View source for Cookbook:Hawaiian cuisine

{{mergeto|Cookbook:Cuisine of Hawaii}}

{{cuisine}}

Modern '''cuisine of Hawaii''' is a fusion of many cuisines brought by multi-ethnic immigrants to the islands, particularly of American, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Polynesian and Portuguese origins, and including food sources from plants and animals imported for Hawaiian agricultural use from all over the world.  Many local restaurants serve the ubiquitous plate lunch featuring the Asian staple, two scoops of rice, a simplified version of American macaroni salad (usually consisting of only macaroni noodles and mayonnaise), and a variety of different toppings ranging from the hamburger patty, a fried egg, and gravy of a Loco Moco, Japanese style Tonkatsu or the traditional lu'au favorite, Kalua Pig.

==History==
===Pre-contact Hawaii (300 AD &ndash; 1778) ===
[[Image:Colocasia esculenta P1190432.jpg|thumb|Taro, ''Colocasia esculenta'']]

When Polynesians from the South Pacific arrived on the Hawaiian Islands, few edible plants existed in the new land, so they had to rely on their own. The most important of them was taro.<ref name="ARC_2007_478">{{harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=478}}.</ref>  For centuries taro was the main staple of their diet, and it is still served at important ceremonial occasions. Where taro would not grow, sweet potatoes were planted. The Marquesans brought breadfruit and the Tahitians introduced the baking banana. These settlers from Polynesia also brought coconuts and sugarcane.<ref name=ARC_2007_479>{{harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=479}}.</ref>  Most Pacific Islands had no meat animals except bats and lizards, so ancient Polynesians sailed the Pacific with pigs as cargo.<ref name=Brennan135>{{harvnb|Brennan|2000|p=135-138}}.</ref>  The role of pigs in Polynesian society became valuable over time as a symbol of wealth, forming the basis of an inter-tribal currency of exchange.<ref name=Brennan135/>  Pigs were raised for religious sacrifice, and the meat was offered at altars, some of which was consumed by priests and the rest eaten in a mass celebration of orgiastic feasting.<ref name=Brennan135/>  

[[Image:Roasted puaa.jpg|left|thumb|Men cooking pork in ''imu'']]
Large pieces of meat, such as fowl and pigs, would be typically cooked in earth ovens, or spitted over a fire during ceremonial feasts.<ref name=Brennan135>{{harvnb|Brennan|2000|p=3-5}}.</ref>  Hawaiian earth ovens, known as an ''imu'', combine roasting and steaming in a method called ''kālua''. A pit is dug into earth and lined with volcanic rocks and other rocks that do not split when heated to a high temperature, such as granite.<ref name="choy_2003_16">{{harvnb|Choy|Cook|2003|p=16}}.</ref>  A fire is built with embers, and when the rocks are glowing hot, the embers are removed and the foods wrapped in ''ti'', ginger or banana leaves are put into the pit, covered with wet leaves, mats and a layer of earth. Water may be added through a bamboo tube to create steam. The intense heat from the hot rocks cooked food thoroughly — the quantity of food for several days could be cooked at once, taken out and eaten as needed, and the cover replaced to keep the remainder warm.<ref name="Kane_1998_53">{{harvnb|Kane|1998|p=53}}.</ref>  Sweet potatoes, taro, breadfruit and other vegetables were cooked in the ''imu'', as well as fish. Saltwater eel was salted and dried before being put into the ''imu'', wrapped in ''ti'' leaves.<ref name=Brennan271>{{harvnb|Brennan|2000|p=271-273}}.</ref> Chickens, pigs and dogs were put into the ''imu'' with hot rocks inserted in the abdominal cavities.<ref name="Kane_1998_53" />  Men did most of the work, and food for women was cooked in a separate ''imu'', afterwards men and women ate meals separately.{{Ref|A|a|none}} Sea salt was a common condiment.<ref name="Kane_1998_53" /> ''Inamona'', a relish made of roasted, mashed ''kukui'' nutmeats, sea salt and sometimes mixed with seaweeds, often accompanied the meals.<ref name="Kane_1998_53" /> 

At important occasions, a traditional feast, ''‘aha‘aina'', was held. When a woman was to have her first child, her husband started raising a pig for the ''‘Aha‘aina Mawaewae'' feast that was celebrated for the birth of a child. Besides the pig, mullet, shrimps, crab, seaweeds and taro leaves were required for the feast.<ref name="choy_2003_1213">{{harvnb|Choy|Cook|2003|pp=12-13}}.</ref> The modern name for such feasts, ''lū‘au'', was not used until 1856, replacing the Hawaiian words ''‘aha‘aina'' and ''pā‘ina''.<ref>{{harvnb|Pukui|Elbert|1986|pp=214}}.</ref> The name ''lū‘au'' came from that of a food always served at a ''‘aha‘aina'' — young taro tops baked with coconut milk and chicken or octopus.

