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==Flora and fauna==
==Flora and fauna==
{{main|Flora of India|Fauna of India}}
{{main|Flora of India|Fauna of India}}
⚫
{{Indian image rotation‎|fauna}}


[[Image:India Tree.jpg|thumb|The [[Arecaceae]], also known as the Palm Tree, is common in India]]
India, which lies within the [[Indomalaya ecozone]], displays significant [[biodiversity]]. One of seventeen [[Megadiverse countries|megadiverse countries]], it is home to 7.6% of all [[mammal]]ian, 12.6% of all [[birds|avian]], 6.2% of all [[reptile|reptilian]], 4.4% of all [[amphibian]], 11.7% of all [[fish]], and 6.0% of all [[flowering plant]] species.<ref name="Biodiversity Profile of India">{{cite web
India, which lies within the [[Indomalaya ecozone]], displays significant [[biodiversity]]. One of seventeen [[Megadiverse countries|megadiverse countries]], it is home to 7.6% of all [[mammal]]ian, 12.6% of all [[birds|avian]], 6.2% of all [[reptile|reptilian]], 4.4% of all [[amphibian]], 11.7% of all [[fish]], and 6.0% of all [[flowering plant]] species.<ref name="Biodiversity Profile of India">{{cite web
|title = Biodiversity Profile of India (Text Only)
|title = Biodiversity Profile of India (Text Only)
Line 240: Line 240:
|author = Dr S.K.Puri
|author = Dr S.K.Puri
|accessdate = 2007-06-20}}</ref> Many [[ecoregions in India|ecoregions]], such as the ''[[shola]]'' [[South Western Ghats montane rain forests|forests]], exhibit extremely high rates of [[endemic (ecology)|endemism]]; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.<ref>Botanical Survey of India. 1983. ''Flora and Vegetation of India &mdash; An Outline''. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. p. 24.</ref><ref>Valmik Thapar, ''Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent'', 1997. ISBN 978-0520214705</ref> India's forest cover ranges from the [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical rainforest]] of the [[Andaman Islands]], [[Western Ghats]], and [[North-East India]] to the [[temperate coniferous forests|coniferous forest]] of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the [[sal]]-dominated [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|moist deciduous]] forest of eastern India; the [[teak]]-dominated [[tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|dry deciduous]] forest of central and southern India; and the [[Acacia nilotica indica|babul]]-dominated [[deserts and xeric shrublands|thorn forest]] of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.<ref name="tritsch">Tritsch, M.E. 2001. ''Wildlife of India'' Harper Collins, London. 192 pages. ISBN 0-00-711062-6</ref> Important Indian trees include the medicinal [[neem]], widely used in rural Indian [[herbalism|herbal]] remedies. The [[pipal]] [[Ficus|fig]] tree, shown on the seals of [[Mohenjo-daro]], shaded [[Gautama Buddha]] as he sought enlightenment.
|accessdate = 2007-06-20}}</ref> Many [[ecoregions in India|ecoregions]], such as the ''[[shola]]'' [[South Western Ghats montane rain forests|forests]], exhibit extremely high rates of [[endemic (ecology)|endemism]]; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.<ref>Botanical Survey of India. 1983. ''Flora and Vegetation of India &mdash; An Outline''. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. p. 24.</ref><ref>Valmik Thapar, ''Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent'', 1997. ISBN 978-0520214705</ref> India's forest cover ranges from the [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical rainforest]] of the [[Andaman Islands]], [[Western Ghats]], and [[North-East India]] to the [[temperate coniferous forests|coniferous forest]] of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the [[sal]]-dominated [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|moist deciduous]] forest of eastern India; the [[teak]]-dominated [[tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|dry deciduous]] forest of central and southern India; and the [[Acacia nilotica indica|babul]]-dominated [[deserts and xeric shrublands|thorn forest]] of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.<ref name="tritsch">Tritsch, M.E. 2001. ''Wildlife of India'' Harper Collins, London. 192 pages. ISBN 0-00-711062-6</ref> Important Indian trees include the medicinal [[neem]], widely used in rural Indian [[herbalism|herbal]] remedies. The [[pipal]] [[Ficus|fig]] tree, shown on the seals of [[Mohenjo-daro]], shaded [[Gautama Buddha]] as he sought enlightenment.
⚫
{{Indian image rotation‎|fauna}}

