Next Article in Journal
Catalytic Aquathermolysis of Boca de Jaruco Heavy Oil with Nickel-Based Oil-Soluble Catalyst
Next Article in Special Issue
Effects of Blueberry and Black Carrot Extracts Addition on Antioxidant Properties and Protein-Precipitating Capacity of Ultrasound-Treated Cider
Previous Article in Journal
Controlling the Skin Barrier Quality through the Application of Polymeric Films Containing Microspheres with Encapsulated Plant Extract
Previous Article in Special Issue
Antioxidant Activity and Sensory Improvement of Angelica dahurica cv. Yubaizhi Essential Oil on Sunflower Oil during High-temperature Storage
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Processes
Volume 8
Issue 5
10.3390/pr8050531
processes-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Polyphenol Content and Biological Activities of Ruta graveolens L. and Artemisia abrotanum L. in Northern Saudi Arabia

by
Hosam O. Elansary
1,2,3,*,
Agnieszka Szopa
4,*,
Paweł Kubica
4,
Halina Ekiert
4,
Diaa O. El-Ansary
5,
Fahed A. Al-Mana
1 and
Eman A. Mahmoud
6
1
Plant Production Department, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
2
Floriculture, Ornamental Horticulture, and Garden Design Department, Faculty of Agriculture (El-Shatby), Alexandria University, Alexandria 21545, Egypt
3
Department of Geography, Environmental Management, and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg, APK Campus, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa
4
Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Medical College, Jagiellonian University, ul. Medyczna 9, 30-688 Kraków, Poland
5
Precision Agriculture Laboratory, Department of Pomology, Faculty of Agriculture (El-Shatby), Alexandria University, Alexandria 21545, Egypt
6
Department of Food Industries, Faculty of Agriculture, Damietta University, Damietta 34517, Egypt
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2020, 8(5), 531; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8050531
Submission received: 31 March 2020 / Revised: 28 April 2020 / Accepted: 28 April 2020 / Published: 30 April 2020
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction Optimization Processes of Antioxidants)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Natural populations of Ruta graveolens L. and Artemisia abrotanum L. in northern Saudi Arabia may be a rich source of natural polyphenols with potential biological activities. Therefore, tentative high-performance liquid chromatography–diode array detection was used to analyze the polyphenol contents of leaf extracts. R. graveolens mainly contained the phenolic acids chlorogenic acid and p-coumaric acid and the flavonoids rutoside and quercetin, whereas those of A. abrotanum mainly contained the phenolic acids isochlorogenic acid and rosmarinic acid and the flavonoid quercetin. Leaf extracts of both species showed antioxidant activities due to the presence of quercetin, chlorogenic acid, and p-coumaric acid as well as antiproliferative and cytotoxic activities against cancer cells, which may be attributed to necrotic cell accumulation during the early and late apoptotic periods. Both species also exhibited antibacterial activity, although the activity was higher in R. graveolens due to the high contents of quercetin and other polyphenols. Finally, both species exhibited antifungal activities, which were associated with specific polyphenols. This is the first study to confirm the richness of polyphenols and wide spectrum of biological activities in natural populations of R. graveolens and A. abrotanum in northern Saudi Arabia.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are rich sources of polyphenols, which have important biological activities. For instance, polyphenols may slow aging through their antioxidant activities [1] or control microorganisms growth through their antibacterial and antifungal activities [2,3]. Furthermore, polyphenols have been shown to act as anticancer agents [4,5,6,7] and food preservatives [8]. The antioxidant activity of polyphenols is related to their ability to scavenge free radicals, modulate metal chelation, and activate detoxification enzymes, stimulating their antioxidant mechanism [4,9,10,11,12,13,14]. The antiproliferative and apoptotic activities of polyphenols against cancer cells are attributed to the control of cell cycle arrest as well as the molecular regulation of cancer-related genes [4,9,10,11,12,13].
Ruta graveolens L. (Rutaceae) is a shrubby evergreen plant that is native to Southern Europe and used in traditional and alternative medicine. The fresh and dried leaves and stems of this plant can be used for cooking or decoction and tea infusion, whereas essential oils extracted from the leaves and shoots are used for several purposes in the pharmaceutical industry [15,16,17,18], such as in the treatment of inflammation and infections and as antidotes for scorpion and snake venoms [19]. Its leaves and stems have been found to contain many compounds, such as rutoside, coquisagenine, skimmianine, graveoline, furocoumarins (psoralens), and xantotoxine (8-methoxypsoralen) [20,21], as well as 2-undecanone, 2-heptanol acetate, 1-dodecanol, geyrene, and 2-nonanone [18]. However, the phytochemical profiles of R. graveolens may be affected by environmental factors (temperature, light, soil fertility, and humidity) and genetic diversity both among and within populations [22,23]; therefore, some natural populations are richer sources of secondary metabolites than others.
Artemisia abrotanum L. (Astraceae) is a deciduous shrub that is native to Asia, Europe, and Africa. The leaves and stems of this plant are used in traditional and alternative medicine to improve digestion and liver function, induce menstrual flow, reduce fever, treat malaria, and control intestinal worms [24]. The major components of the essential oils of this species are piperitone, davanone, 1,8-cineole, and germacrene D [24] or borneol (10.2%) [25]. In addition, some polyphenols have been identified in the leaf extracts of Romanian populations such as sinapic acid, rutoside, quercetin, ferulic acid, and patuletin [26]. Species and subspecies belonging to Artemisia are subject to high genetic diversity both among and within populations (e.g., A. absinthium and A. abrotanum) according to their geographical origins [27,28,29], and polyploidy is common in this genus, with different cytotypes exhibiting different morphologies and phytochemical contents [30]. Furthermore, the phytochemical content of the leaves and stems depends on the ecotype, geographical origin, and environmental conditions.
In this study, we explored the polyphenol contents of natural populations of R. graveolens and A. abrotanum growing in northern Saudi Arabia by performing high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) on their leaf extracts and related these to their antioxidant, antiproliferative, cytotoxic, antibacterial, and antifungal activities to determine whether these natural populations are rich sources of secondary metabolites.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Collection and Preparation of Plant Materials

Leaves were obtained from natural populations of R. graveolens and A. abrotanum growing in the Riyadh region, northern Saudi Arabia, in the beginning of flowering stage of the plants. Plants were identified by Hosam Elansary and vouchered at the College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh (Hosam0002213–101). The leaves were lyophilized, powdered, and extracted twice with methanol (0.2 g dry weight (DW) in 10 mL methanol) by sonication for 30 min at 30 °C. The extract was purified using Whatman paper; then, the residues were dried at room temperature to remove remaining methanol and frozen at −80 °C. Regarding HPLC analyses, the residues were dissolved in methanol (1 mL; Merck), whereas for bioassays, methanol was totally removed using a rotary evaporator [31]. All experiments were approved by the Animal Committee of the College of Agriculture, Damietta University, Damietta, Egypt (2018-2019-75365). Bacteria, fungi, and cancer cell lines (American Type Culture Collection) were obtained from the Faculty of Agriculture, Alexandria, Egypt.

2.2. Phenolic Compound Analysis

Chromatographic analyses were conducted using a Merck-Hitachi liquid chromatograph (LaChrom Elite) fitted with a diode array detector (L-2455). The Purospher® RP-18e column (250 × 4 mm; 5 μm; Merck (Berlin, Germany) was used as the stationary phase, whereas two solvents made up the mobile phase: solvent A—methanol, solvent B—methanol and 0.5% acetic acid 1:4 (v/v). These solvents were mixed using the following gradient program at a flow rate of 1 mL/min: 0–20 min, 0–20′ 100% B; 20–35′ 100–80% B; 35–55′ 80–60% B; 55–70′ 60–0% B; 70–75′ 0% B; 75–80′ 0–100% B; 80–90′ 100% B. The sample injection volume was 20 µL, and analyses were conducted at a temperature of 25 °C and wavelength of 254 nm. Validation of HPLC has previously been conducted by our group [32,33].
Retention time and ultraviolet spectra were compared with standards to identify the compounds in leaf extracts, and calibration curves were used to quantify the identified compounds. This analysis focused on searching for a pool of compounds for which commercial patterns are available, which included both phenolic acids and flavonoids. All 38 standards that were used in the analysis were produced by Sigma-Aldrich (HPLC purity ≥ 95.0%, Berlin, Germany). The following compounds were screened for: 22 phenolic acids [cinnamic acid and its derivatives [caffeic acid(y = 598.118x − 1.456, R2 = 0.999), o-coumaric acid, m-coumaric acid, p-coumaric acid (y = 311.434x + 0.376, R2 = 0.999), ferulic acid, hydrocaffeic acid, isoferulic acid, and sinapic acid), benzoic acid and its derivatives (3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, ellagic acid, gallic acid, gentisic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, protocatechuic acid (y = 1357.761x − 2.599, R2 = 0.999), salicylic acid, syringic acid (y = 628.954x + 0.574, R2 = 0.999), and vanillic acid (y = 1276.874x − 1.692, R2 = 0.990)), and depsides (chlorogenic acid (y = 447.904x − 0.452, R2 = 0.999), isochlorogenic acid (y = 394.361x + 2.389, R2 = 0.999), neochlorogenic acid, and rosmarinic acid (y = 362.955x − 2.320, R2 = 0.999); 7 flavonoids (cynaroside, myricetin, naringin, quercetin (y = 672.699x − 8.133, R2 = 0.999), kaempferol, rhamnetin, and luteolin); and nine flavonoid glycosides (apigetrin, cynaroside, hyperoside, quercitrin, robinin, rutoside (y = 594.208x + 0.666, R2 = 0.999), isoquercetin, trifolin, and vitexin).