Some species of land and sea birds were consumed into extinction.<ref name=Brennan139>{{harvnb|Brennan|2000|p=139}}.</ref> Until contact was established with the West in the 18th century, beef, chili peppers, refined salt and sugar, salmon, bean threads, rice, and wheat were unknown to Hawaiians.<ref name=Adams90>{{harvnb|Adams|2006|p=90-92}}.</ref>

===Modern times===
[[Image:HawaiiPopByRace1959.png|thumb|280px|Demographics of Hawaii in 1959, showing that Japanese immigrants were the largest ethnic group at that time]]

Pineapple was brought to Hawaii from South America by the Spaniards in the early 19th century.<ref name="ARC_2007_484">{{harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=484}}.</ref>  By the late 19th century, pineapple and sugarcane plantations owned and run by American settlers took over much of Hawaii's land, and these two crops became the most important sources of revenues for the Hawaiian economy.<ref name="ARC_2007_477">{{harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=477}}.</ref>  As the plantations expanded the demand for labor grew, the plantation owners hired immigrant workers, which included Chinese, Koreans, Japanese, Filipino, and Portuguese. Each ethnic group wanted its own food in workplaces, and farms and grocery markets were established. The Chinese immigrants brought Cantonese cuisine, cooking the first stir fry, sweet and sour, and dim sum dishes in the Islands,<ref name=Henderson18>{{harvnb|Henderson|1994|p=18}}.</ref> and replaced poi with rice, adding their own herbs and spices.<ref name="ARC_2007_477" /> Whalers brought in salted fish, which ultimately became lomi-lomi salmon.<ref name="choy_2003_16" /> The Koreans brought kimchi and built barbecue pits to cook marinated meats. The Portuguese immigrants came to Hawaii from the Azores in the late 19th century,<ref name=Laudan134>{{harvnb|Laudan|1996|p=134}}.</ref> introducing their foods with an emphasis on pork, tomatoes and chili peppers, and built ''forno'', their traditional beehive oven, to make ''Pão Doce'', the Portuguese sweet bread and malasada.<ref name="ARC_2007_478" /> The Japanese brought bento and sashimi, and, although many of their vegetable seeds would not grow in the climate of the Islands, they succeeded in making tofu and soy sauce.<ref name="ARC_2007_478">{{harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=478}}.</ref> The homes of Japanese immigrants lacked ovens, so their cooking relied on frying, steaming, broiling, and simmering, leading to the popularization of tempura and noodle soups in Hawaii.<ref name=Henderson18/> Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii began in 1900, contributing spicy, Spanish-seasoned thick soups, casseroles, and meat turnovers.<ref name=Henderson18/> Filipinos reached Hawaii in 1909, bringing peas and beans, the abodo style of vinegar and garlic dishes, choosing to boil, stew, broil, and fry food instead of baking, and eating sweet potatoes as a staple instead of rice.<ref name=Henderson18/> Samoans arrived in 1919, building their earth ovens above ground instead of below like the ''imu'', and made poi from fruit instead of taro.<ref name=Henderson18/>

The first restaurant in Honolulu was opened in 1849 by a Portuguese man named Peter Fernandez. Situated behind the Bishop & Co. bank, the establishment was known as the "eating house" and was followed by other restaurants, such as Leon Dejean's "Parisian Restaurant" at the corner of Hotel and Fort Streets.<ref>{{harvnb|Rea|Ting|1991|p=30}}.</ref> In 1872, the Royal Hawaiian Hotel opened on Hotel Street, and as one of the most refined hotels in the Pacific, it catered to wealthy clients. The Royal Hawaiian dining room served dishes on par with the best restaurants in Europe, with an 1874 menu offering dishes such as mullet, spring lamb, chicken with tomatoes, and Cabinet Pudding.<ref>{{harvnb|Rea|Ting|1991|p=48}}.</ref>

[[Image:DolePineapplePlantation.jpg|thumb|left|Dole Pineapple Plantation in Oahu, Hawaii]]
The massive pineapple industry of Hawaii was born when the "Pineapple King", James Dole, planted pineapple trees on the island of Oahu in 1901.<ref name="ARC_2007_478" />  In 1922, Dole purchased the island of Lanai for a large-scale pineapple production. By 1950, his Hawaiian Pineapple Company was the largest pineapple company in the world.<ref name="ARC_2007_478" />  But since the 1970s, pineapples were grown more cheaply in Southeast Asia, so the Hawaiian agriculture has taken a diverse approach, producing a variety of crops including squash, tomatoes, chili peppers and lettuce.<ref name="ARC_2007_478" />  