Many Indian species are descendants of [[taxa]] originating in [[Gondwana]], to which India originally belonged. [[Indian Plate|Peninsular India's]] subsequent [[plate tectonics|movement]] towards, and collision with, the [[Laurasia]]n landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, [[Deccan Traps|volcanism]] and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the [[extinction]] of many endemic Indian forms.<ref>K. Praveen Karanth. (2006). [http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/mar252006/789.pdf Out-of-India Gondwanan origin of some tropical Asian biota]</ref> Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two [[Zoogeography|zoogeographical]] passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya.<ref name=tritsch/> Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.<ref name="Biodiversity Profile of India"/>. [[Cavefish]] which are blind and albinic has also been reported from the caves of [[Chhattisgarh]] and [[Meghalaya]]. [[Image:Cavefish_India.jpg|thumb|195px|left|The blind and albinic cavefish Nemachielus evezardi from Kotumsar Cave, Chhattisgarh, India]]
Many Indian species are descendants of [[taxa]] originating in [[Gondwana]], to which India originally belonged. [[Indian Plate|Peninsular India's]] subsequent [[plate tectonics|movement]] towards, and collision with, the [[Laurasia]]n landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, [[Deccan Traps|volcanism]] and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the [[extinction]] of many endemic Indian forms.<ref>K. Praveen Karanth. (2006). [http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/mar252006/789.pdf Out-of-India Gondwanan origin of some tropical Asian biota]</ref> Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two [[Zoogeography|zoogeographical]] passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya.<ref name=tritsch/> Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.<ref name="Biodiversity Profile of India"/> Notable endemics are the [[Nilgiri Langur|Nilgiri leaf monkey]] and the brown and carmine [[Bufo beddomii|Beddome's toad]] of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of [[IUCN]]-designated [[List of endangered species in India|threatened species]].<ref>Groombridge, B. (ed). 1993. ''The 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals'' [[IUCN]], Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. lvi + 286 pp.</ref> These include the [[Asiatic lion]], the [[Bengal tiger]], and the [[Indian White-rumped Vulture|Indian white-rumped vulture]], which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of [[diclofenac]]-treated cattle.
Notable endemics are the [[Nilgiri Langur|Nilgiri leaf monkey]] and the brown and carmine [[Bufo beddomii|Beddome's toad]] of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of [[IUCN]]-designated [[List of endangered species in India|threatened species]].<ref>Groombridge, B. (ed). 1993. ''The 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals'' [[IUCN]], Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. lvi + 286 pp.</ref> These include the [[Asiatic lion]], the [[Bengal tiger]], and the [[Indian White-rumped Vulture|Indian white-rumped vulture]], which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of [[diclofenac]]-treated cattle.


In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of [[National parks of India|national parks]] and [[protected areas of India|protected areas]], first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the [[Wildlife Protection Act of 1972|Wildlife Protection Act]]<ref>{{cite web
In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of [[National parks of India|national parks]] and [[protected areas of India|protected areas]], first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the [[Wildlife Protection Act of 1972|Wildlife Protection Act]]<ref>{{cite web
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* [http://www.incredibleindia.org/ Incredible India] - The Official Tourism Website of Ministry of Tourism, Government of India
* [http://www.incredibleindia.org/ Incredible India] - The Official Tourism Website of Ministry of Tourism, Government of India
* {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/India/|India}}
* {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/India/|India}}
* [http://www.cave-biology.org Complete details of Cave Research in India] *


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Revision as of 02:21, 20 January 2008

For other uses, see the modern Republic of India.
Republic of India
भारत गणराज्य*
Motto: "Satyameva Jayate" (Sanskrit)
सत्यमेव जयते  (Devanagari)
"Truth Alone Triumphs"[1]
Anthem: Jana Gana Mana
Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people[2]
National Song[4]
Vande Mataram
I bow to thee, Mother[3]
Location of India
CapitalNew Delhi
Largest cityMumbai
Official Languages:
Scheduled Languages:
  • Hindi in the Devanagari script is the official language of the union[5] and English the 'subsidiary official language'.[6]
Demonym(s)Indian
GovernmentFederal republic[8]
Parliamentary democracy[9]
• President
Pratibha Patil
Manmohan Singh
Independence 
from British colonial rule
• Declared
15 August 1947
• Republic
26 January 1950
Area
• Total
[convert: invalid number] (7th)
• Water (%)
9.56
Population
• 2007 estimate
1.12 billion[8] (2nd)
• 2001 census
1,027,015,248
• Density
329/km2 (852.1/sq mi) (31st)
GDP (PPP)2006 estimate
• Total
$ 4.164 trillion[10] (3rd)
• Per capita
$ 3,800
GDP (nominal)2006 estimate
• Total
906.268 billion (12th)
• Per capita
863
Gini (1999-2000)32.5[11]
Error: Invalid Gini value
HDI (2007)Increase 0.619
Error: Invalid HDI value (128th)
CurrencyIndian Rupee (₨) (INR)
Time zoneUTC+5:30 (IST)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+5:30 (not observed)
Calling code91
ISO 3166 codeIN
Internet TLD.in
Non-numbered Footnotes:

India (Hindi: भारत Bhārat; see also other names), officially the Republic of India (Hindi: भारत गणराज्य Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a sovereign nation in South Asia. It is the seventh largest country by geographical area, the second most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world.[13] Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of Template:Km to mi.[14] It borders Pakistan to the west;[15] China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, Maldives, and Indonesia.

Home to the Indus Valley civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[16] Four major world religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated here, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from the early eighteenth century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-nineteenth century, India became a modern nation-state in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by widespread nonviolent resistance.

India is the world's twelfth largest economy at market exchange rates and the third largest economy in purchasing power. Economic reforms have transformed it into the second fastest growing large economy;[17] however, it still suffers from high levels of poverty,[18] illiteracy, malnutrition and environmental degradation. A pluralistic, multi-lingual, and multi-ethnic society, India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.

Etymology

Main article: Etymology of the names of India

The name India (Template:PronEng) is derived from Indus, which is derived from the Old Persian word Hindu, from Sanskrit Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River.[19] The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, the people of the Indus.[20] The Constitution of India and common usage in various Indian languages also recognise Bharat (pronunciationⓘ, /bʰɑːrət̪/) as an official name of equal status.[21] Hindustan (/hin̪d̪ust̪ɑːn/ⓘ), which is the Persian word for “Land of the Hindus” and historically referred to northern India, is also occasionally used as a synonym for all of India.[22]

History

Main articles: History of India and History of Republic of India

Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago and gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilization,[23] dating back to 3300 BCE in western India. It was followed by the Vedic Civilization, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the country.[24]

Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, 6th century.

The empire built by the Maurya dynasty under Emperor Ashoka united most of South Asia in the third century BCE.[25] From 180 BCE, a series of invasions from Central Asia followed, including those led by the Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthians and Kushans in the north-western Indian subcontinent. From the third century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient "India's Golden Age."[26][27] Among the notable South Indian empires were the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas, Pallavas, Pandyas, and Cholas. Science, engineering, art, literature, astronomy, and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings.

Following invasions from Central Asia between the tenth and twelfth centuries, much of north India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and later the Mughal dynasty. Mughal emperors gradually expanded their kingdoms to cover large parts of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, flourished, especially in the south. In the seventeenth and eighteenth century, the Mughal supremacy declined and the Maratha Empire became the dominant power. From the sixteenth century, several European countries, including Portugal, Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom, started arriving as traders and later took advantage of the fractious nature of relations between the kingdoms to establish colonies in the country. By 1856, most of India was under the control of the British East India Company.[28] A year later, a nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms, variously referred to as the First War of Indian Independence or Sepoy Mutiny, seriously challenged British rule but eventually failed. As a consequence, India came under the direct control of the British Crown as a colony of the British Empire.

Mahatma Gandhi (right) with Jawaharlal Nehru, 1937. Nehru would go on to become India's first prime minister in 1947.

During the first half of the twentieth century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and other political organizations. In the 1920s and 1930, a movement led by Mahatma Gandhi, and displaying commitment to ahimsa, or non-violence, millions of protesters engaged in mass campaigns of civil disobedience.[29] Finally, on 15 August, 1947, India gained independence from British rule, but was partitioned, in accordance to wishes of the Muslim League, along the lines of religion to create the Islamic nation-state of Pakistan.[30] Three years later, on 26 January, 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came into effect.[8]

Since independence, India has experienced sectarian violence and insurgencies in various parts of the country, but has maintained its unity and democracy. It has unresolved territorial disputes with China, which in 1962 escalated into the brief Sino-Indian War; and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations (as part of British India). In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test.[31] This was followed by five more tests in 1998, making India a nuclear state.[31] Beginning in 1991, significant economic reforms[32] have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, adding to its global and regional clout.[17]

