German owners of Turners & Growers extend olive branch to Zespri». , 04-04-2012 [Consulta: 29 novembre 2012].
  20. ↑ «Suspected Bacterial Vine Infection». MAF Biosecurity New Zealand, 08-11-2010. Arxivat de l'original el 13 November 2010. [Consulta: 9 novembre 2010].
  21. ↑ «Kiwifruit vine disease by MAF Biosecurity NZ». Arxivat de l'original el 12 March 2017. [Consulta: 4 setembre 2011].
  22. ↑ Watson, Peter «More virulent PSA strain a new worry for kiwifruit growers». , 25-01-2011 [Consulta: 4 setembre 2011].
  23. ↑ Fox, Andrea «Renewed fears as PSA devastates European orchards». , 25-05-2011 [Consulta: 4 setembre 2011].
  24. ↑ Hembry, Owen «Relief for kiwifruit industry». The New Zealand Herald, 25-08-2011 [Consulta: 4 setembre 2011].
  25. ↑ Hueber, Andre «Antibiotic vine spray 'crazy'». The New Zealand Herald, 28-08-2011 [Consulta: 4 setembre 2011].
  26. ↑ Serious Fraud Office investigating Zespri. Radio NZ. 22 October 2013.
  27. ↑ 27,0 27,1 27,2 Knowles, Mike. «NZ kiwifruit: How a major brand emerged». www.fruitnet.com. Eurofruit, 25-04-2017.
  28. ↑ «Zespri – Official Site». Zespri Group Ltd., 2018. [Consulta: 10 setembre 2018].
  29. ↑ Hutching, Gerard «Growers pay steep prices to Zespri for right to grow gold kiwifruit». Stuff, 07-04-2017 [Consulta: 10 setembre 2018].
  30. ↑ «Government pays $40m to settle long-running kiwifruit Psa claim». The New Zealand Herald, 13-02-2021.
  31. ↑ «Kiwifruit growers' PSA case: Government agrees to pay sector $40 million». Radio New Zealand, 13-02-2021.
  32. ↑ W Lee, P Heenan, J Sullivan, P Williams "Limiting new invasive weeds in New Zealand—some emerging issues" Protect Spring 2001
  33. ↑ Clayson, Howell. Consolidated list of environmental weeds in New Zealand. Wellington: Department of Conservation, May 2008. ISBN 978-0-478-14412-3. 

Estadístiques

Evolució majors mercats importadors de Kiwki NZ 2020-202 amb valors en $NZ[1]
Mercat 2020 2021 2022
Volum
Valor
Volum
Valor
Volum
Valor
 UE 225,330 637,190,640 268,854 791,462,193 272,873 801,424,954
 Xina 225,330 637,190,640 268,854 791,462,193 272,873 801,424,954
 Japó 225,330 637,190,640 268,854 791,462,193 272,873 801,424,954
 Corea del Sud 225,330 637,190,640 268,854 791,462,193 272,873 801,424,954
 Estats Units 225,330 637,190,640 268,854 791,462,193 272,873 801,424,954
 Taiwan 225,330 637,190,640 268,854 791,462,193 272,873 801,424,954
 Austràlia 225,330 637,190,640 268,854 791,462,193 272,873 801,424,954
 Hong Kong 225,330 637,190,640 268,854 791,462,193 272,873 801,424,954
 Canadà 225,330 637,190,640 268,854 791,462,193 272,873 801,424,954
 Vietnam 225,330 637,190,640 268,854 791,462,193 272,873 801,424,954

Vegeu també

categoria: Administració territorial dels estats oceànics i Història d'austràlia

  1. ↑ «Kiwifruit Trade - Information». New Zealand Horticulture Export Authority. [Consulta: 31 agost 2024].


Error de citació: Existeixen etiquetes <ref> pel grup «lower-alpha» però no s'ha trobat l'etiqueta <references group="lower-alpha"/> corresponent.

Obtingut de «https://ca.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Usuari:Vallue/Paolo_Grossi&oldid=33877562»