2.3. Antioxidant Activity

R. graveolens and A. abrotanum leaf extracts antioxidant activities were investigated using β-carotene bleaching, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays [5,34,35,36,37,38]. The IC50 (µg/mL) was defined as the amount of extracts required to scavenge 50% of β-carotene bleaching/DPPH solution/FRAP reagent. This values (IC50) was determined by plotting the inhibition percent against extract concentration.
In the DPPH assay, serial concentrations of leaf extracts were added to 5 mL of 0.004% methanolic DPPH solution freshly prepared. After incubation for 30 mins in the dark at room temperature, the absorbance was measured at 517 nm. The free radical inhibition by DPPH was calculated as follows:
The percentage inhibition of antiproliferative activity (IAA) was calculated in triplicates:
IAA   =     ( A B 5170 n m ) C − ( A B 517 n m ) s ( A B 517 n m ) C × 100
where ( A B 5170 n m ) C and ( A B 517 n m ) s are Abs.517 nm of control and sample, respectively.
A standard antioxidant was used (butylated hydroxytoluene, BHT) as a positive control and the inhibition concentration of each sample was compared with that of the BHT and blank. In the β-carotene-bleaching assay the mixture was prepared by dissolving the β-carotene (0.5 mg) in chloroform (1 mL), then adding 25 μL linoleic acid and 200 mg Tween 40. The chloroform was removed by vacuum evaporation, and the distilled water was added (100 mL), followed by vigorous shaking. A 2.5 mL of the mixture were mixed with serial concentrations of leaf extracts, incubated for 48 h at room temperature and the absorbance was measured at 470 nm.
In the FRAP assay, aliquots (100 μL) of leaf extracts/Trolox (Sigma-Aldrich, Berlin, Germany) were added to the FRAP reagent (3 mL), then mixed and incubated for 30 min at 37 °C. The calibration procedure of FRAP was conducted by applying serial dilutions of Trolox (0–0.5 mmol/L), as standard. The absorbance was measured at 593 nm for FRAP. All antioxidant experiments were conducted in triplicates and repeated thrice.

2.4. Anticancer Activities

2.4.1. Antiproliferative Assay

The antiproliferative and cytotoxic activities of R. graveolens and A. abrotanum leaf extracts were tested against the following cell lines: T-cell lymphoblast like (Jurkat), breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7), cervical adenocarcinoma (HeLa), colon adenocarcinoma (HT-29), and normal human embryonic kidney (HEK-293) [4,5]. To determine changes in cell viability, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was employed. The leaf extracts were dissolved in 1% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and the resulting solutions were added to 75-cm2 flasks containing standard minimum essential medium (comprising 10% fetal bovine serum, 0.1 mM nonessential amino acids, 17.8  mM NaHCO3, and 1  mM sodium pyruvate) and cancer cells. The cancer cells were prepared in microtiter plates using 4 × 10−4 cells per µL in 270 µL medium for 48 h (37 °C, 5% CO2). Serial concentrations of the leaf extracts were used to obtain final concentrations of 50, 100, 200, 300, and 400 µg/mL.
A washing procedure was performed using phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), following which MTT dissolved in PBS (12 mM) was added to the medium and isoprobanol (0.04 N HCl) was mixed. Then, the mixture was left for 40 min, after which absorbance was measured at a wavelength of 570 nm. Positive control (vinblastine sulfate and taxol) and negative control (no treatment) were also prepared. Inhibition activity amount was calculated using the following equation:
IAA   = ( A B 570 n m ) C − ( A B 570 n m ) s ( A B 570 n m ) C × 100
where (AB570nm)c and (AB570nm)s are the absorbances of the control and sample, respectively.
IC50 was determined by plotting the percentage of viable cells against the extract concentration in µg/mL.

2.4.2. Flow Cytometry

The IC50 of MTT was then applied to flow cytometry for investigating the cytotoxic activities of the leaf extracts of R. graveolens and A. abrotanum, following which the apoptotic cell populations were determined (FAC Scan, New York, NY, USA) [4,5]. Briefly, cultured cancer cells in six-well plates were subjected the IC50 of leaf extracts as well as identified polyphenols (quercetin and isochlorogenic acid) for 48 h. Untreated cells were considered as control. trypsin (0.25%) was used to detach cells in Hank’s balanced salt solution (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Berlin, Germany). The cells were stained using the Annexin V apoptosis detection kit (Sigma, St. Louis, MO, USA). By incubation in the dark at 37 °C for 15 min then washing with PBS. The data of flow cytometer is presented in quadrants as percentage: lower left (viable cells), upper left (necrotic cells), lower right (early apoptotic cells), and upper right (late apoptotic cells).

2.5. Antibacterial Activities

The antibacterial activities of R. graveolens and A. abrotanum leaf extracts were examined using isolates of Listeria monocytogenes (clinical isolate), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538), Escherichia coli (ATCC 35210) ria, Bacillus cereus (ATCC 14579), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853), and Micrococcus flavus (ATCC 10240). A microtiter plate-based protocol (microdilution) was used as described previously [7,39,40,41,42], wherein serial concentrations of the extracts and pure standards of identified polyphenols that were mixed with bacterial inoculum of 1.0 × 104 colony-forming units and 100 μL tryptic soy broth in each well and incubated for 1 day at 37 °C on a rotary shaker. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was defined as the lowest concentration that caused no visible growth under a binocular microscope, and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) was defined as the minimal concentration that eliminated 99.5% of each inoculum as determined using serial subculturing of the leaf extracts (2 μL). Optical density was determined at a wavelength of 655 nm. Streptomycin (0.01–10 mg/mL) and DMSO (1%) were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. Experiments were conducted in triplicate and repeated thrice.

2.6. Antifungal Activities

The antifungal activities of R. graveolens and A. abrotanum leaf extracts were determined against Penicillium ochrochloron (ATCC 48663), Aspergillus ochraceus (ATCC 12066), Candida albicans (ATCC 12066), As. niger (ATCC 6275), As. flavus (ATCC 9643), and Pe. funiculosum (ATCC 56755) using microdilution [33,40,41]. MIC was determined under a stereomicroscope, whereas minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) was determined by preparing serial dilutions of 2 µL of each leaf extract and pure standards of identified polyphenols in subcultures of fungi for 72 h at 28 °C in microtiter plates that contained 100 µL of broth medium. Ketoconazole (1–3500 µg/mL) and DMSO (1%) were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. Experiments were conducted in triplicate and repeated thrice.

2.7. Statistical Analyses

Differences among treatments were expressed as the least significant differences (LSD) in SPSS software. The mean and standard deviation (SD) were calculated from the three replicates (of each assay).

3. Results

3.1. Polyphenol Profiles of the Leaf Extracts

The methanolic leaf extracts of R. graveolens were found to contain four phenolic acids and two flavonoids (Table 1, Figure 1 and Figure 2A). The major phenolic acids were chlorogenic acid and p-coumaric acid, with protocatechuic acid and caffeic acid present at lower concentrations. In addition, high concentrations of the flavonoids rutoside and quercetin were detected.
The methanolic leaf extracts of A. abrotanum were found to contain seven phenolic acids and one flavonoid (Table 1, Figure 1 and Figure 2B). The major phenolic acids were isochlorogenic acid and rosmarinic acid, with chlorogenic acid, protocatechuic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, and syringic acid present at lower concentrations. Furthermore, quercetin was identified.