Japanese-American baker Robert Taira, came up with a recipe for the Hawaiian version of Portuguese sweet bread in the 1950s. Taira began to commercially produce the bread in Hawaii, and it became successful in Honolulu bakeries and coffee shops, with plant production expanding to California and South Carolina.  By the 1980s, Taira's company was grossing US$20 million annually.<ref name=Laudan134/>

In 1992, a group of well-known Hawaiian chefs, including Sam Choy, George Mavrothalassitis, Alan Wong, Roy Yamaguchi and several others, came together to sponsor a cookbook to be sold for charity.<ref name="ARC_2007_479">{{harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=479}}.</ref>  The goal of this new group of chefs was to be a link with the local agricultural community and for Hawaiian regional cuisine to be a reflection of the community. For this, they took an uninspired international hotel cuisine based on imported products and replaced it with a cuisine based on locally grown foods.<ref name="ARC_2007_479" />

== Ingredients ==
===Vegetables and fruits===

[[Image:5aday sweet potato.jpg|upright|thumb|Sweet potato]]
[[Image:ARS breadfruit49.jpg|upright|thumb|Breadfruit]]

There are hundreds of varieties of taro, and the corm of the wetland variety makes the best poi,<ref name=ARC_2007_478 /> as well as taro starch or flour. The dry-land variety has a crispy texture and used for making taro chips. The smaller Japanese variety is used for stewed dishes.<ref name=ARC_2007_478 />  
<!--The list below should be converted to prose-->
*Coconuts
*Yams
*Sweet potatoes, a member of the morning glory family yields the highest nutrition per acre of any crop [http://www.killerplants.com/plants-that-changed-history/20011023.asp]
*Breadfruit
*Kukui
*Bananas
*Pineapple
*Macadamia nuts
*Seaweed
*Melons
*Guava
*Tamarind
{{sect-stub}}

===Meat===
====Pork====
;Spam
[[Image:Spammusubi1011.jpg|thumb|upright|Spam musubi]]
The Hormel company's canned meat product Spam has been highly popular in Hawaii for decades. Hawaiians are the second largest consumers of Spam in the world, right behind Guam.<ref name=Adams58/> Originally brought to Hawaii by American servicemen in their rations,<ref name=Kulick>{{harvnb|Kulick|Meneley|2005|p=187}}.</ref> Spam became an important source of protein for locals after fishing around the Islands was prohibited during World War II.<ref name="ARC_2007_479" />  In 2005, Hawaiians consumed more than five million cans of Spam.<ref name=Adams58>{{harvnb|Adams|2006|p=58-59}}.</ref> 

Spam is used in local dishes in a variety of ways, most commonly fried and served with rice. In breakfast, fried eggs are often served together.<ref name=Adams58/> Spam can also be wrapped in ''ti'' and roasted, skewered and deep fried,<ref name="ARC_2007_479" /> or stir-fried with cabbage.<ref name=Adams58/> It is added to saimin or fried rice, mashed with tofu, or served with cold sōmen or baked macaroni and cheese. It is also used in chutney for pupu, in sandwich with mayonnaise, or baked with guava jelly.<ref name=Adams58/> Spam musubi, a slice of sweet and salty marinated Spam tied to a cake of rice with a strip of nori. Spam musubi is served in sushi restaurants in Hawaii, having become popular in the 1980's.<ref name=Adams58/>

====Beef====
''Pipi kalua'' is a salted and dried beef, usually broiled before serving. It was a staple for ''Paniolo'', the Hawaiian cowboys.<ref>{{harvnb|Choy|Cook|2003|p=63}}.</ref> When beef is dried in the sun, a screened box is traditionally used to keep the meat from dust and flies.