Government

Main article: Government of India

Template:Indian symbols The constitution of India, the longest and most exhaustive constitution of any independent nation in the world, came into force on January 26, 1950.[33] The preamble of the constitution defines India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.[34] The words "socialist" and "secular" were inserted into the Constitution by Indira Gandhi during The Emergency. India has a quasi-federal form of government[35] and a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has three branches of governance: the Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary. The President of India is the official head of state[36] elected indirectly by an electoral college[37] for a five-year term.[38][39] The Prime Minister is, however, the de facto head of government and exercises most executive powers.[36] The Prime Minister is appointed by the President[40] and, by convention, is the candidate supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of Parliament.[36]

The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament, which consists of the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of People).[41] The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has up to 250 members serving staggered six year terms.[42] Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in proportion to the state's population.[42] The Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual constituencies for five year terms.[42]

The executive branch consists of the President, Vice-President, and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet being its executive committee) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the Prime Minister and his Council being directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament.[43]

India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, twenty-one High Courts, and a large number of trial courts.[44] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.[45] It is judicially independent,[44] and has the power to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the Constitution.[46] The role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution is one of the most important functions of the Supreme Court.[47]

Politics

Main article: Politics of India
The North Block, in New Delhi, houses key government offices

India is the largest democracy in the world.[13][48] For most of its democratic history, the federal Government of India has been led by the Indian National Congress (INC).[49] State politics have been dominated by several national parties including the INC, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Communist Party of India (CPI), and various regional parties. From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the Janata Party won the election owing to public discontent with the "Emergency" declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In 1989, a Janata Dal-led National Front coalition in alliance with the Left Front coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years.[50]

The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the United Front coalition. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) with several regional parties and became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term.[51] In the 2004 Indian elections, the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), supported by various left-leaning parties and members opposed to the BJP.[52]

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of India and Indian Armed Forces
The nuclear capable Agni-II ballistic missile during a Republic Day parade.

Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relationships with most nations. It took a leading role in the 1950s by advocating the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia.[citation needed] India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement.[53] After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India's relationship with the Soviet Union warmed at the expense of ties with the United States and continued to remain so until the end of the Cold War. India has fought two wars with Pakistan, primarily over Kashmir. India also fought and won an additional war with Pakistan for the liberation of Bangladesh in 1971.

In recent years, India has played an influential role in the ASEAN, SAARC, and the WTO.[citation needed] India is a founding member and long time supporter of the United Nations, with over 55,000 Indian military and police personnel having served in thirty-five UN peace keeping operations deployed across four continents.[54] Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has consistently refused to sign the CTBT and the NPT, preferring instead to maintain sovereignty over its nuclear program. Recent overtures by the Indian government have strengthened relations with the United States, China, and Pakistan. In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with other developing nations in South America, Asia, and Africa.

India maintains the third largest military force in the world, which consists of the Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force.[8] Auxiliary forces such as the Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic Forces Command also come under the military's purview. The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian armed forces. India became a nuclear power in 1974 after conducting an initial nuclear test, Operation Smiling Buddha. Further underground testing in 1998 led to international military sanctions against India, which were gradually withdrawn after September 2001. India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy[55] and has a clean record of non-proliferation.[56]

Subdivisions

Main article: Subdivisions of India

India is a federal republic of twenty-eight states and seven union territories.[49] All states, the union territory of Puducherry, and the National Capital Territory of Delhi have elected governments. The other five union territories have centrally appointed administrators and hence are under direct rule of the President. In 1956, under the States Reorganization Act, states were formed on linguistic basis.[57] Since then this structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is divided into basic units of government and administration called districts. There are nearly 600 districts in India.[58] The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and eventually into villages. Template:India states

Major Cities:[59] Bangalore • Chennai • Delhi • Hyderabad • Kolkata • Mumbai

Geography

Main article: Geography of India
See also: Geology of India and Climate of India
Topographic map of India

India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, sits atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.[60] India's defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean.[61] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountains, which now abut India in the north and the north-east.[61] In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually been filled with river-borne sediment,[62] now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[63] To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the Aravalli Hills, lies the Thar Desert.[64] The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India, and extending as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[65] To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan plateau, is flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively;[66] the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6°44' and 35°30' north latitude[67] and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude.[68]