3.2. Antioxidant Effects

The methanolic leaf extracts of both R. graveolens and A. abrotanum and the major polyphenols showed strong antioxidant activities (Table 2). However, the methanolic leaf extracts of R. graveolens showed higher antioxidant activity than those of A. abrotanum according to DPPH, β-carotene bleaching, and FRAP assays. Quercetin, chlorogenic acid, and p-coumaric acid, which were identified in R. graveolens, showed strong antioxidant activities, with p-coumaric acid having the lowest IC50 value. In addition, isochlorogenic acid, rosmarinic acid, and quercitrin, which were identified in A. abrotanum, showed strong antioxidant activities. Indeed, the antioxidant activities of rosmarinic acid and p-coumaric acid were comparable to those of the BHT and Trolox antioxidant standards.

3.3. MTT Assay and Flow Cytometry

The antiproliferative activities of the methanolic leaf extracts of R. graveolens and A. abrotanum and the identified polyphenols against different cancer cells were measured using MTT assay. It was found that the leaf extracts of both species and the identified polyphenols had strong antiproliferative activities against all cells, except normal HEK-293 cells (Table 3). In particular, quercetin, chlorogenic acid, isochlorogenic acid, and p-coumaric acid showed strong antiproliferative activities against most cancer cells, with Jurkat being the most resistant cell line.
Investigation of the cytotoxic activities of the leaf extracts as well as quercetin and isochlorogenic acid using flow cytometry showed apoptotic cell accumulation in the upper and lower right quadrants following 48 h of exposure (Figure 3).

3.4. Antibacterial Activities of Leaf Extracta and Identified Polyphenols

The methanolic leaf extracts of both R. graveolens and A. abrotanum showed antibacterial activities against a range of bacteria, but R. graveolens showed higher antibacterial activities against all bacteria studied (Table 4). The most sensitive bacterium (i.e., with the lowest IC50) was S. aureus, whereas the most resistant was M. flavus. Quercitrin, isochlorogenic acid, and p-coumaric acid showed strong antibacterial activities against all bacteria, with the former two having comparable activity to the antibiotic streptomycin. By contrast, rosmarinic acid and quercetin showed moderate-to-low antibacterial activities.

3.5. Antifungal Effects

The methanolic leaf extracts of both R. graveolens and A. abrotanum showed moderate antifungal activities against most fungal species studied, but R. graveolens showed higher activity (i.e., lower IC50 values) (Table 5). Quercetin, isochlorogenic acid, p-coumaric acid, quercitrin, and rosmarinic acid also showed antifungal activities, with isochlorogenic acid and quercetin having the highest activities among the studied polyphenols.

4. Discussion

Qualitative and quantitative variation in bioactive compound content within populations of the same plant species but with different origins is a fairly well-known phenomenon that has been widely documented [39,43]. In the present study, we investigated the polyphenol contents of leaf extracts of two quite well-known plants that are used as tradtitional medicine and grow naturally at sites that experience harsh weather conditions in northern Saudi Arabia.
We confirmed that methanolic leaf extracts of the Saudi-origin R. graveolens contained four phenolic acids and two flavonoids, among which rutoside (1010.1 mg/100 g DW), quercetin (375.4 mg/100 g DW), chlorogenic acid (356.0 mg/100 g DW), and p-coumaric acid (158.6 mg/100 g DW) were the main metabolites (Table 1). R. graveolens is generally recognized as a plant with a high content of furanocoumarin compounds [44,45], and there is evidence that rutoside and quercetin are the main active flavonoids in this species and may be responsible for its pharmacological functions, which include anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antiandrogenic, antihyperglycemia, antihyperlipidemia, antigout, and anticancer activities [46]. However, phenolic acids may also play an important role in the biological activities of this species. Meinhart et al. [47] previously investigated the availability of chlorogenic acid and its derivatives in various commercial plants in Brazil and confirmed that the leaf extracts of R. graveolens contained chlorogenic acid (103 mg/100 g DW) and 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (132 mg/100 g DW), but not caffeic acid, which is one of the precursors of chlorogenic acid derivatives. By contrast, the Saudi-orgin R. graveolens leaf extracts examined here had 3.5 times higher chlorogenic acid as the Brazilian-origin plants and contained caffeic acid (18.2 mg/100 g DW). In an investigation of leaf extracts of Polish-origin R. graveolens, Ekiert et al. [48] confirmed the presence of protocatechuic acid (114 mg/100 g DW) and p-coumaric acid (5 mg/100 g DW). By contrast, the Saudi-origin leaf extracts contained a 31.5 times higher amount of p-coumaric acid, but a 2.3 times lower amount of protocatechuic acid.
A. abrotanum is widely recognized as a typical raw material that contains essential oil. The main volatile constituents of this plant are 1,8-cineole, linalool, davanone, and thujyl alcohol [49]. While these compounds appear to play a major role in determining the biological properties of A. abrotanum, including spasmolytic and antimicrobial activities [50], polyphenolic compounds and other compounds that are present in the raw material may have considerable synergistic effects [51]. However, there have been few studies on the phenolic acid and flavonoid contents of this species. In the present study, we confirmed that the leaf extracts of Saudi-origin A. abrotanum contained several phenolic acids, among which isochlorogenic acid (496.3 mg/100 g DW) and rosmarinic acid (241.1 mg/100 g DW) were the main metabolites (Table 1). It has been reported that this species contains the flavonols 5,3′-dihydroxy-3,6,7,4′-tetramethoxyflavone (casticin), 5,7,3′-trihydroxy-3,6,4′-trimethoxyflavone (centaureidin), 3,5,7-trihydroxy-3,4′-dimethoxyflavone (quercetin 3,′4′-dimethyl ether), and 3′,4′,5-trihydroxy-3,7-dimethoxyflavone (quercetin 3,7-dimethyl ether) [52]. However, the only flavonoid we detected in the extracts of Saudi-origin A. abrotanum was quercitrin (3-rhamnosyl quercetin; 106.6 mg/100 g DW). We confirmed, for the first time, that A. abrotanum leaf extracts contain several phenolic acids including chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, isochlorogenic acid, and rosmarinic acid and other phenolic acids such as protocatechuic acid, syryngic acid, and vanillic acid (Table 1).