<!--Pork, chicken, dog meat?-->
{{sect-stub}}

===Fish and seafood===
[[Image:Limupoke.jpg|thumb|upright|Ahi poke, raw tuna with chopped kukui nuts, green onions and seaweed on a bed of red cabbage]]
Tuna is the most important fish in Hawaiian cuisine.<ref name="ARC_2007_480">{{harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=480}}.</ref> Varieties include the skipjack tuna (''aku''), the yellowfin tuna (''ahi''), and the albacore tuna (''tombo''). Ahi in particular has a long history, since ancient Hawaiians used it on long ocean voyages because it is well preserved when salted and dried.<ref name=Laudan265_276>{{harvnb|Laudan|1996|p=265-276}}.</ref> A large portion of the local tuna fishery goes to Japan to be sold for sashimi.<ref name="ARC_2007_480" />  Tuna is eaten as sashimi in Hawaii as well, but is also grilled or sautéed, or made into poke, a traditional local cuisine that originally involved preserving raw fish with sea salt and rubbing (''lomi'') it with seasonings or cutting it into small pieces. Seasonings made of seaweed, kukui nut, and sea salt were traditionally used for the Hawaiian poke. Since first contact with Western and Asian cultures, green onions, chili peppers, and soy sauce have become common additions to it.<ref name="WG_2007">{{harvnb|Piianaia|2007|loc=[http://www.waimeagazette.com/sept97_poke.htm Waimea Gazette]}}.</ref> Poke is different from sashimi, since the former is usually rough-cut and piled onto a plate, and can be made with less expensive pieces of fish.<ref name="ARC_2007_485">{{harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=485}}.</ref>  

The Pacific blue marlin (''kajiki'') is barbecued or grilled, but it has a very low fat content, so should not be overcooked.<ref name="ARC_2007_480" />  The broadbill swordfish (''shutome''), highly popular and shipped all over the continental United States, is high in fat and its steaks may be grilled, broiled, or used in stir-fries. The groupers (''hapuu'') are most often steamed. The red snapper (''onaga'') is steamed, poached, or baked. The pink snapper (''opakapaka'') has a higher fat, and is steamed or baked, served with a light sauce. The Wahoo (''ono'') is grilled or sautéed, and the dolphin fish (''mahimahi'') is usually cut into steaks and fried or grilled. The moonfish (''opah'') is used for broiling, smoking, or making sashimi. <!--[[Mussel]]s-->

===Spices===
*Five spice
*Char siu
*Wasabi
*Patis and Bagoong, Fish sauces
*Jicama
*Soy sauce
<!--*[[Tofu]] (which section?)-->

== List of Hawaiian dishes ==
[[Image:Loco Moco.jpg|thumb|upright|Loco Moco]]

* Chicken long rice - Chicken cooked with chicken broth, ginger, green onions, and long rice
* Kalua Pig - Pulled pork with marinated, steamed cabbage
<!--* [[Kona coffee]]-->
* Lau lau - Steamed fish and pork wrapped in taro leaves
* Loco Moco - Hamburger patties served with gravy and topped with two eggs
* Lomi salmon - Sushi-grade salmon cubed combined with tomatoes, Maui onions, and chili pepper
* Malasada - Portuguese donut deep fried and coated with sugar
* Manapua - Pidgin for bao, usually filled with char siu
* Poi - Mashed taro root
* Portuguese sweet bread
* Saimin - Noodle soup dish with various meats and/or dumplings

== Plate lunch ==

Usually served during lunch, plate lunch consists of an entreé of meat or seafood, two scoops of rice, and macaroni salad.

== Tiki restaurants ==
Don the Beachcomber, a former bootlegger, opened what is acknowledged to be the first of these establishments, and claims the creation of the mai tai.  As service-men and women from the Pacific theater of World War II began coming home they brought recipes and tastes that could not be satisfied at the Italian, French, and American restaurants of the era.  Tiki restaurants soon began appearing that were often accompanied by tiki bars with tropical drinks.  One of these chains that took advantage of this new clientele with a taste for the exotic was run by Trader Vic. (Of the 26 restaurants which at one time existed, only a few, such as the Emeryville location, remain.)  Much of the food served at tiki restaurants is considered to be Cantonese cuisine, but the fusion of Hawaiian ingredients is what made it tiki.

==Notes and references==
===Notes===
'''a.''' {{Note|A|a}} Men and women ate their meals separately to preserve the distinction between male and female ''mana'', which was thought to be blurred by both sexes handling the same food. In addition, some foods were forbidden to women, such as pork, certain kinds of fish and most types of bananas.<ref name="Kane_1998_53" />