India's coast is Template:Km to mi long; of this distance, Template:Km to mi belong to peninsular India, and Template:Km to mi to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands.[14] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% mud flats or marshy coast.[14]

Kangchenjunga, on the border of India and Nepal, is the third-highest mountain in the world and the highest point in the Indian Himalaya

Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[69] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi, nicknamed "Bihar's Sorrow," whose extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers—whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding—include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal,[70] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.[71] Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the alluvial Sundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh.[72] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[73]

India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the monsoons.[74] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[75] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[74] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: Tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.[76]

Flora and fauna

Main articles: Flora of India and Fauna of India
The Arecaceae, also known as the Palm Tree, is common in India

India, which lies within the Indomalaya ecozone, displays significant biodiversity. One of seventeen megadiverse countries, it is home to 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.[77] Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests, exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.[78][79] India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and North-East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; the teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.[80] Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment. Template:Indian image rotation Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[81] Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya.[80] Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.[77] Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.[82] These include the Asiatic lion, the Bengal tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.

In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act[83] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; in addition, the Forest Conservation Act[84] was enacted in 1980. Along with more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries, India hosts thirteen biosphere reserves,[85] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[86]

Economy

Main article: Economy of India
The Bombay Stock Exchange, in Mumbai, is Asia's oldest and India's largest stock exchange

For most of its post-independence history, India adhered to a quasi-socialist approach with strict government control over private sector participation, foreign trade, and foreign direct investment. However, since 1991, India has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms and reduced government controls on foreign trade and investment.[32] Foreign exchange reserves have risen from US$5.8 billion in March 1991 to US$275 billion in 2007,[87] while federal and state budget deficits have decreased.[88] Privatization of publicly-owned companies and the opening of certain sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate.[89] With a GDP growth rate of 9.4% in 2006-07, the Indian economy is among the fastest growing in the world.[90] India's GDP in terms of USD exchange-rate is US$ 778.7 billion. When measured in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP), India has the world's third largest GDP at US$4.164 trillion. India's per capita income (nominal) is US$ 707, while its per capita (PPP) is US$ 3600.

Although the Indian economy has grown steadily over the last two decades; its growth has been uneven when comparing different social groups, economic groups, geographic regions, and rural and urban areas.[91] Income inequality in India is relatively small (Gini coefficient: 32.5 in year 1999–2000),[11] though it has been increasing of late. Wealth distribution in India is fairly uneven, with the top 10% of income groups earning 33% of the income.[92] Despite significant economic progress, a quarter of the nation's population earns less than the government-specified poverty threshold of $0.40 per day. In 2004–2005, 27.5% of the population was living below the poverty line.[93]

India has the world's second largest[94] labour force, with 509.3 million people, 60% of whom are employed in agriculture and related industries; 28% in services and related industries; and 12% in industry.[8] Major agricultural crops include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes. The agricultural sector accounts for 28% of GDP; the service and industrial sectors make up 54% and 18% respectively. Major industries include automobiles, cement, chemicals, consumer electronics, food processing, machinery, mining, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, steel, transportation equipment, and textiles.[8]

In 2006, estimated exports stood at US$112 billion and imports were around US$187.9 billion. Textiles, jewellery, engineering goods and software are major export commodities. Crude oil, machineries, fertilizers, and chemicals are major imports. India's most important trading partners are the United States, the European Union, China, the United Arab Emirates, Singapore, and Australia.[8] More recently, India has capitalised on its large pool of educated, English-speaking people, and trained professionals to become an important outsourcing destination for multinational corporations and a popular destination for medical tourism.[95] India has also become a major exporter of software as well as financial, research, and technological services. Its natural resources include arable land, bauxite, chromite, coal, diamonds, iron ore, limestone, manganese, mica, natural gas, petroleum, and titanium ore.[49]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of India
See also: Religion in India and Languages of India
Population density map of India

With an estimated population of 1.12 billion,[8] India is the world's second most populous country and the world's largest democracy. Almost 70% of Indians reside in rural areas, although in recent decades migration to larger cities has led to a dramatic increase in the country's urban population. India's largest cities are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta), Chennai (formerly Madras), Bangalore, and Hyderabad.[49]

India is the second most culturally, linguistically and genetically diverse geographical entity after the African continent.[49] India is home to two major linguistic families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. Hindi, with the largest number of speakers,[96] is the official language of India.[97] English, which is extensively used in business and administration, has the status of a 'subsidiary official language'.[6] The constitution also recognises in particular 21 other languages that are either abundantly spoken or have classical status. The number of dialects in India is as high as 1,652.[98]