The methanolic leaf extracts of R. graveolens and A. abrotanum showed noticeable antioxidant activities in DPPH, FRAP, and β-carotene bleaching assays, with the former showing the highest antioxidant activity. Diwan and Malpathak [20] suggested that the phenolic compounds in the leaves of R. graveolens originating from central India serve as a good source of antioxidants that could offer potential protective effects against lipid oxidation. Supporting this, we found that the leaf extracts of Saudi-origin R. graveolens contained quercetin, chlorogenic acid, and p-coumaric acid, all of which also showed strong antioxidant activities. Quercetin, which is a flavonoid glycoside that is common in plants, can reduce reactive oxygen species production and activate the acute monocytic leukemia cell line THP-1 in vitro [53] and has strong antioxidant and antiproliferative activities against RAW264.7 cancer cells [54]. Chlorogenic acid, which is considered an ester between caffeic and quinic acids, has the capacity to control oxidative and inflammatory stresses and is strongly recommended for consumption in beverages due to its ability to modulate the number of metabolic pathways, thus reducing oxidative stress [55]. p-Coumaric acid, which is a derivative of cinnamic acid, has strong antioxidant activities that are comparable to standard antioxidants [56,57]. Diwan and Malpathak [20] previously showed that in vitro shoot culture extracts from Indian-origin R. graveolens had DPPH IC50 values ranging from 33 to 60 μg/mL. However, in the present study, we found that Saudi-origin plants had higher antioxidant activities as revealed by DPPH assay, and similarly Pavić et al. [58] found that choline chloride leaf extracts of R. graveolens originating from Bosnia and Herzegovina had strong antioxidant activities.
The strong antioxidant activity of the A. abrotanum leaf extracts was also attributed to the polyphenols present, which included isochlorogenic acid, rosmarinic acid, chlorogenic acid, and quercitrin. Rosmarinic acid was found to have a strong antioxidant effect, which was comparable to that of the antioxidant standards BHT and Trolox, supporting previous findings [59]. Furthermore, both isochlorogenic acid, which was the major compound in A. abrotanum extracts, and chlorogenic acid showed strong antioxidant activities. Previous studies have also observed strong antioxidant activities of both isochlorogenic acid (3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid), which has the same structure as chlorogenic acid but with >1 caffeic acid group [60], and chlorogenic acid, which is commonly found in fruits and vegetables [7,61].
MTT assay and flow cytometry revealed that R. graveolens and A. abrotanum leaf extracts had antiproliferative and cytotoxic activities against different cancer cells, similar to quercetin, chlorogenic acid, isochlorogenic acid, and p-coumaric acid. In a previous study, American-origin R. graveolens leaf extracts showed anticancer activities against breast, colon, and prostate cancers [62]. However, the polyphenolic compounds responsible for these effects were not identified. In another study, furanoacridones (alkaloids) were identified in German-origin R. graveolens leaf extracts and were found to be associated with anticancer activities against MCF-7 cells, which included reduced cell proliferation and cell cycle disturbance [63]. In the present study, several polyphenols, including quercetin, isochlorogenic acid, chlorogenic acid, and p-coumaric acid, were identified for the first time in a natural population of R. graveolens, and their activities were associated with the antioxidant, antiproliferative, and cytotoxic activities of this plant. Quercetin is widely recognized as a strong antiproliferative factor against cancer cells and has been shown to suppress the activity of specificity protein 1 and reduces the proliferation of human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells [64]. It has also been associated with antiprolifrative activities against prostate cancer cells as a synergistic factor to epigallocatechin (polyphenol) in green tea [65] and has recently been described as having cytotoxic activity against lung cancer cells [66]. To the best of our knowledge, the antiproliferative and cytotoxic activities of isochlorogenic acid have not been previously described, making this the first report on the activity of this compound against cancer cells. Chlorogenic acid showed moderate antiproliferative activities against cancer cells in this study, which is in agreement with the findings of previous studies [67,68]. Finally, the antiproliferative activities of p-coumaric acid have rarely been studied, with only two investigations reporting antiproliferative and, to a certain extent, cytotoxic activities of this polyphenol against colon cancer cells [69,70]. Therefore, this is the first report on the activity of this polyphenol against other types of cancer cells.
A. abrotanum leaf extracts also showed antiproliferative activities against cancer cells, which were attributed to the major polyphenols identified, particularly isochlorogenic acid and rosmarinic acid. Tayarani-Najaran et al. [71] found that CH2Cl2 leaf extracts of wild Iranian-origin A. biennis had cytotoxic activities against K562 and HL-60 cancer cells, but they did not identify the responsible polyphenols. Similarly, methanolic flower, leaf, stem, and root extracts of other Artemisia species, including A. absinthium, A. vulgaris, and A. incana, showed cytotoxic activities against MCF-7 cells [72], but no specific polyphenols were associated with these activities.
The leaf extracts of R. graveolens and A. abrotanum had antibacterial activities against a range of bacteria. This antibacterial activity of R. graveolens is attributed to the high contents of specific polyphenols such as chlorogenic acid and p-coumaric acid, but particularly to quercetin. It has been shown that quercetin has strong antibacterial activities against [73], as found in this study, as well as against other bacteria including E. coli and Ps. aeruginosa [74]. Furthermore, chlorogenic acid has strong antibacterial activities [75,76] and p-coumaric acid is a strong antibacterial agent against B. cereus and Salmonella typhimurium, acting synergistically with niacin [77]. However, this is the first comprehensive study to illustrate the wide antibacterial activities of p-coumaric acid. Pavić et al. [58] similarly found that choline chloride leaf extracts of R. graveolens originating from Bosnia and Herzegovina had strong antioxidant and antibacterial activities, with MIC values ranging from 62 to 125 μg/mL against different strains of E. coli, Ps. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus. In the present study, we detected relatively lower MIC values, indicating that Saudi-origin R. graveolens have stronger antibacterial activities against microbes.
The leaf extracts of R. graveolens and A. abrotanum showed moderate antifungal activities against most of the fungal species studies. These antifungal activities are strongly associated with the identified polyphenols including quercetin, isochlorogenic acid, p-coumaric acid, quercitrin, and rosmarinic acid. It has previously been shown that quercetin has strong antifungal activities against C. albicans and C. parapsilosis [78]. However, only one study has demonstrated the antifungal activities of p-coumaric acid (against Botrytis cinerea) [79], which contrasts with the wide-spectrum effects observed in the present study, and this is the first report on the antifungal activities of isochlorogenic acid obtained from R. graveolens and A. abrotanum. Oliva et al. [80] reported on the antifungal activities of ethyl acetate leaf extracts of American-origin R. graveolens against Colletotrichum sp. and Botrytis cinerea, which they attributed to the presence of one quinoline alkaloid and four quinolone alkaloids. In the present study, we investigated a larger number of fungal species and found that A. abrotanum showed strong antifungal activities against these fungi, which was attributed to the specific polyphenols it contains. A recent report on A. gmelinii similarly found that ethanolic and chloroform leaf extracts showed antifungal activities against Candida spp. [81], which were attributed to flavonoid, coumarin, and chlorogenic acid contents.