===References===
{{reflist|3}}

===Bibliography===
<div class="references-2column">
* {{Citation
  | last = Adams
  | first = Wanda A.
  | author-link =
  | title = The Island Plate: 150 Years of Recipes and Food Lore from the Honolulu Advertiser
  | publisher = Island Heritage Publishing
  | year = 2006
  | location = Waipahu, Hawai{{okina}}i
  | pages =
  | url = http://www.islandheritage.com
  | isbn = 
}}.
* {{Citation
  | last = Brennan
  | first = Jennifer
  | author-link =
  | title = Tradewinds & Coconuts: A Reminiscence & Recipes from the Pacific Islands
  | publisher = Periplus
  | year = 2000
  | location = 
  | url = 
  | isbn = 9625938192
}}.
* {{Citation
  | last = Choy
  | first = Sam
  | author-link = Sam Choy
  | title = Sam Choy's Poke: Hawai{{okina}}i's Soul Food
  | publisher = Mutual Publishing
  | year = 1999
  | location = Honolulu, Hawaii
  | pages =
  | url = http://www.mutualpublishing.com
  | isbn = 1566472539 
}}.
* {{Citation 
  | first = Sam 
  | last = Choy 
  | author-link = Sam Choy 
  | first2 = Lynn 
  | last2 = Cook 
  | title = Sam Choy & the Makaha Sons' A Hawaiian Lū‘au 
  | publisher = Mutual Publishing 
  | year = 2003 
  | isbn = 1566475732
}}.
* {{Citation
  | last = Corum
  | first = Ann Kondo
  | author-link =
  | title = Ethnic Foods of Hawai{{okina}}i
  | publisher = The Bess Press
  | year = 2000
  | location = 
  | pages =
  | url = 
  | isbn = 1573061174
}}.
* {{Citation
  | last = Henderson
  | first = Janice Wald
  | author-link =
  | title = The New Cuisine of Hawaii: Recipes from the Twelve Celebrated Chefs of Hawaii Regional Cuisine
  | publisher = Villard Books
  | year = 1994
  | location = New York
  | pages =
  | url = 
  | isbn = 0679425292
}}.
* {{Citation
  | last = Kane
  | first = Herb Kawainui
  | title = Ancient Hawaii
  | publisher = Kawainui Press
  | year = 1998
  | isbn = 0943357039
}}.
* {{Citation
  | last = Kulick
  | first = Don
  | last2 = Meneley
  | first2 = Anne 
  | author-link =
  | title = Fat: The Anthropology of an Obsession
  | publisher = Tarcher
  | year = 2005
  | chapter = Spam in History
  | location = 
  | pages =
  | isbn = 1585423866
}}.
* {{Citation
  | last = Laudan
  | first = Rachel
  | author-link =
  | title = The Food of Paradise: Exploring Hawaii's Culinary Heritage
  | publisher = University of Hawai{{okina}}i Press
  | year = 1996
  | location = Seattle
  | pages =
  | url = http://www.uhpress.hawaii.edu/cart/shopcore/?db_name=uhpress&page=shop/flypage&product_id=324&category_id=b3e6237d1b1b3b8594488ed1c40d0dfb&PHPSESSID=6b6a32abcd32b2e6be35b8dcebce1d52
  | isbn = 0824817788
}}.
* {{Citation
  | last = Nenes
  | first = Micheal F.
  | author-link =
  | title = American Regional Cuisine
  | chapter = Cuisine of Hawaii
  | publisher = Wiley
  | year = 2007
  | location = 
  | pages =
  | url = 
  | isbn = 0471682942
}}.
* {{Citation
  | last = Philpotts
  | first = Kaui
  | author-link =
  | title = Great Chefs of Hawai{{okina}}i
  | publisher = Mutual Publishing
  | year = 2004
  | location = Honolulu, Hawaii
  | pages =
  | url = http://www.greatchefs.com
  | isbn = 1566475953
}}.
*{{Citation
  | last = Piianaia
  | first = Nancy
  | title = Poke: Hawai‘i's "Numbah One" Choice   	
  | newspaper = Waimea Gazette
  | pages =
  | year = 2007
  | date = September 2007
  | url = http://www.waimeagazette.com/sept97_poke.htm  
  | accessdate = 2007-11-13
}}.
* {{Citation
  | last = Pukui
  | first = Mary Kawena
  | last2 =  Elbert
  | first2 = Samuel H.
  | title = Hawaiian Dictionary
  | publisher = University of Hawai‘i Press
  | year = 1986
  | location = Honolulu
  | pages =
  | url = 
  | isbn = 0-8248-0703-0
}}.
* {{Citation
  | last = Rea
  | first = Pat
  | last2 =  Ting
  | first2 = Regina
  | title = A Hundred Years of Island Cooking
  | publisher = Hawaiian Electric Company
  | year = 1991
  | location = 
  | pages =
  | url = 
  | isbn = 
}}.
</div>

== External links ==
{{commonscat|Hawaiian cuisine}}
*[http://www.hawaii.gov/hidocs/hmp.html Hawaii Mixed Plate Cookbooks:  A Bibliography]