Over 800 million Indians (80.5%) are Hindu. Other religious groups include Muslims (13.4%), Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%), Jews, Zoroastrians, Bahá'ís and others.[99] Tribals constitute 8.1% of the population.[100]

India's literacy rate is 64.8% (53.7% for females and 75.3% for males).[8] The state of Kerala has the highest literacy rate (91%);[101] Bihar has the lowest (47%).[102] The national gender ratio is 944 females per 1,000 males. India's median age is 24.9, and the population growth rate of 1.38% per annum; there are 22.01 births per 1,000 people per year.[8]

Culture

Main article: Culture of India
The Taj Mahal in Agra was built by Shah Jahan as memorial to wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value".[103]

India's culture is marked by a high degree of syncretism[104] and cultural pluralism.[105] It has managed to preserve established traditions while absorbing new customs, traditions, and ideas from invaders and immigrants. Multicultural concerns have long informed India’s history and traditions, constitution and political arrangements.[106]

Indian Architecture, including notable monuments, such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Mughal architecture and South Indian architecture, is the result of traditions that combined elements from several parts of the country and abroad. Vernacular architecture also displays notable regional variation.

Indian music covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. Classical music is split mainly between the North Indian Hindustani and South Indian Carnatic traditions. Highly regionalised forms of popular music include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter.

Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of Bihar and Orissa and the ghoomar of Rajasthan. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of the state of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam.[107]

Theatre in India often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.[108] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of state of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, the tamasha of Maharashtra, the terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[109]

Template:Indian image rotation The Indian film industry is the largest in the world.[110] Bollywood, based in Mumbai, makes commercial Hindi films and is the most prolific film industry in the world.[111] Established traditions also exist in Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil, and Telugu language cinemas.[112]

The earliest works of Indian literature were transmitted orally and only later written down.[113] These included works of Sanskrit literature – such as the early Vedas, the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana, the drama Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya[114] – and the Tamil language Sangam literature.[115] Among Indian writers of the modern era active in Indian languages or English, Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize in 1913.

Indian cuisine is characterized by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs and spices. The staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east) and wheat (predominantly in the north).[116] Spices originally native to the Indian subcontinent that are now consumed world wide include black pepper; in contrast, hot chilli peppers, popular across India, were introduced by the Portuguese.[117]

Traditional Indian dress varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as shalwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular.

Many Indian festivals are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Some popular festivals are Diwali, Pongal, Holi, Onam, Vijayadashami, Bihu, Durga puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, Ugadi, Buddha Jayanti and Vaisakhi.[118] India has three national holidays. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Religious practices are an integral part of everyday life and are a very public affair. Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, although urban families now prefer nuclear family system due to the socio-economic constraints imposed by traditional joint family system.

India's national sport is field hockey though cricket is the most popular sport in India. In some states, particularly those in the northeast and the states of West Bengal, Goa, and Kerala, football (soccer) is also a popular sport.[119] In recent times, tennis has also gained popularity. Chess, commonly held to have originated in India, is also gaining popularity with the rise in the number of Indian grandmasters. Traditional sports include kabaddi, kho-kho, and gilli-danda, which are played nationwide. India is home to the age-old discipline of yoga and to the ancient martial arts, Kalarippayattu and Varma Kalai.

See also

Template:Indian topics

Notes

  1. ^ "State Emblem -Inscription". National Informatics Centre(NIC). Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  2. ^ "National Anthem- Know India portal". National Informatics Centre(NIC). 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-31.
  3. ^ "National Song- Know India portal". National Informatics Centre(NIC). 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
  4. ^ "CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY OF INDIA - VOLUME XII". Constituent Assembly of India: Debates. parliamentofindia.nic.in, National Informatics Centre. 24 January 1950. Retrieved 2007-06-29. The composition consisting of the words and music known as Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations in the words as the Government may authorise as occasion arises; and the song Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ "The Union: Official Language". Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. National Informatics Centre(NIC). 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
  6. ^ a b "Notification No. 2/8/60-O.L. , dated 27 April, 1960". Ministry of Home Affairs, , Government of India. National Informatics Centre(NIC). {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "English-subsidiary" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  7. ^ Official Languages Resolution, 1968, para. 2.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "CIA Factbook: India". CIA Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2007-03-10. Cite error: The named reference "CIA" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  9. ^ a b "India at a Glance". Know India Portal. National Informatics Centre(NIC). Retrieved 2007-12-07.
  10. ^ "India, CIA World Factbook" (html). The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2007-12-19. Retrieved 2007-12-19.
  11. ^ a b "Fact Sheet: Gini Coefficient" (pdf). Source: The World Bank (2004) and Census and Statistics Department (2002). Legislative Council Secretariat Hong Kong. Retrieved 2007-08-01. Note: The Gini coefficient in this datasheet is calculated on a scale of 0 to 1 and not 0 to 100. Hence, on a scale of 100 India's Gini coefficient (1999-2000) is 32.5 rather than 3.25
  12. ^ "Total Area of India" (PDF). Country Studies, India. Library of Congress – Federal Research Division. December 2004. Retrieved 2007-09-03. The country's exact size is subject to debate because some borders are disputed. The Indian government lists the total area as 3,287,260 square kilometers and the total land area as 3,060,500 square kilometers; the United Nations lists the total area as 3,287,263 square kilometers and total land area as 2,973,190 square kilometers.
  13. ^ a b "Country profile: India". British Broadcasting Corporation. 9 January 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ^ a b c Kumar et al. 2006, p. 531
  15. ^ Footnote: The Government of India also considers Afghanistan to be a bordering country. This is because it considers the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir to be a part of India including the portion bordering Afghanistan. A ceasefire sponsored by the United Nations in 1948 froze the positions of Indian and Pakistani held territory. As a consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistani-administered territory.
  16. ^ Oldenburg, Phillip. 2007. "India: History," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007© 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation.
  17. ^ a b "India is the second fastest growing economy". Economic Research Service (ERS). United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved 2007-08-05.
  18. ^ Poverty estimates for 2004-05, Planning commission, Government of India, March 2007. Accessed: August 25, 2007
  19. ^ "India", Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 2100a.d. Oxford University Press
  20. ^ Basham, A. L. (2000). The Wonder That Was India. South Asia Books. ISBN 0283992573.
  21. ^ "Official name of the Union". Courts Informatics Division, National Informatics Centre, Ministry of Comm. and Information Tech. Retrieved 2007-08-08. Name and territory of the Union- India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States. {{cite web}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 62 (help)
  22. ^ "Hindustan". Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-18.
  23. ^ "Introduction to the Ancient Indus Valley". Harappa. 1996. Retrieved 2007-06-18.
  24. ^ Krishna Reddy (2003). Indian History. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. pp. p. A107. ISBN 0070483698. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  25. ^ Jona Lendering. "Maurya dynasty". Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  26. ^ "Gupta period has been described as the Golden Age of Indian history". National Informatics Centre (NIC). Retrieved 2007-10-03. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  27. ^ Heitzman, James. (2007). "Gupta Dynasty," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007
  28. ^ "History : Indian Freedom Struggle (1857-1947)". National Informatics Centre (NIC). Retrieved 2007-10-03. And by 1856, the British conquest and its authority were firmly established.
  29. ^ Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley Limited. 1997. pp. p. 455. ISBN 0-7513-5911-4. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  30. ^ Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley Limited. 1997. pp. p. 322. ISBN 0-7513-5911-4. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  31. ^ a b "India Profile". Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI). 2003. Retrieved 2007-06-20.
  32. ^ a b Montek S. Ahluwalia (2002). "Economic Reforms in India since 1991: Has Gradualism Worked?" (MS Word). Journal of Economic Perspectives. Retrieved 2007-06-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  33. ^ Pylee, Moolamattom Varkey (2004). "The Longest Constitutional Document". Constitutional Government in India (2nd edition ed.). S. Chand. p. 4. ISBN 8121922038. Retrieved 2007-10-31. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  34. ^ Dutt, Sagarika (1998). "Identities and the Indian state: An overview". Third World Quarterly. 19 (3): 411–434. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help) at p. 421
  35. ^ Wheare, K.C. (1964). Federal Government (4th edition ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 28. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  36. ^ a b c Sharma, Ram (1950). "Cabinet Government in India". Parliamentary Affairs. 4 (1): 116–126. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  37. ^ "Election of President". The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved 2007-09-02. The President shall be elected by the members of an electoral college
  38. ^ Gledhill, Alan (1964). The Republic of India: The Development of Its Laws and Constitution (2nd edition ed.). Stevens and Sons. p. 112. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  39. ^ "Tenure of President's office". The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved 2007-09-02. The President shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office
  40. ^ "Appointment of Prime Minister and Council of Ministers". The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved 2007-09-02. The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.
  41. ^ Gledhill, Alan (1964). The Republic of India: The Development of Its Laws and Constitution (2nd edition ed.). Stevens and Sons. p. 127. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  42. ^ a b c "Our Parliament A brief description of the Indian Parliament". www.parliamentofindia.gov.in. Retrieved 2007-06-16.
  43. ^ Matthew, K.M. Manorama Yearbook 2003. Malayala Manorama. pp. pg 524. ISBN 8190046187. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  44. ^ a b Neuborne, Burt (2003). "The Supreme Court of India". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 1 (1): 476–510. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help) at p. 478.
  45. ^ Supreme Court of India. "Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court". National Informatics Centre. Retrieved 2007-10-21.
  46. ^ Sripati, Vuayashri (1998). "Toward Fifty Years of Constitutionalism and Fundamental Rights in India: Looking Back to See Ahead (1950-2000)". American University International Law Review. 14 (2): 413–496. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help) at pp. 423-424
  47. ^ Pylee, Moolamattom Varkey (2004). "The Union Judiciary: The Supreme Court". Constitutional Government in India (2nd edition ed.). S. Chand. p. 314. ISBN 8121922038. Retrieved 2007-11-02. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  48. ^ "World's Largest Democracy to Reach One Billion Persons on Independence Day". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. United Nations: Population Division. Retrieved 2007-12-06.
  49. ^ a b c d e "Country Profile: India" (PDF). Library of Congress - Federal Research Division. December 2004. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
  50. ^ Bhambhri, Chandra Prakash (1992). Politics in India 1991-92. Shipra Publications. pp. 118, 143. ISBN 978-8185402178.
  51. ^ Patrick Dunleavy, Rekha Diwakar, Christopher Dunleavy. "The effective space of party competition" (PDF). London School of Economics and Political Science. Retrieved 2007-10-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  52. ^ Hermann, Kulke (2004). A History of India. Routledge. p. 384. ISBN 978-0415329194. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  53. ^ "History of Non Aligned Movement". Retrieved 2007-08-23.
  54. ^ "India and the United Nations". Retrieved 2006-04-22.
  55. ^ Brig. Vijai K. Nair (Indian Army). "No More Ambigiuity: India's Nuclear Policy" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-06-07.
  56. ^ "India's Nuclear profile". India Civil Nuclear Cooperation: Responding to Critics. White House: Press Release. March 8, 2006. Retrieved 2007-10-05. India has been a peaceful and vibrant democracy with a strong nuclear nonproliferation record
  57. ^ "States Reorganisation Act, 1956". Constitution of India. Commonwealth Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 2007-10-31.; See also: Political integration of India
  58. ^ "Districts of India". Government of India. National Informatics Centre (NIC). Retrieved 2007-11-25.
  59. ^ Cities with Compensatory City Allowance (CCA) classification A-1. See Status of Indian cities for details. "No.2(21)/E.II.(B)/2004". 2006. Ministry of Finance, Department of Expenditure. Government of India. Retrieved on 18 November, 2004
  60. ^ Ali & Aitchison 2005, pp. 170–171
  61. ^ a b Ali & Aitchison 2005, pp. 172–173
  62. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 7
  63. ^ Prakash et al. 2000, p. 445
  64. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 11
  65. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 8
  66. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, pp. 9–10
  67. ^ India's northernmost point is the region of the disputed Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire region of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir (including the Northern Areas currently administered by Pakistan) to be its territory, and therefore assigns the longitude 37° 6' to its northernmost point.
  68. ^ (Government of India 2007, p. 1)
  69. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 15
  70. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 16
  71. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 17
  72. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 12
  73. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 13
  74. ^ a b Chang 1967, pp. 391–394
  75. ^ Posey 1994, p. 118.
  76. ^ Heitzman & Worden 1996, p. 97.
  77. ^ a b Dr S.K.Puri. "Biodiversity Profile of India (Text Only)". Retrieved 2007-06-20.
  78. ^ Botanical Survey of India. 1983. Flora and Vegetation of India — An Outline. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. p. 24.
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  88. ^ ""Revenue surge boosts fiscal health"". Business Standard. Retrieved 2006-12-28.
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