5. Conclusions

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the polyphenol contents and biological activities of methanolic leaf extracts of natural populations of R. graveolens and A. abrotanum from the Riyadh region of northern Saudi Arabia. Using HPLC-DAD, we identified several polyphenols in the leaf extracts, among which quercetin and isochlorogenic acid were the major components in R. graveolens and A. abrotanum, respectively. More specifically, R. graveolens contained quercetin, chlorogenic acid, p-coumaric acid, protocatechuic acid, caffeic acid, and rutoside, whereas A. abrotanum contained isochlorogenic acid, rosmarinic acid, quercitrin, chlorogenic acid, protocatechuic acid, syringic acid, vanillic acid, and caffeic acid. The detected compounds were identified tentatively by HPLC-DAD method; further analyses, using more modern chromatographic methods, are needed to better understand the composition of studied plants. In addition, the phytochemical analyses conducted in this study was a partial analysis of selected compounds in the extract. For, e.g., fingerprinting purposes, a more sophisticated analysis should be conducted. Most of the polyphenols showed antioxidant activities and consequently were associated with the observed antioxidant activities of the leaf extracts. In addition, the leaf extracts of both species showed antiproliferative and cytotoxic activities against cancer cells, which may be attributed to necrotic cell accumulation during the early and late apoptotic periods. Antibacterial activities were also observed in the leaf extracts of both species and in the identified polyphenols, with the R. graveolens leaf extracts showing higher antibacterial activity, which was attributed to the high content of quercetin and other polyphenols. Similarly, the leaf extracts of both species exhibited antifungal effects, which were attributed to their polyphenol contents and associated with specific polyphenols. This is the first study to confirm the polyphenolic richness and wide spectrum of biological activities associated with natural populations of R. graveolens and A. abrotanum from northern Saudi Arabia.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.O.E., A.S., P.K., H.E., D.O.E.-A., F.A.A.-M. and E.A.M.; Formal Analysis, A.S., H.E., D.O.E.-A. and E.A.M.; Funding Acquisition, H.O.E. and F.A.A.-M.; Investigation, H.O.E. and A.S.; Methodology, A.S., P.K., F.A.A.-M. and E.A.M.; Project Administration, H.E. and D.O.E.-A.; Resources, P.K.; Software, P.K.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, H.O.E., A.S., H.E., D.O.E.-A. and E.A.M.; Writing—Review and Editing, H.O.E. and F.A.A.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by King Saud University, Researchers Supporting Project, grant number RSP-2019/118.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to King Saud University, Researchers Supporting Project for funding this work through research group (RSP-2019/118).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Halagarda, M.; Groth, S.; Popek, S.; Rohn, S.; Pedan, V. Antioxidant activity and phenolic profile of selected organic and conventional honeys from Poland. Antioxidants 2020, 9, 44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  2. Elansary, H.O.; Szopa, A.; Kupica, P.; Ekiert, H.; El-Ansary, D.O.; Al-Mana, F.A.; Mahmoud, E.A. Polyphenol profile and antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of natural Mentha × piperita and Mentha longifolia populations in Northern Saudi Arabia. Processes 2020, 8, 479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  3. Salem, M.Z.M.; Elansary, H.O.; Ali, H.M.; El-Settawy, A.A.; Elshikh, M.S.; Abdel-Salam, E.M.; Skalicka-Wozniak, K. Bioactivity of essential oils extracted from Cupressus macrocarpa branchlets and Corymbia citriodora leaves grown in Egypt. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2018, 18, 23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Elansary, H.O.; Szopa, A.; Kubica, P.; Al-Mana, F.A.; Mahmoud, E.A.; El-Abedin, T.K.A.Z.; Mattar, M.A.; Ekiert, H. Phenolic compounds of Catalpa speciosa, Taxus cuspidata, and Magnolia acuminata have antioxidant and anticancer activity. Molecules 2019, 24, 412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  5. Elansary, H.O.; Szopa, A.; Kubica, P.; Ekiert, H.; Mattar, M.A.; Al-Yafrasi, M.A.; El-Ansary, D.O.; Zin El-Abedin, T.K.; Yessoufou, K. Polyphenol profile and pharmaceutical potential of Quercus spp. bark extracts. Plants 2019, 8, 486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  6. Elansary, H.O. Tree bark phenols regulate the physiological and biochemical performance of Gladiolus flowers. Processes 2020, 8, 71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. Elansary, H.O.; Szopa, A.; Klimek-Szczykutowicz, M.; Jafernik, K.; Ekiert, H.; Mahmoud, E.A.; Barakat, A.A.; El-Ansary, D.O. Mammillaria species—Polyphenols studies and anti-cancer, anti-oxidant, and anti-bacterial activities. Molecules 2019, 25, 131. [Google Scholar]
  8. Khan, M.; Siddiqui, S.A. Concurrent chemoradiotherapy with or without induction chemotherapy for the management of cervical lymph node metastasis from unknown primary tumor. J. Cancer Res. Ther. 2018, 14, 1117–1120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Alvarado-Sansininea, J.J.; Sánchez-Sánchez, L.; López-Muñoz, H.; Escobar, M.L.; Flores-Guzmán, F.; Tavera-Hernández, R.; Jiménez-Estrada, M. Quercetagetin and Patuletin: Antiproliferative, necrotic and apoptotic activity in tumor cell lines. Molecules 2018, 23, 2579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Sezer, E.D.; Oktay, L.M.; Karadadaş, E.; Memmedov, H.; Selvi Gunel, N.; Sözmen, E. Assessing anticancer potential of blueberry flavonoids, quercetin, kaempferol, and gentisic acid, through oxidative stress and apoptosis parameters on HCT-116 cells. J. Med. Food 2019, 22, 1118–1126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Salem, M.Z.M.; El-Hefny, M.; Ali, H.M.; Elansary, H.O.; Nasser, R.A.; El-Settawy, A.A.A.; El Shanhorey, N.; Ashmawy, N.A.; Salem, A.Z.M. Antibacterial activity of extracted bioactive molecules of Schinus terebinthifolius ripened fruits against some pathogenic bacteria. Microb. Pathog. 2018, 120, 119–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Saleh, A.; ElFayoumi, H.M.; Youns, M.; Barakat, W. Rutin and orlistat produce antitumor effects via antioxidant and apoptotic actions. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. 2019, 392, 165–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Abdal Dayem, A.; Choi, H.Y.; Yang, G.M.; Kim, K.; Saha, S.K.; Cho, S.G. The anti-cancer effect of polyphenols against breast cancer and cancer stem cells: Molecular mechanisms. Nutrients 2016, 8, 581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Costea, T.; Nagy, P.; Ganea, C.; Szöllősi, J.; Mocanu, M.M. Molecular mechanisms and bioavailability of polyphenols in prostate cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 1062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  15. Yaacob, K.b.; Abdullah, C.M.; Joulain, D. Essential of Ruta graveolens L. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1989, 1, 203–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Szopa, A.; Ekiert, H.; Szewczyk, A.; Fugas, E. Production of bioactive phenolic acids and furanocoumarins in in vitro cultures of Ruta graveolens L. and Ruta graveolens ssp. divaricata (Tenore) Gams. under different light conditions. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult. 2012, 110, 329–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  17. Ueng, Y.F.; Chen, C.C.; Huang, Y.L.; Lee, I.J.; Yun, C.H.; Chen, Y.H.; Huang, C.C. Effects of aqueous extract of Ruta graveolens and its ingredients on cytochrome P450, uridine diphosphate (UDP)-glucuronosyltransferase, and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (phosphate) (NAD(P)H)-quinone oxidoreductase in mice. J. Food Drug Anal. 2015, 23, 516–528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Mahmoud, E.A.; Elansary, H.O.; El-Ansary, D.O.; Al-Mana, F.A. Elevated bioactivity of ruta graveolens against cancer cells and microbes using seaweeds. Processes 2020, 8, 75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  19. Sidwa-Gorycka, M.; Krolicka, A.; Orlita, A.; Malinski, E.; Golebiowski, M.; Kumirska, J.; Chromik, A.; Biskup, E.; Stepnowski, P.; Lojkowska, E. Genetic transformation of Ruta graveolens L. by Agrobacterium rhizogenes: Hairy root cultures a promising approach for production of coumarins and furanocoumarins. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult. 2009, 97, 59–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Diwan, R.; Malpathak, N. Phytochemical composition and antioxidant potential of Ruta graveolens L. in vitro culture lines. J. Bot. 2012, 2012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Mancuso, G.; Borgonovo, G.; Scaglioni, L.; Bassoli, A. Phytochemicals from Ruta graveolens activate TAS2R bitter taste receptors and TRP channels involved in gustation and nociception. Molecules 2015, 20, 18907–18922. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  22. Al-Qurainy, F.; Khan, S.; Ali, M.A.; Al-hemaid, F.M.; Tarroum, M.; Ashraf, M. Authentication of Ruta graveolens and its adulterant using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Pak. J. Bot. 2011, 43, 1613–1620. [Google Scholar]
  23. Malik, A.; Mir, S.R.; Ahmad, J. Ruta graveolens L. essential oil composition under different nutritional treatments. Middle East J. Sci. Res. 2013, 17, 885–890. [Google Scholar]
  24. Kowalski, R.; Wawrzykowski, J.; Zawiślak, G. Analysis of essential oils and extracts from Artemisia abrotanum L. and Artemisia dracunculus L. Herba Pol. 2007, 53, 246–254. [Google Scholar]
  25. Tabanca, N.; Demirci, B.; Blythe, E.; Bernier, U.; Ali, A.; Wedge, D.; Khan, I.; Baser, K.H.C. Composition of Artemisia abrotanum and A. pontica essential oils and their repellent activity against Aedes aegypti. Planta Med. 2011, 77, 1305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Baiceanu, E.; Vlase, L.; Baiceanu, A.; Nanes, M.; Rusu, D.; Crisan, G. New polyphenols identified in Artemisiae abrotani herba extract. Molecules 2015, 20, 11063–11075. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Malik, R.; Gupta, R.C.; Kumari, S. Genetic diversity in different populations of Artemisia absinthium Linn. from Kashmir Himalaya. Cytologia 2010, 75, 273–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  28. Lemma, W.M.; Michael, J.C.; George, O.K. Genetic diversity of biennial wormwood. Weed Sci. 2004, 52, 53–60. [Google Scholar]
  29. Rzepka-Plevneš, D.; Smolik, M.; Urbanek, K.; Jadczak, D. Morphological and Genetic Variability in Some Artemisia Species; International Society for Horticultural Science (ISHS): Leuven, Belgium, 2009; pp. 687–694. [Google Scholar]
  30. Vallès, J.; Garcia, S.; Hidalgo, O.; Martín, J.; Pellicer, J.; Sanz, M.; Garnatje, T. Biology, genome evolution, biotechnological issues and research including applied perspectives in Artemisia (Asteraceae). In Advances in Botanical Research; Kader, J.C., Delseny, M., Eds.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2011; Volume 60, pp. 349–419. [Google Scholar]
  31. Elansary, H.O.; Szopa, A.; Kubica, P.; El-Ansary, D.O.; Ekiert, H.; Al-Mana, F.A. Malus baccata var. gracilis and Malus toringoides Bark polyphenol studies and antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticancer activities. Processes 2020, 8, 283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  32. Ellnain-Wojtaszek, M.; Zgórka, G. High-performance liquid chromatography and thin-layer chromatography of phenolic acids from Ginkgo biloba L. leaves collected within vegetative period. J. Liq. Chromatogr. Relat. Technol. 1999, 22, 1457–1471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Sułkowska-Ziaja, K.; Maślanka, A.; Szewczyk, A.; Muszyńska, B. Determination of physiologically active compounds in four species of Genus phellinus. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2017, 12, 363–366. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  34. Elansary, H.O.; Yessoufou, K.; Abdel-Hamid, A.M.E.; El-Esawi, M.A.; Ali, H.M.; Elshikh, M.S. Seaweed extracts enhance salam turfgrass performance during prolonged irrigation intervals and saline shock. Front. Plant Sci. 2017, 8, 830. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  35. Ferreira, J.P.A.; Miranda, I.; Sousa, V.B.; Pereira, H. Chemical composition of barks from Quercus faginea trees and characterization of their lipophilic and polar extracts. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0197135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. El-Esawi, A.M.; Elkelish, A.; Soliman, M.; Elansary, O.H.; Zaid, A.; Shabir, W.H. Serratia marcescens BM1 enhances cadmium stress tolerance and phytoremediation potential of soybean through modulation of osmolytes, leaf gas exchange, antioxidant machinery, and stress-responsive genes expression. Antioxidants 2020, 9, 43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  37. Elansary, H.O.; Agnieszka, S.; Klimek-Szczykutowicz, M.; Ekiert, H.; Barakat, A.A.; Al-Mana, F.A. Antiproliferative, antimicrobial, and antifungal activities of polyphenol extracts from Ferocactus species. Processes 2020, 8, 138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  38. Elansary, H.O.; Mahmoud, E.A. Basil cultivar identification using chemotyping still favored over genotyping using core barcodes and possible resources of antioxidants. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2015, 27, 82–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Lysiuk, R.; Konieczynski, P.; Viapiana, A.; Wesolowsk, M. Chemical composition of selected commercial herbal remedies in relation to geographical origin and inter-species diversity. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2017, 178, 1–9. [Google Scholar]
  40. Elansary, H.O.; Szopa, A.; Kubica, P.; Ekiert, H.; Ali, H.M.; Elshikh, M.S.; Abdel-Salam, E.M.; El-Esawi, M.; El-Ansary, D.O. Bioactivities of traditional medicinal plants in Alexandria. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 2018, 2018, 1463579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  41. Elansary, H.O.; Yessoufou, K.; Shokralla, S.; Mahmoud, E.A.; Skaicka-Wozniak, K. Enhancing mint and basil oil composition and antibacterial activity using seaweed extracts. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2016, 92, 50–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Abd El-Kareem, M.S.M.; Mohamed, A.R.; Elansary, H.O.; Al-Mana, F.A. Mass spectral fragmentation of Pelargonium graveolens essential oil using GC–MS semi-empirical calculations and biological potential. Processes 2020, 8, 128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  43. Turesson, G. The species and the variety as ecological units. Hereditas 1922, 3, 100–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Milesi, S.; Massot, B.; Gontier, E.; Bourgaud, F. Ruta graveolens L.: A promising species for the production of furanocoumarins. Plant Sci. 2001, 161, 189–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Austin, D.J.; Brown, S.A. Furanocoumarin biosynthesis in Ruta graveolens cell cultures. Phytochemistry 1973, 12, 1657–1667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Asgarpanah, J.; Khoshkam, R. Phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of Ruta graveolens L. J. Med. Plant Res. 2012, 6, 3942–3949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Meinhart, A.; Damin, F.; Miranda, L.; Ferreira, T.; Teixeira, J.; Godoy, H. Chlorogenic acid isomer contents in 100 plants commercialized in Brazil. Food Res. Int. 2017, 99, 522–530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Ekiert, H.; Szewczyk, A.; Szopa, A. Free phenolic acids in Ruta graveolens L. in vitro culture. Die Pharmazie 2009, 64, 694–696. [Google Scholar]
  49. Tunon, H.; Thorsell, W.; Mikiver, A.; Malander, I. Arthropod repellency, especially tick (Ixodes ricinus), exerted by extract from Artemisia abrotanum and essential oil from flowers of Dianthus caryophyllum. Fitoterapia 2006, 77, 257–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Bora, K.; Sharma, A. The genus Artemisia: A comprehensive review. Pharm. Biol. 2011, 49, 101–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  51. Ferrer-Gallego, R.; Hernandez-Hierro, J.M.; Rivas-Gonzalo, J.; Escribano, T. Sensory evaluation of bitterness and astringency sub-qualities of wine phenolic compounds: Synergistic effect and modulation by aromas. Food Res. Int. 2014, 62, 1100–1107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  52. Bergendorff, O.; Sterner, O. Spasmolytic flavonols from Artemisia abrotanum. Planta Med. 1995, 61, 370–371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Zhang, M.; Swarts, S.G.; Yin, L.; Liu, C.; Tian, Y.; Cao, Y.; Swarts, M.; Yang, S.; Zhang, S.B.; Zhang, K.; et al. Antioxidant properties of quercetin. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2011, 701, 283–289. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  54. Murakami, Y.; Kawata, A.; Ito, S.; Katayama, T.; Fujisawa, S. Radical-scavenging and anti-inflammatory activity of quercetin and related compounds and their combinations against RAW264.7 cells stimulated with Porphyromonas gingivalis Fimbriae. Relationships between anti-inflammatory activity and quantum chemical parameters. In Vivo 2015, 29, 701–710. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  55. Liang, N.; Kitts, D.D. Role of chlorogenic acids in controlling oxidative and inflammatory stress conditions. Nutrients 2015, 8, 16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  56. Kilic, I.; Yesiloglu, Y. Spectroscopic studies on the antioxidant activity of p-coumaric acid. Spectrochim. Acta A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2013, 115, 719–724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Buravlev, E.V.; Dvornikova, I.A.; Schevchenko, O.G.; Kutchin, A.V. Synthesis and antioxidant ability of novel derivatives based on para-coumaric acid containing isobornyl groups. Chem. Biodivers. 2019, 16, e1900362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Pavić, V.; Flačer, D.; Jakovljević, M.; Molnar, M.; Jokić, S. Assessment of total phenolic content, in vitro antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Ruta graveolens L. extracts obtained by choline chloride based natural deep eutectic solvents. Plants 2019, 8, 69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  59. Świsłocka, R.; Regulska, E.; Karpińska, J.; Świderski, G.; Lewandowski, W. Molecular structure and antioxidant properties of alkali metal salts of rosmarinic acid. experimental and DFT studies. Molecules 2019, 24, 2645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  60. Chang, Y.X.; Liu, J.; Bai, Y.; Li, J.; Liu, E.W.; He, J.; Jiao, X.C.; Wang, Z.Z.; Gao, X.M.; Zhang, B.L.; et al. The activity-integrated method for quality assessment of reduning injection by on-line DPPH-CE-DAD. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e106254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Bagdas, D.; Gul, N.Y.; Topal, A.; Tas, S.; Ozyigit, M.O.; Cinkilic, N.; Gul, Z.; Etoz, B.C.; Ziyanok, S.; Inan, S.; et al. Pharmacologic overview of systemic chlorogenic acid therapy on experimental wound healing. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. 2014, 387, 1101–1116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Fadlalla, K.; Watson, A.; Yehualaeshet, T.; Turner, T.; Samuel, T. Ruta graveolens extract induces DNA damage pathways and blocks Akt activation to inhibit cancer cell proliferation and survival. Anticancer Res. 2011, 31, 233–241. [Google Scholar]
  63. Schelz, Z.; Ocsovszki, I.; Bozsity, N.; Hohmann, J.; Zupko, I. Antiproliferative effects of various furanoacridones isolated from Ruta graveolens on human breast cancer cell lines. Anticancer Res. 2016, 36, 2751–2758. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  64. Lee, R.H.; Cho, J.H.; Jeon, Y.J.; Bang, W.; Cho, J.J.; Choi, N.J.; Seo, K.S.; Shim, J.H.; Chae, J.I. Quercetin induces antiproliferative activity against human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cells by suppressing specificity protein 1 (Sp1). Drug Dev. Res. 2015, 76, 9–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  65. Wang, P.; Heber, D.; Henning, S.M. Quercetin increased the antiproliferative activity of green tea polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin gallate in prostate cancer cells. Nutr. Cancer 2012, 64, 580–587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Zhao, M.H.; Yuan, L.; Meng, L.Y.; Qiu, J.L.; Wang, C.B. Quercetin-loaded mixed micelles exhibit enhanced cytotoxic efficacy in non-small cell lung cancer in vitro. Exp. Ther. Med. 2017, 14, 5503–5508. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  67. Fan, Y.; Yi, J.; Zhang, Y.; Yokoyama, W. Improved chemical stability and antiproliferative activities of curcumin-loaded nanoparticles with a chitosan chlorogenic acid conjugate. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2017, 65, 10812–10819. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Ali, F.; Hassan, N.; Abdrabou, R. Hepatoprotective and antiproliferative activity of moringinine, chlorogenic acid and quercetin. Int. J. Res. Med. Sci. 2016, 4, 1147–1153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  69. Sharma, S.H.; Rajamanickam, V.; Nagarajan, S. Antiproliferative effect of p-coumaric acid targets UPR activation by downregulating Grp78 in colon cancer. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2018, 291, 16–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Janicke, B.; Hegardt, C.; Krogh, M.; Onning, G.; Akesson, B.; Cirenajwis, H.M.; Oredsson, S.M. The antiproliferative effect of dietary fiber phenolic compounds ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid on the cell cycle of Caco-2 cells. Nutr. Cancer 2011, 63, 611–622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Tayarani-Najaran, Z.; Makki, F.S.; Alamolhodaei, N.S.; Mojarrab, M.; Emami, S.A. Cytotoxic and apoptotic effects of different extracts of Artemisia biennis Willd. on K562 and HL-60 cell lines. Iran. J. Basic Med. Sci. 2017, 20, 166–171. [Google Scholar]
  72. Gordanian, B.; Behbahani, M.; Carapetian, J.; Fazilati, M. In vitro evaluation of cytotoxic activity of flower, leaf, stem and root extracts of five Artemisia species. Res. Pharm. Sci. 2014, 9, 91–96. [Google Scholar]
  73. Hirai, I.; Okuno, M.; Katsuma, R.; Arita, N.; Tachibana, M.; Yamamoto, Y. Characterisation of anti-Staphylococcus aureus activity of quercetin. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2010, 45, 1250–1254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Jaisinghani, R. Antibacterial properties of quercetin. Microbiol. Res. 2017, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  75. Wang, Z.; Zhai, X.; Sun, Y.; Yin, C.; Yang, E.; Wang, W.; Sun, D. Antibacterial activity of chlorogenic acid-loaded SiO2 nanoparticles caused by accumulation of reactive oxygen species. Nanotechnology 2020, 31, 185101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  76. Zheng, Y.; Liu, J.; Cao, M.L.; Deng, J.M.; Kou, J. Extrication process of chlorogenic acid in Crofton weed and antibacterial mechanism of chlorogenic acid on Escherichia coli. J. Environ. Biol. 2016, 37, 1049–1055. [Google Scholar]
  77. Bag, A.; Chattopadhyay, R.R. Synergistic antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy of nisin in combination with p-coumaric acid against food-borne bacteria Bacillus cereus and Salmonella typhimurium. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2017, 65, 366–372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  78. Rocha, M.F.G.; Sales, J.A.; da Rocha, M.G.; Galdino, L.M.; de Aguiar, L.; Pereira-Neto, W.d.A.; de Aguiar Cordeiro, R.; Castelo-Branco, D.d.S.C.M.; Sidrim, J.J.C.; Brilhante, R.S.N. Antifungal effects of the flavonoids kaempferol and quercetin: A possible alternative for the control of fungal biofilms. Biofouling 2019, 35, 320–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Morales, J.; Mendoza, L.; Cotoras, M. Alteration of oxidative phosphorylation as a possible mechanism of the antifungal action of p-coumaric acid against Botrytis cinerea. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2017, 123, 969–976. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Elansary, H.O.M.; Adamec, L.; Štorchová, H. Uniformity of organellar DNA in Aldrovanda vesiculosa, an endangered aquatic carnivorous species, distributed across four continents. Aquat. Bot. 2010, 24, 214–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Salem, M.Z.M.; El-Hefny, M.; Nasser, R.A.; Ali, H.M.; El-Shanhorey, N.A.; Elansary, H.O. Medicinal and biological values of Callistemon viminalis extracts: History, current situation and prospects. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med. 2017, 10, 229–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Processes 08 00531 g001 550
Figure 1. The chemical structures of the identified polyphenols.
Figure 1. The chemical structures of the identified polyphenols.
Processes 08 00531 g001
Processes 08 00531 g002 550
Figure 2. Examples of high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection-based separation (λ = 254 nm) of leaf extracts of (A) Ruta graveolens (1, protocatechuic acid; 2, chlorogenic acid; 3, caffeic acid; 4, p-coumaric acid; 5, rutoside; 6, quercetin) and (B) Artemisia abrotanum (1, protocatechuic acid; 2, chlorogenic acid; 3, vanillic acid; 4, caffeic acid; 5, syringic acid; 6, isochlorogenic acid; 7, rosmarinic acid; 8, quercetin).
Figure 2. Examples of high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection-based separation (λ = 254 nm) of leaf extracts of (A) Ruta graveolens (1, protocatechuic acid; 2, chlorogenic acid; 3, caffeic acid; 4, p-coumaric acid; 5, rutoside; 6, quercetin) and (B) Artemisia abrotanum (1, protocatechuic acid; 2, chlorogenic acid; 3, vanillic acid; 4, caffeic acid; 5, syringic acid; 6, isochlorogenic acid; 7, rosmarinic acid; 8, quercetin).
Processes 08 00531 g002
Processes 08 00531 g003 550
Figure 3. Cytotoxicity of methanolic leaf extracts of Ruta graveolens and Artemisia abrotanum, quercetin, and isochlorogenic acid against different cancer cell lines as estimated with flow cytometry.
Figure 3. Cytotoxicity of methanolic leaf extracts of Ruta graveolens and Artemisia abrotanum, quercetin, and isochlorogenic acid against different cancer cell lines as estimated with flow cytometry.
Processes 08 00531 g003
Table
Table 1. Polyphenol contents of Ruta graveolens and Artemisia abrotanum leaf extracts (mg/100 g dry weight).
Table 1. Polyphenol contents of Ruta graveolens and Artemisia abrotanum leaf extracts (mg/100 g dry weight).
CompoundR. graveolensA. abrotanum
Caffeic acid18.2 ± 0.511.2 ± 1.0
Chlorogenic acid356.0 ± 25.240.0 ± 3.6
p-Coumaric acid158.6 ± 18.2nd
Isochlorogenic acidnd496.3 ± 72.5
Protocatechuic acid49.2 ± 4.825.2 ± 3.7
Syringic acidnd1.9 ± 0.3
rosmarinic acidnd241.1 ± 9.2
Vanillic acidnd17.9 ± 1.0
Quercetin375.4 ± 17.2nd
Quercitrinnd106.6 ± 7.2
Rutoside1010.1 ± 70.1nd
Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. nd, not detected.
Table
Table 2. Antioxidant activities of Ruta graveolens and Artemisia abrotanum leaf extracts and the identified polyphenols according to the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), β-carotene bleaching, and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays.
Table 2. Antioxidant activities of Ruta graveolens and Artemisia abrotanum leaf extracts and the identified polyphenols according to the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), β-carotene bleaching, and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays.
DPPH
(IC50, µg/mL)		β-Carotene-Bleaching Assay
(IC50, µg/mL)		FRAP
(IC50, mM TEAC/g Extract)
R. graveolens21.3 ± 1.5c26.7 ± 2.7c32.8 ± 3.1c
A. abrotanum27.1 ± 2.3a35.4 ± 0.3a39.1 ± 4.1a
Quercetin5.6 ± 0.1d6.3 ± 0.1d7.9 ± 0.3d
Chlorogenic acid4.2 ± 0.3e5.1 ± 0.3d6.9 ± 0.2d
Isochlorogenic acid5.17 ± 0.1d6.2 ± 0.1d7.3 ± 0.1d
Rosmarinic acid (ok)2.7 ± 0.3f3.1 ± 0.2e3.5 ± 0.2e
p-Coumaric acid3.4 ± 0.1e3.9 ± 0.1e4.3 ± 0.1e
Quercitrin23.1 ± 2.1b28.2 ± 1.5b34.9 ± 2.6b
BHT2.7 ± 0.1f3.3 ± 0.1e–
Trolox––3.2 ± 0.3e
Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and Trolox were used as standards. Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. TEAC: Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity, IC50: half maximal inhibitory concentration (µg/mL). Different letters within a column indicate significant differences (p ≤ 0.05).
Table
Table 3. Antiproliferative activities of methanolic leaf extracts of Ruta graveolens and Artemisia abrotanum and the identified polyphenols against different cancer cell lines.
Table 3. Antiproliferative activities of methanolic leaf extracts of Ruta graveolens and Artemisia abrotanum and the identified polyphenols against different cancer cell lines.
HeLa *HT-29MCF-7JurkatHEK-293
R. graveolens42.12 ± 3.8b47.17 ± 3.2b64.86 ± 4.3b73.33 ± 4.6b>400
A. abrotanum49.97 ± 5.1a54.75 ± 2.9a71.04 ± 5.5a82.64 ± 4.1a>400
Quercetin4.9 ± 1.3d7.45 ± 1.8f21.11 ± 2.6e38.31 ± 3.1e>400
Chlorogenic acid4.35 ± 0.5d15.65 ± 2.5e38.65 ± 3.4d41.65 ± 4.6e>400
Isochlorogenic acid5.6 ± 1.7d18.53 ± 1.1d46.63 ± 2.1c52.73 ± 3.2c>400
Rosmarinic acid35.30 ± 3.1c25.26 ± 1.7c24.26 ± 1.5e45.75 ± 3.7d>400
p-Coumaric acid6.2 ± 0.3d7.8 ± 0.3f16.8 ± 1.3f33.7 ± 2.6f>400
Vinblastine sulfate2.0 ± 0.04e15.8 ± 0.5e‒0.12 ± 0.02g43.2 ± 2.4
Taxol‒‒0.06 ± 0.005g‒‒
The following cell lines were used: cervical adenocarcinoma (HeLa), colon adenocarcinoma (HT-29), breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7), T-cell lymphoblast like (Jurkat), and normal human embryonic kidney (HEK-293). Vinblastine sulfate and taxol were used as positive controls. Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation; IC50: half maximal inhibitory concentrations (µg/mL). * Different letters within a column indicate significant differences (p ≤ 0.05). Values are means of three replicates.
Table
Table 4. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the methanolic leaf extracts of Ruta graveolens and Artemisia abrotanum and the identified polyphenols (pure standards) against a range of bacterial species (mg/mL). Values are means of three replicates.
Table 4. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the methanolic leaf extracts of Ruta graveolens and Artemisia abrotanum and the identified polyphenols (pure standards) against a range of bacterial species (mg/mL). Values are means of three replicates.
B. cereus
MIC
MBC		P. aeruginosa
MIC
MBC		L. monocytogenes
MIC
MBC		E. coli
MIC
MBC		M. flavus
MIC
MBC		S. aureus
MIC
MBC
R. graveolens0.37 ± 0.02c0.39 ± 0.01c0.43 ± 0.03c0.36 ± 0.05c0.49 ± 0.05c0.31 ± 0.05c
0.75 ± 0.050.98 ± 0.040.89 ± 0.050.96 ± 0.030.99 ± 0.070.84 ± 0.03
A. abrotanum0.41 ± 0.03c0.47 ± 0.02c0.45 ± 0.03c0.39± 0.03c0.57 ± 0.03c0.38 ± 0.05c
0.91 ± 0.031.75 ± 0.030.99 ± 0.041.02 ± 0.051.08 ± 0.040.97 ± 0.05
Quercitrin0.07 ± 0.01c0.12 ± 0.01c0.14 ± 0.01c0.13 ± 0.01c0.12 ± 0.01c0.15 ± 0.01c
0.13 ± 0.020.25 ± 0.030.31 ± 0.030.28 ± 0.030.30 ± 0.030.31 ± 0.03
Isochlorogenic acid0.14 ± 0.01c0.13 ± 0.01c0.13 ± 0.01c0.11 ± 0.01c0.11 ± 0.01c0.11 ± 0.01c
0.35 ± 0.030.34 ± 0.030.35 ± 0.030.30 ± 0.030.31 ± 0.030.31 ± 0.03
p-Coumaric acid0.13 ± 0.01c0.07 ± 0.01c0.25 ± 0.01c0.13 ± 0.01c0.15 ± 0.02c0.24 ± 0.02c
0.30 ± 0.010.23 ± 0.030.57 ± 0.030.26 ± 0.030.39 ± 0.030.48 ± 0.03
Rosmarinic acid38.42 ± 2.53a36.4 ± 1.46a45.42 ± 2.75a40.4 ± 2.67a30.53 ± 2.53a21.53 ± 1.53a
>500>500>500>500>500>500
Quercetin31.37 ± 1.86b32.1 ± 1.15b41.42 ± 2.75b37.8 ± 1.42b27.21 ± 3.98b20.75 ± 0.86b
>500>500>500>500>500>500
Streptomycin0.06 ± 0.01c0.10 ± 0.01c0.11 ± 0.01c0.10 ± 0.01c0.11 ± 0.01c0.14 ± 0.01c
0.15 ± 0.020.20 ± 0.010.23 ± 0.020.21 ± 0.020.20 ± 0.030.32 ± 0.03
Different letters within a column (MIC) indicate significant differences (p ≤ 0.05). Streptomycin was used as a positive control. Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation.
Table
Table 5. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) of the methanolic leaf extracts of Ruta graveolens and Artemisia abrotanum (and the identified polyphenols pure standards) against a range of fungal species (mg/mL). Values are means of three replicates in (mg/mL).
Table 5. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) of the methanolic leaf extracts of Ruta graveolens and Artemisia abrotanum (and the identified polyphenols pure standards) against a range of fungal species (mg/mL). Values are means of three replicates in (mg/mL).
Aspergillusflavus
MIC
MFC		Aspergillusochraceus
MIC
MFC		Aspergillusniger
MIC
MFC		Candida albicans
MIC
MFC		Penicilliumfuniculosum
MIC
MFC		Penicillium ochrochloron
MIC
MFC
R. graveolens0.33 ± 0.03b0.47± 0.05b0.61± 0.06b0.78 ± 0.07b0.53 ± 0.03d0.64 ± 0.05c
0.84 ± 0.031.02 ± 0.71.12 ± 0.091.77 ± 0.131.05 ± 0.051.54 ± 0.23
A. abrotanum0.39 ± 0.05b0.55 ± 0.05b0.78 ± 0.08b0.86 ± 0.09b0.85 ± 0.07d0.86 ± 0.07c
0.91 ± 0.051.23 ± 0.091.32 ± 0.111.96 ± 0.171.75 ± 0.091.89 ± 0.15
Quercetin0.30 ± 0.02b0.21 ± 0.01b0.23 ± 0.03b0.05 ± 0.01b0.25 ± 0.02d0.28 ± 0.01c
0.61 ± 0.030.77 ± 0.050.79 ± 0.040.35 ± 0.030.71 ± 0.050.61 ± 0.05
Isochlorogenic acid4.13 ± 0.2b5.34 ± 0.75b6.12 ± 0.76b10.33 ± 0.87b23.21 ± 2.42b30.32 ± 1.97b
24.23 ± 1.9732.42 ± 1.6438.33 ± 3.151.23 ± 3.5361.45 ± 3.8982.76 ± 3.53
p-Coumaric acid0.20 ± 0.02b0.21 ± 0.01b0.23 ± 0.02b0.30 ± 0.01b0.23 ± 0.02d0.21 ± 0.01c
0.41 ± 0.050.43 ± 0.030.42 ± 0.010.62 ± 0.030.58 ± 0.030.41 ± 0.03
Quercitrin0.16 ± 0.01b0.19 ± 0.01b0.11 ± 0.01b0.26 ± 0.03b0.29 ± 0.01d0.21 ± 0.02c
0.31 ± 0.030.43 ± 0.030.25 ± 0.020.57 ± 0.030.50 ± 0.010.45 ± 0.03
Rosmarinic acid185.14 ± 9.86a221.53 ± 12.63a235.42 ± 23.53a381.3 ± 25.53a211.43 ± 13.71a353.2 ± 24.76a
>1000>1000>1000>1000>1000>1000
KTZ (Ketoconazole)0.21 ± 0.01b0.21 ± 0.01b0.11 ± 0.01b0.21 ± 0.02b2.04 ± 0.11c0.23 ± 0.01c
0.43 ± 0.050.45 ± 0.020.20 ± 0.020.41 ± 0.023.63 ± 0.120.45 ± 0.03
Ketoconazole was used as a positive control. Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Different letters within a column (MIC) indicate significant differences (p ≤ 0.05).

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Elansary, H.O.; Szopa, A.; Kubica, P.; Ekiert, H.; El-Ansary, D.O.; A. Al-Mana, F.; Mahmoud, E.A. Polyphenol Content and Biological Activities of Ruta graveolens L. and Artemisia abrotanum L. in Northern Saudi Arabia. Processes 2020, 8, 531. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8050531

AMA Style

Elansary HO, Szopa A, Kubica P, Ekiert H, El-Ansary DO, A. Al-Mana F, Mahmoud EA. Polyphenol Content and Biological Activities of Ruta graveolens L. and Artemisia abrotanum L. in Northern Saudi Arabia. Processes. 2020; 8(5):531. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8050531

Chicago/Turabian Style

Elansary, Hosam O., Agnieszka Szopa, Paweł Kubica, Halina Ekiert, Diaa O. El-Ansary, Fahed A. Al-Mana, and Eman A. Mahmoud. 2020. "Polyphenol Content and Biological Activities of Ruta graveolens L. and Artemisia abrotanum L. in Northern Saudi Arabia" Processes 8, no. 5: 531. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8050531

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop