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|lc2=wof|ld2=Gambian Wolof}}
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'''Wolof''' is a language spoken in [[Senegal]], [[The Gambia]], and [[Mauritania]], and is the native language of the [[Wolof people]]. Like the neighbouring language [[Fula language|Fula]], it belongs to the [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic branch]] of the [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo language family]]. Unlike most other languages of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], Wolof is not a [[tonal language]].
'''Wolof''' is a language spoken in [[Senegal]], [[The Gambia]], and [[Mauritania]], and is the native language of the [[Wolof people]]. Like the neighbouring languages [[Serer language|Serer]] and [[Fula language|Fula]], it belongs to the [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic branch]] of the [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo language family]]. Unlike most other languages of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], Wolof is not a [[tonal language]].


Wolof is the most widely spoken language in Senegal, spoken not only by members of the Wolof ethnic group (approximately 40 percent of the population) but also by most other Senegalese. Wolof [[dialect]]s may vary between countries (Senegal and the Gambia) and the rural and urban areas. "Dakar-Wolof", for instance, is an urban mixture of Wolof, [[French language|French]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and even a little [[English language|English]] - spoken in [[Dakar]], the capital of Senegal.
Wolof is the most widely spoken language in Senegal, spoken not only by members of the Wolof ethnic group (approximately 40 percent of the population) but also by most other Senegalese.
Note however that, this figure is misleading because other tribes who have been Wolofized and speak the Wolof language are added to this figure when in actual fact they are not Wolofs at all. <ref>African Sensus Analysis Project (ACAP). University of Pensylvania. Ethnic Diversity and Assimilation in Senegal: Evidence from the 1988 Census by Pieere Ngom, Aliou Gaye and Ibrahima Sarr. 2000</ref>
Wolof [[dialect]]s may vary between countries (Senegal and the Gambia) and the rural and urban areas. "Dakar-Wolof", for instance, is an urban mixture of Wolof, [[French language|French]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and even a little [[English language|English]] - spoken in [[Dakar]], the capital of Senegal.
"Wolof" is the standard spelling, and is a term that may also refer to the Wolof ethnic group or to things originating from Wolof culture or tradition. As an aid to pronunciation, some older French publications use the spelling "'''Ouolof'''"; for the same reason, some English publications adopt the spelling "'''Wollof'''", predominantly referring to Gambian Wolof. Prior to the 20th Century, the forms "Volof", and "Olof" were used.
"Wolof" is the standard spelling, and is a term that may also refer to the Wolof ethnic group or to things originating from Wolof culture or tradition. As an aid to pronunciation, some older French publications use the spelling "'''Ouolof'''"; for the same reason, some English publications adopt the spelling "'''Wollof'''", predominantly referring to Gambian Wolof. Prior to the 20th Century, the forms "Volof", and "Olof" were used.


Wolof has had some influence on Western European languages. ''Banana'' is a Wolof word in English{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}, and the English word ''[[Yam (vegetable)|yam]]'' is believed to be derived from Wolof/[[Fula language|Fula]] ''nyami'', "to eat food." <!-- the rest of this paragraph is not important enough to be in the introduction, but I haven't taken the time to move it --> ''Hip'' or ''hep'' (e.g., [[African-American]]'s now clichéd "hip cat") is believed by many etymologists to derive from the Wolof ''hepicat'', "one who has his eyes open" or "one who is aware".<ref>Holloway, Joseph E. [http://www.slaveryinamerica.org/history/hs_es_languages.htm The Impact of African Languages on American English]. ''[http://www.slaveryinamerica.org Slavery in America]''. Retrieved on 2006.10.05.</ref>
Wolof has had some influence on Western European languages. ''Banana'' is a Wolof word in English{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}, and the English word ''[[Yam (vegetable)|yam]]'' is believed to be derived from Wolof/[[Fula language|Fula]] ''nyami'', "to eat food." <!-- the rest of this paragraph is not important enough to be in the introduction, but I haven't taken the time to move it -->

It should be stated that, the word "nyam" and its derivatives "nyami" attributed to the [[Wolof people]] or [[Fula]] here actually comes from the language of the [[Serer people]], from the standard [[Serer-Sine]] word "gari ñam" (pronounced "gari nyam") meaning "to eat", from the [[Serer people|Serer]] [[Kingdom of Sine]]. The [[Wolof people]] who have immigrated to another Serer Kingdom called the [[Kingdom of Saloum]] picked it up from the [[Serer people]] of [[Saloum]] (the indigenous people). In Serer Saloum, the word is "ñaam" (nyam) which means "to eat". Whilst in [[Serer-Sine]] (proper Serer) it is "gari ñam" (gari nyam) meaning "to eat", in [[Saloum]] it is merely shortened to "ñaam". The word derives from the [[Serer-Sine |proper Serer]] word "ñam" (nyam) which means "food". It is from that the [[Senegambian]] word "ñaambi" ([[cassava]]) originated from. These words are used by all [[Senegambian |Senegambians]] not just by the [[Serer people]] (the progenitors of these words), but also by the [[Wolof people]], the [[Fula people]], the [[Mandinka people]] etc.<ref>Diktioneer Seereer-Angeleey (Serere-English Dictionary). Peace Corps – Senegal. First Edition, May 2010. Compiled by PCVs Bethany Arnold, Chris Carpenter, Guy Pledger, and Jack Brown. </ref> <ref>CRETOIS, RP Léonce (1973). Dictionnaire sereer-français (différents dialectes) 48- Tome 1 AC. Dakar : Centre de Linguistique Appliquée de Dakar. </ref><ref>FAYE, Waly (1979). Etude morphosyntaxique du Sereer Singandum: parler de Jaxaaw et de Ňaaxar. Grenoble III. </ref><ref>FIONA, Mc Laughlin (1995). "Consonant Mutation in Sereer-Siin". In Studies in Afircan Linguistics, volume 23, Number 3. 1992-94, Los Angeles: Univerisity of California.</ref><ref>[[Léopold Sédar Senghor]], (1943). Les classes nominales en wolof et les substantifs à initiales nasales. Journal de la société des Africanistes.</ref> The [[Serer people]] also being ancestors of the [[Wolof people]] as they are the ancestors of the [[Toucouleur people]] and [[Lebou people]], their language has also been borrowed and diluted by these groups. "[[Cheikh Anta Diop]] had defended the hypothesis that the [[Wolof people|Wollofs]] were not originally a group apart but the result of a process of metissage so to speak of different ethnic groups: [[Serer people|Serere ]], [[Lebou people|Lebou]], [[Toucouleur people |Toucoulor]], [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] and [[Soninke people|Sarahuli]] who, in their evolution i.e. the [[Wolof people|Wollofs]], transformed themselves into an autonomous "tribe" with a strong capacity to assimilate, absorb or integrate with all other ethnic groups.<ref>Senegambian Ethnic Groups: Common Origins and Cultural Affinities Factors and Forces of National Unity, Peace and Stability. By Alhaji Ebou Momar Taal. 2010.</ref> The [[Serer people]] also have an ancient tradition of farming not just [[millet]] and other crops but [[cassava]] ("ñaambi") as well.

''Hip'' or ''hep'' (e.g., [[African-American]]'s now clichéd "hip cat") is believed by many etymologists to derive from the Wolof ''hepicat'', "one who has his eyes open" or "one who is aware".<ref>Holloway, Joseph E. [http://www.slaveryinamerica.org/history/hs_es_languages.htm The Impact of African Languages on American English]. ''[http://www.slaveryinamerica.org Slavery in America]''. Retrieved on 2006.10.05.</ref>


==Geographical distribution==
==Geographical distribution==
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Wolof is spoken by more than 10 million people and about 40 percent (approximately 5 million people) of Senegal's population speak Wolof as their mother tongue. Increased mobility, and especially the growth of the capital Dakar, created the need for a common language: today, an additional 40 percent of the population speak Wolof as a second or acquired [[language]]. In the whole region from [[Dakar]] to [[Saint-Louis, Senegal|Saint-Louis]], and also west and southwest of [[Kaolack]], Wolof is spoken by the vast majority of the people. Typically when various ethnic groups in Senegal come together in cities and towns, they speak Wolof. It is therefore spoken in almost every regional and departmental capital in Senegal. Nevertheless, the official language of Senegal is [[French language|French]].
Wolof is spoken by more than 10 million people and about 40 percent (approximately 5 million people) of Senegal's population speak Wolof as their mother tongue. Increased mobility, and especially the growth of the capital Dakar, created the need for a common language: today, an additional 40 percent of the population speak Wolof as a second or acquired [[language]]. In the whole region from [[Dakar]] to [[Saint-Louis, Senegal|Saint-Louis]], and also west and southwest of [[Kaolack]], Wolof is spoken by the vast majority of the people. Typically when various ethnic groups in Senegal come together in cities and towns, they speak Wolof. It is therefore spoken in almost every regional and departmental capital in Senegal. Nevertheless, the official language of Senegal is [[French language|French]].

As stated above, great care should be taken when forming an opinion based on the figures prescribed here. These figures are misleading because other tribes who have been Wolofized and speak the Wolof language are added to this figure when in actual fact they are not Wolofs at all. <ref>African Sensus Analysis Project (ACAP). University of Pensylvania. Ethnic Diversity and Assimilation in Senegal: Evidence from the 1988 Census by Pieere Ngom, Aliou Gaye and Ibrahima Sarr. 2000</ref> Furthermore, not only is [[Serer-Sine|Serer]] and [[Fula language|Fula]] just like [[Wolof language|Wolof]] etc recognised and taught in schools, not everyone speaks or understands Wolof. There are [[Serer people|Serers]], [[Fula people|Fulas]], [[Mandinka people|Mandinkas]], [[Jola people|Jolas]] etc who cannot speak or understand Wolof. Moreover, not only Wolof people live in cities and towns. There are cities and towns which are predominantly [[Serer people|Serers]] just as there are cities and towns which are predominantly Wolofs. Furthermore, there are Wolof villages just as there are Serer villages.


In [[the Gambia]], about three percent of the population speak Wolof as a first language, but Wolof has a disproportionate influence because of its prevalence in [[Banjul]], the Gambia's capital, where 25 percent of the population use it as a first language. In [[Serrekunda]], the Gambia's largest town, although only a tiny minority are ethnic Wolofs, approximately 10 percent of the population speaks and/or understands Wolof. The official language of the Gambia is [[English language|English]]; Mandinka (40 percent), Wolof (7 percent) and Fula (15 percent) are as yet not used in formal education.
In [[the Gambia]], about three percent of the population speak Wolof as a first language, but Wolof has a disproportionate influence because of its prevalence in [[Banjul]], the Gambia's capital, where 25 percent of the population use it as a first language. In [[Serrekunda]], the Gambia's largest town, although only a tiny minority are ethnic Wolofs, approximately 10 percent of the population speaks and/or understands Wolof. The official language of the Gambia is [[English language|English]]; Mandinka (40 percent), Wolof (7 percent) and Fula (15 percent) are as yet not used in formal education.
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It should be noted that the "Wolof words" prescribed in this table mostly derived from the [[Serer-Sine|Serer language]] which the Wolofs have borrowed and adopted. This borrowing is understandable since the [[Serer people|Serers]] are the ancestors of the Wolofs<ref>Senegambian Ethnic Groups: Common Origins and Cultural Affinities Factors and Forces of National Unity, Peace and Stability. By Alhaji Ebou Momar Taal. 2010.</ref>. Example of borrowed words include (but are not limited to):
*Def
*Naka
*Maa
*Ngi
*Fi
*Rekk
*Demee
*Fan
*La
*Mu... <ref>Diktioneer Seereer-Angeleey (Serere-English Dictionary). Peace Corps – Senegal. First Edition, May 2010. Compiled by PCVs Bethany Arnold, Chris Carpenter, Guy Pledger, and Jack Brown. </ref><ref>CRETOIS, RP Léonce (1973). Dictionnaire sereer-français (différents dialectes ) 48- Tome 1 AC. Dakar : Centre de Linguistique Appliquée de Dakar. </ref><ref>Faye, Waly (1979). Etude morphosyntaxique du sereer singandum: parler de Jaxaaw et de Ňaaxar. Grenoble III. </ref><ref> FIONA, Mc Laughlin (1995). Consonant Mutation in Sereer-Siin. In Studies in Afircan Linguistics, volume 23, Number 3. 1992-94, Los Angeles: Univerisity of California.</ref><ref>[[Léopold Sédar Senghor]] (1943). Les classes nominales en wolof et les substantifs à initiales nasales. Journal de la société des Africanistes.</ref>
Few words are definitely borrowed and corrupted from the [[Fula language]] "Jërë" (Jërëjëf) and the word "loppitaan" is obviously borrowed from the French word "L’hôpital".


==Orthography and pronunciation==
==Orthography and pronunciation==
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==== Gender ====
==== Gender ====
Wolof lacks [[gender-specific pronouns]]: there is one word encompassing the English 'he', 'she', and 'it'. The descriptors '''bu góor''' (male / masculine) or '''bu jigéen''' (female / feminine) are often added to words like ''xarit'', 'friend', and ''rakk'', 'younger sibling' in order to indicate the person's gender.
Wolof lacks [[gender-specific pronouns]]: there is one word encompassing the English 'he', 'she', and 'it'. The descriptors '''bu góor''' (male / masculine) or '''bu jigéen''' (female / feminine) are often added to words like ''xarit'', 'friend', and ''rakk'', 'younger sibling' in order to indicate the person's gender.

It should be noted that the word "góor" ("goor" or "gor") originated from the [[Serer-Sine|Serer language]]. These words orignated from the Serer words "o koor" or "goor" which means "man". "O kor" or "gor" also from the [[Serer people|Serer language]], means "husband". It is from this the [[Serer people|Serer]] word "gorie" ("honour" or "honourable") comes. All these words and their derivatives are used by other [[Senegambian|Senegambians]] including the Wolof, but they all originated from the language of the [[Serer people]].<ref>Diktioneer Seereer-Angeleey (Serere-English Dictionary). Peace Corps – Senegal. First Edition, May 2010. Compiled by PCVs Bethany Arnold, Chris Carpenter, Guy Pledger, and Jack Brown. </ref>


For the most part, Wolof does not have noun concord ("agreement") classes as in Bantu or Romance languages. But the markers of noun definiteness (usually called "definite articles" in grammatical terminology) do agree with the noun they modify. There are at least ten articles in Wolof, some of them indicating a singular noun, others a plural noun. In "City Wolof" (the type of Wolof spoken in big cities like Dakar), the article '''-bi''' is often used as a generic article when the actual article is not known.
For the most part, Wolof does not have noun concord ("agreement") classes as in Bantu or Romance languages. But the markers of noun definiteness (usually called "definite articles" in grammatical terminology) do agree with the noun they modify. There are at least ten articles in Wolof, some of them indicating a singular noun, others a plural noun. In "City Wolof" (the type of Wolof spoken in big cities like Dakar), the article '''-bi''' is often used as a generic article when the actual article is not known.
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[[ga:An Volaifis]]
[[ga:An Volaifis]]
[[ko:월로프어]]
[[ko:월로프어]]
[[hr:Gambijski wolof (jezik)]]
[[id:Bahasa Wolof]]
[[id:Bahasa Wolof]]
[[it:Lingua wolof]]
[[it:Lingua wolof]]

Revision as of 19:05, 20 August 2011

Wolof
Native to Senegal

 Gambia

 Mauritania
RegionWest Africa
Native speakers
5.5 million (mother tongue)
12.3 million (second language)[1]
Official status
Regulated byCLAD (Centre de linguistique appliquée de Dakar)
Language codes
ISO 639-1wo
ISO 639-2wol
ISO 639-3Either:
wol – Wolof
wof – Gambian Wolof

Wolof is a language spoken in Senegal, The Gambia, and Mauritania, and is the native language of the Wolof people. Like the neighbouring languages Serer and Fula, it belongs to the Atlantic branch of the Niger–Congo language family. Unlike most other languages of Sub-Saharan Africa, Wolof is not a tonal language.

Wolof is the most widely spoken language in Senegal, spoken not only by members of the Wolof ethnic group (approximately 40 percent of the population) but also by most other Senegalese. Note however that, this figure is misleading because other tribes who have been Wolofized and speak the Wolof language are added to this figure when in actual fact they are not Wolofs at all. [2] Wolof dialects may vary between countries (Senegal and the Gambia) and the rural and urban areas. "Dakar-Wolof", for instance, is an urban mixture of Wolof, French, Arabic, and even a little English - spoken in Dakar, the capital of Senegal. "Wolof" is the standard spelling, and is a term that may also refer to the Wolof ethnic group or to things originating from Wolof culture or tradition. As an aid to pronunciation, some older French publications use the spelling "Ouolof"; for the same reason, some English publications adopt the spelling "Wollof", predominantly referring to Gambian Wolof. Prior to the 20th Century, the forms "Volof", and "Olof" were used.

Wolof has had some influence on Western European languages. Banana is a Wolof word in English[citation needed], and the English word yam is believed to be derived from Wolof/Fula nyami, "to eat food."

It should be stated that, the word "nyam" and its derivatives "nyami" attributed to the Wolof people or Fula here actually comes from the language of the Serer people, from the standard Serer-Sine word "gari ñam" (pronounced "gari nyam") meaning "to eat", from the Serer Kingdom of Sine. The Wolof people who have immigrated to another Serer Kingdom called the Kingdom of Saloum picked it up from the Serer people of Saloum (the indigenous people). In Serer Saloum, the word is "ñaam" (nyam) which means "to eat". Whilst in Serer-Sine (proper Serer) it is "gari ñam" (gari nyam) meaning "to eat", in Saloum it is merely shortened to "ñaam". The word derives from the proper Serer word "ñam" (nyam) which means "food". It is from that the Senegambian word "ñaambi" (cassava) originated from. These words are used by all Senegambians not just by the Serer people (the progenitors of these words), but also by the Wolof people, the Fula people, the Mandinka people etc.[3] [4][5][6][7] The Serer people also being ancestors of the Wolof people as they are the ancestors of the Toucouleur people and Lebou people, their language has also been borrowed and diluted by these groups. "Cheikh Anta Diop had defended the hypothesis that the Wollofs were not originally a group apart but the result of a process of metissage so to speak of different ethnic groups: Serere , Lebou, Toucoulor, Mandinka and Sarahuli who, in their evolution i.e. the Wollofs, transformed themselves into an autonomous "tribe" with a strong capacity to assimilate, absorb or integrate with all other ethnic groups.[8] The Serer people also have an ancient tradition of farming not just millet and other crops but cassava ("ñaambi") as well.

Hip or hep (e.g., African-American's now clichéd "hip cat") is believed by many etymologists to derive from the Wolof hepicat, "one who has his eyes open" or "one who is aware".[9]

Geographical distribution

States of the Wolof Empire
File:AfficheWolofDakar.jpg
Publicity in Wolof in Parcelles Assainies, Dakar (Sénégal)

Wolof is spoken by more than 10 million people and about 40 percent (approximately 5 million people) of Senegal's population speak Wolof as their mother tongue. Increased mobility, and especially the growth of the capital Dakar, created the need for a common language: today, an additional 40 percent of the population speak Wolof as a second or acquired language. In the whole region from Dakar to Saint-Louis, and also west and southwest of Kaolack, Wolof is spoken by the vast majority of the people. Typically when various ethnic groups in Senegal come together in cities and towns, they speak Wolof. It is therefore spoken in almost every regional and departmental capital in Senegal. Nevertheless, the official language of Senegal is French.

As stated above, great care should be taken when forming an opinion based on the figures prescribed here. These figures are misleading because other tribes who have been Wolofized and speak the Wolof language are added to this figure when in actual fact they are not Wolofs at all. [10] Furthermore, not only is Serer and Fula just like Wolof etc recognised and taught in schools, not everyone speaks or understands Wolof. There are Serers, Fulas, Mandinkas, Jolas etc who cannot speak or understand Wolof. Moreover, not only Wolof people live in cities and towns. There are cities and towns which are predominantly Serers just as there are cities and towns which are predominantly Wolofs. Furthermore, there are Wolof villages just as there are Serer villages.

In the Gambia, about three percent of the population speak Wolof as a first language, but Wolof has a disproportionate influence because of its prevalence in Banjul, the Gambia's capital, where 25 percent of the population use it as a first language. In Serrekunda, the Gambia's largest town, although only a tiny minority are ethnic Wolofs, approximately 10 percent of the population speaks and/or understands Wolof. The official language of the Gambia is English; Mandinka (40 percent), Wolof (7 percent) and Fula (15 percent) are as yet not used in formal education.

In Mauritania, about seven percent (approximately 185,000 people) of the population speak Wolof. There, the language is used only around the southern coastal regions. Mauritania's official language is Arabic; French is used as a lingua franca.

Example phrases

This paragraph uses the exact orthography developed by the CLAD institute, which can be found in Arame Fal's dictionary (see bibliography below). For the literal translation, please note that Wolof does not have tenses in the sense of the Indo-European languages; rather, Wolof marks aspect and focus of an action. The literal translation given in the table below is an exact word-by-word translation in the original word order, where the meanings of the individual words are separated by dashes.

To listen to the pronunciation of some Wolof words, click here

Wolof English Literal translation into English
(As)salaamaalekum !
Response: Maalekum salaam !

This greeting is not Wolof—it is Arabic (used by Arabic speakers), but is commonly used.

Hello!
Response: Hello! 		(Arabic) peace be with you
Response: and with you be peace
Na nga def ? / Naka nga def ? / Noo def?
Response: Maa ngi fi rekk 		How do you do? / How are you doing?
Response: I am fine 		How - you (already) - do
Response: I here - be - here - only
Naka mu ?
Response: Maa ngi fi 		What's up?
Response: I'm fine 		How is it?
Response: I'm here
Numu demee? / Naka mu demee?/
Response: Nice / Mu ngi dox 		How's it going?
Response: Fine / Nice / It's going 		How is it going?
Response: Nice (from English) / It's walking (going)
Lu bees ?
Response: Dara (beesul) 		What's new?
Response: Nothing (is new) 		What is it that is new?
Response: Nothing/something (is not new)
Ba beneen (yoon). See you soon (next time) Until - other - (time)
Jërëjëf Thanks / Thank you It was worth it
Waaw Yes Yes
Déedéet No No
Fan la ... am ? Where is a ...? Where - that which is - ... - existing/having
Fan la fajkat am ? Where is a physician/doctor? Where - the one who is - heal-maker - existing/having
Fan la ... nekk ? Where is the ...? Where - it which is - ... - found?
Ana ...? Where is ...? Where is ...?
Ana loppitaan bi? Where is the hospital? Where is - hospital - the?
Noo tudd(a)* ? / Naka nga tudd(a) ?
Response: ... laa tudd(a) / Maa ngi tudd(a) ...

(* Gambian Wolof has an <a> after word-ending doubled consonants )

What is your name?
Response: My name is .... 		What you (already) - being called?
Response: ... I (objective) - called / I am called ...

It should be noted that the "Wolof words" prescribed in this table mostly derived from the Serer language which the Wolofs have borrowed and adopted. This borrowing is understandable since the Serers are the ancestors of the Wolofs[11]. Example of borrowed words include (but are not limited to):

Few words are definitely borrowed and corrupted from the Fula language "Jërë" (Jërëjëf) and the word "loppitaan" is obviously borrowed from the French word "L’hôpital".

Orthography and pronunciation

Note: Phonetic transcriptions are printed between brackets [] following the rules of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

The Latin-based orthography of Wolof in Senegal was set by government decrees between 1971 and 1985. The language institute "Centre de linguistique appliquée de Dakar" (CLAD) is widely acknowledged as an authority when it comes to spelling rules for Wolof.

Wolof is most often written in this orthography, in which phonemes have a clear one-to-one correspondence to graphemes.

(A traditional Arabic-based transcription of Wolof called Wolofal dates back to the pre-colonial period and is still used by many people.)

The first syllable of words is stressed; long vowels are pronounced with more time, but are not automatically stressed, as they are in English.

Vowels

Wolof adds diacritic marks to the vowel letters to distinguish between open and closed vowels. Example: "o" [ɔ] is open like (British) English "often", "ó" [o] is closed similar to the o-sound in English "most" (but without the u-sound at the end). Similarly, "e" [ɛ] is open like English "get", while "é" [e] is closed similar to the sound of "a" in English "gate" (but without the i-sound at the end).

Single vowels are short, geminated vowels are long, so Wolof "o" [ɔ] is short and pronounced like "ou" in (British) English "sought", but Wolof "oo" [ɔ:] is long and pronounced like the "aw" in (British) English "sawed". If a closed vowel is long, the diacritic symbol is usually written only above the first vowel, e.g. "óo", but some sources deviate from this CLAD standard and set it above both vowels, e.g. "óó".

The very common Wolof letter "ë" is pronounced [ə], like "a" in English "sofa".

Consonants

Template:Cleanup-IPA The characters (U+014B) Latin small letter eng "ŋ" and (U+014A) Latin capital letter eng "Ŋ" are used in the Wolof alphabet. They are pronounced like "ng" in English "hang".

The characters (U+00F1) Latin small letter n with tilde "ñ" and (U+00D1) Latin capital letter n with tilde "Ñ" are also used. They are pronounced like the same letter in Spanish "señor".

"c" is between "t" in English (of England) "fortune" and "ch" in English "choose", while "j" is between "d" in English (of England) "duke" and "j" in "June". "x" is like "ch" in German "Bach", while "q" is like "c" in English "cool". "g" is always like "g" in English "garden", and "s" is always like "s" in English "stop". "w" is as in "wind" and "y" as in "yellow".

Grammar

Notable characteristics

Pronoun conjugation instead of verbal conjugation

In Wolof, verbs are unchangeable words which cannot be conjugated. To express different tenses or aspects of an action, the personal pronouns are conjugated - not the verbs. Therefore, the term temporal pronoun has become established for this part of speech.

Example: The verb dem means "to go" and cannot be changed; the temporal pronoun maa ngi means "I/me, here and now"; the temporal pronoun dinaa means "I am soon / I will soon / I will be soon". With that, the following sentences can be built now: Maa ngi dem. "I am going (here and now)." - Dinaa dem. "I will go (soon)."

Conjugation with respect to aspect instead of tense

In Wolof, tenses like present tense, past tense, and future tense are just of secondary importance, they even play almost no role. Of crucial importance is the aspect of an action from the speaker's point of view. The most important distinction is whether an action is perfective, i.e., finished, or imperfective, i.e., still going on, from the speaker's point of view, regardless whether the action itself takes place in the past, present, or future. Other aspects indicate whether an action takes place regularly, whether an action will take place for sure, and whether an action wants to emphasize the role of the subject, predicate, or object of the sentence. As a result, conjugation is not done by tenses, but by aspects. Nevertheless, the term temporal pronoun became usual for these conjugated pronouns, although aspect pronoun might be a better term.

Example: The verb dem means "to go"; the temporal pronoun naa means "I already/definitely", the temporal pronoun dinaa means "I am soon / I will soon / I will be soon"; the temporal pronoun damay means "I (am) regularly/usually". Now the following sentences can be constructed: Dem naa. "I go already / I have already gone." - Dinaa dem. "I will go soon / I am just going to go." - Damay dem. "I usually/regularly/normally go."

If the speaker absolutely wants to express that an action took place in the past, this is not done by conjugation, but by adding the suffix -(w)oon to the verb. (Please bear in mind that in a sentence the temporal pronoun is still used in a conjugated form along with the past marker.)

Example: Demoon naa Ndakaaru. "I already went to Dakar."

Action verbs versus static verbs and adjectives

Consonant harmony

Gender

Wolof lacks gender-specific pronouns: there is one word encompassing the English 'he', 'she', and 'it'. The descriptors bu góor (male / masculine) or bu jigéen (female / feminine) are often added to words like xarit, 'friend', and rakk, 'younger sibling' in order to indicate the person's gender.

It should be noted that the word "góor" ("goor" or "gor") originated from the Serer language. These words orignated from the Serer words "o koor" or "goor" which means "man". "O kor" or "gor" also from the Serer language, means "husband". It is from this the Serer word "gorie" ("honour" or "honourable") comes. All these words and their derivatives are used by other Senegambians including the Wolof, but they all originated from the language of the Serer people.[17]

For the most part, Wolof does not have noun concord ("agreement") classes as in Bantu or Romance languages. But the markers of noun definiteness (usually called "definite articles" in grammatical terminology) do agree with the noun they modify. There are at least ten articles in Wolof, some of them indicating a singular noun, others a plural noun. In "City Wolof" (the type of Wolof spoken in big cities like Dakar), the article -bi is often used as a generic article when the actual article is not known.

Any loan noun from French or English uses –bi –- butik-bi, xarit-bi, 'the boutique, the friend'

Most Arabic or religious terms use –ji -- jumma-ji, jigéen-ji, 'the mosque, the girl'

Nouns referring to persons typically use -ki -- nit-ki, nit-ñi, 'the person, the people'

Miscellaneous articles: si, gi, wi, mi, li, yi.

Numerals

Cardinal numbers

The Wolof numeral system is based on the numbers "5" and "10". It is extremely regular in formation, comparable to Chinese. Example: benn "one", juróom "five", juróom-benn "six" (literally, "five-one"), fukk "ten", fukk ak juróom benn "sixteen" (literally, "ten and five one"), ñett-fukk "thirty" (literally, "three-ten"). Alternatively, "thirty" is fanweer, which is roughly the number of days in a lunar month (literally "fan" is day and "weer" is moon.)

0 tus / neen / zéro [French] / sero / dara ["nothing"]
1 benn
2 ñaar / yaar
3 ñett / ñatt / yett / yatt
4 ñeent / ñenent
5 juróom
6 juróom-benn
7 juróom-ñaar
8 juróom-ñett
9 juróom-ñeent
10 fukk
11 fukk ak benn
12 fukk ak ñaar
13 fukk ak ñett
14 fukk ak ñeent
15 fukk ak juróom
16 fukk ak juróom-benn
17 fukk ak juróom-ñaar
18 fukk ak juróom-ñett
19 fukk ak juróom-ñeent
20 ñaar-fukk
26 ñaar-fukk ak juróom-benn
30 ñett-fukk / fanweer
40 ñeent-fukk
50 juróom-fukk
60 juróom-benn-fukk
66 juróom-benn-fukk ak juróom-benn
70 juróom-ñaar-fukk
80 juróom-ñett-fukk
90 juróom-ñeent-fukk
100 téeméer
101 téeméer ak benn
106 téeméer ak juróom-benn
110 téeméer ak fukk
200 ñaari téeméer
300 ñetti téeméer
400 ñeenti téeméer
500 juróomi téeméer
600 juróom-benni téeméer
700 juróom-ñaari téeméer
800 juróom-ñetti téeméer
900 juróom-ñeenti téeméer
1000 junni / junne
1100 junni ak téeméer
1600 junni ak juróom-benni téeméer
1945 junni ak juróom-ñeenti téeméer ak ñeent-fukk ak juróom
1969 junni ak juróom-ñeenti téeméer ak juróom-benn-fukk ak juróom-ñeent
2000 ñaari junni
3000 ñetti junni
4000 ñeenti junni
5000 juróomi junni
6000 juróom-benni junni
7000 juróom-ñaari junni
8000 juróom-ñetti junni
9000 juróom-ñeenti junni
10000 fukki junni
100000 téeméeri junni
1000000 tamndareet / million

Ordinal numbers

Ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) are formed by adding the ending –éélu (pronounced ay-lu) to the cardinal number.

For example two is ñaar and second is ñaaréélu

The one exception to this system is “first”, which is bu njëk (or the adapted French word premier: përëmye)

1st bu njëk
2nd ñaaréélu
3rd ñettéélu
4th ñeentéélu
5th juróoméélu
6th juróom-bennéélu
7th juróom-ñaaréélu
8th juróom-ñettéélu
9th juróom-ñeentéélu
10th fukkéélu

Personal pronouns

Temporal pronouns

Conjugation of the temporal pronouns

Situative (Presentative)

(Present Continuous)

Terminative

(Past tense for action verbs or present tense for static verbs)

Objective

(Emphasis on Object)

Processive (Explicative and/or Descriptive)

(Emphasis on Verb)

Subjective

(Emphasis on Subject)

Neutral
Perfect Imperfect Perfect Future Perfect Imperfect Perfect Imperfect Perfect Imperfect Perfect Imperfect
1st Person singular "I" maa ngi

(I am+ Verb+ -ing)

maa ngiy naa

(I + past tense action verbs or present tense static verbs)

dinaa

(I will ... / future)

laa

(Puts the emphasis on the Object of the sentence)

laay

(Indicates a habitual or future action)

dama

(Puts the emphasis on the Verb or the state 'condition' of the sentence)

damay

(Indicates a habitual or future action)

maa

(Puts the emphasis on the Subject of the sentence)

maay

(Indicates a habitual or future action)

ma may
2nd Person singular "you" yaa ngi yaa ngiy nga dinga nga ngay danga dangay yaa yaay nga ngay
3rd Person singular "he/she/it" mu ngi mu ngiy na dina la lay dafa dafay moo mooy mu muy
1st Person plural "we" nu ngi nu ngiy nanu dinanu lanu lanuy danu danuy noo nooy nu nuy
2nd Person plural "you" yéena ngi yéena ngiy ngeen dingeen ngeen ngeen di dangeen dangeen di yéena yéenay ngeen ngeen di
3rd Person plural "they" ñu ngi ñu ngiy nañu dinañu lañu lañuy dañu dañuy ñoo ñooy ñu ñuy

In urban Wolof it is common to use the forms of the 3rd person plural also for the 1st person plural.

It is also important to note that the verb follows certain temporal pronouns and precedes others.

Literature

The New Testament was translated into Wolof and published in 1987, second edition 2004, and in 2008 with some minor typographical corrections.[18]

The 1994 song '7 seconds' by Youssou N'Dour and Neneh Cherry is partially sung in Wolof.

References

  1. ^ Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online version: wolof entry at Ethnologue.com
  2. ^ African Sensus Analysis Project (ACAP). University of Pensylvania. Ethnic Diversity and Assimilation in Senegal: Evidence from the 1988 Census by Pieere Ngom, Aliou Gaye and Ibrahima Sarr. 2000
  3. ^ Diktioneer Seereer-Angeleey (Serere-English Dictionary). Peace Corps – Senegal. First Edition, May 2010. Compiled by PCVs Bethany Arnold, Chris Carpenter, Guy Pledger, and Jack Brown.
  4. ^ CRETOIS, RP Léonce (1973). Dictionnaire sereer-français (différents dialectes) 48- Tome 1 AC. Dakar : Centre de Linguistique Appliquée de Dakar.
  5. ^ FAYE, Waly (1979). Etude morphosyntaxique du Sereer Singandum: parler de Jaxaaw et de Ňaaxar. Grenoble III.
  6. ^ FIONA, Mc Laughlin (1995). "Consonant Mutation in Sereer-Siin". In Studies in Afircan Linguistics, volume 23, Number 3. 1992-94, Los Angeles: Univerisity of California.
  7. ^ Léopold Sédar Senghor, (1943). Les classes nominales en wolof et les substantifs à initiales nasales. Journal de la société des Africanistes.
  8. ^ Senegambian Ethnic Groups: Common Origins and Cultural Affinities Factors and Forces of National Unity, Peace and Stability. By Alhaji Ebou Momar Taal. 2010.
  9. ^ Holloway, Joseph E. The Impact of African Languages on American English. Slavery in America. Retrieved on 2006.10.05.
  10. ^ African Sensus Analysis Project (ACAP). University of Pensylvania. Ethnic Diversity and Assimilation in Senegal: Evidence from the 1988 Census by Pieere Ngom, Aliou Gaye and Ibrahima Sarr. 2000
  11. ^ Senegambian Ethnic Groups: Common Origins and Cultural Affinities Factors and Forces of National Unity, Peace and Stability. By Alhaji Ebou Momar Taal. 2010.
  12. ^ Diktioneer Seereer-Angeleey (Serere-English Dictionary). Peace Corps – Senegal. First Edition, May 2010. Compiled by PCVs Bethany Arnold, Chris Carpenter, Guy Pledger, and Jack Brown.
  13. ^ CRETOIS, RP Léonce (1973). Dictionnaire sereer-français (différents dialectes ) 48- Tome 1 AC. Dakar : Centre de Linguistique Appliquée de Dakar.
  14. ^ Faye, Waly (1979). Etude morphosyntaxique du sereer singandum: parler de Jaxaaw et de Ňaaxar. Grenoble III.
  15. ^ FIONA, Mc Laughlin (1995). Consonant Mutation in Sereer-Siin. In Studies in Afircan Linguistics, volume 23, Number 3. 1992-94, Los Angeles: Univerisity of California.
  16. ^ Léopold Sédar Senghor (1943). Les classes nominales en wolof et les substantifs à initiales nasales. Journal de la société des Africanistes.
  17. ^ Diktioneer Seereer-Angeleey (Serere-English Dictionary). Peace Corps – Senegal. First Edition, May 2010. Compiled by PCVs Bethany Arnold, Chris Carpenter, Guy Pledger, and Jack Brown.
  18. ^ Biblewolof.com

Bibliography

Linguistics
  • Omar Ka: Wolof Phonology and Morphology. University Press of America, Lanham, Maryland, 1994, ISBN 0-8191-9288-0.
  • Mamadou Cissé: « Graphical borrowing and African realities » in Revue du Musée National d'Ethnologie d'Osaka, Japan, June 2000.
  • Mamadou Cissé: "Revisiter "La grammaire de la langue wolof" d'A. Kobes (1869), ou étude critique d'un pan de l'histoire de la grammaire du wolof.", in Sudlangues Sudlangues.sn, February 2005
  • Leigh Swigart: Two codes or one? The insiders’ view and the description of codeswitching in Dakar, in Carol M. Eastman, Codeswitching. Clevedon/Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters, ISBN 1-85359-167-X.
  • Fiona McLaughlin: Dakar Wolof and the configuration of an urban identity, Journal of African Cultural Studies 14/2, 2001, p. 153-172
  • Gabriele Aïscha Bichler: Bejo, Curay und Bin-bim? Die Sprache und Kultur der Wolof im Senegal (mit angeschlossenem Lehrbuch Wolof), Europäische Hochschulschriften Band 90, Peter Lang Verlagsgruppe, Frankfurt am Main, Germany 2003, ISBN 3-631-39815-8.
Grammar
  • Pathé Diagne: Grammaire de Wolof Moderne. Présence Africaine, Paris, France, 1971.
  • Pape Amadou Gaye: Wolof - An Audio-Aural Approach. United States Peace Corps, 1980.
  • Amar Samb: Initiation a la Grammaire Wolof. Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire, Université de Dakar, Ifan-Dakar, Sénegal, 1983.
  • Michael Franke: Kauderwelsch, Wolof für den Senegal - Wort für Wort. Reise Know-How Verlag, Bielefeld, Germany 2002, ISBN 3-89416-280-5.
  • Michael Franke, Jean Léopold Diouf, Konstantin Pozdniakov: Le wolof de poche - Kit de conversation (Phrasebook/grammar with 1 CD). Assimil, Chennevières-sur-Marne, France, 2004 ISBN 978-2-7005-4020-8.
  • Jean-Léopold Diouf, Marina Yaguello: J'apprends le Wolof - Damay jàng wolof (1 textbook with 4 audio cassettes). Karthala, Paris, France 1991, ISBN 2-86537-287-1.
  • Michel Malherbe, Cheikh Sall: Parlons Wolof - Langue et culture. L'Harmattan, Paris, France 1989, ISBN 2-7384-0383-2 (this book uses a simplified orthography which is not compliant with the CLAD standards; a CD is available).
  • Jean-Léopold Diouf: Grammaire du wolof contemporain. Karthala, Paris, France 2003, ISBN 2-84586-267-9.
  • Fallou Ngom: Wolof. Verlag LINCOM, Munich, Germany 2003, ISBN 3-89586-616-4.
  • Sana Camara: Wolof Lexicon and Grammar, NALRC Press, 2006, ISBN 978-1-59703-012-0.
Dictionary
  • Diouf, Jean-Leopold:Dictionaire wolof-français et français-wolof,Karthala,2003
  • Mamadou Cissé: Dictionnaire Français-Wolof, L’Asiathèque, Paris, 1998, ISBN 2-911053-43-5
  • Arame Fal, Rosine Santos, Jean Léonce Doneux: Dictionnaire wolof-français (suivi d'un index français-wolof). Karthala, Paris, France 1990, ISBN 2-86537-233-2.
  • Pamela Munro, Dieynaba Gaye: Ay Baati Wolof - A Wolof Dictionary. UCLA Occasional Papers in Linguistics, No. 19, Los Angeles, California, 1997.
  • Peace Corps The Gambia: Wollof-English Dictionary, PO Box 582, Banjul, The Gambia, 1995 (no ISBN, available as PDF file via the internet; this book refers solely to the dialect spoken in the Gambia and does not use the standard orthography of CLAD).
  • Nyima Kantorek: Wolof Dictionary & Phrasebook, Hippocrene Books, 2005, ISBN 0-7818-1086-8 (this book refers predominantly to the dialect spoken in the Gambia and does not use the standard orthography of CLAD).
  • Sana Camara: Wolof Lexicon and Grammar, NALRC Press, 2006, ISBN 978-1-59703-012-0.
Official documents
  • Government of Senegal, Décret n° 71-566 du 21 mai 1971 relatif à la transcription des langues nationales, modifié par décret n° 72-702 du 16 juin 1972.
  • Government of Senegal, Décrets n° 75-1026 du 10 octobre 1975 et n° 85-1232 du 20 novembre 1985 relatifs à l'orthographe et à la séparation des mots en wolof.
  • Government of Senegal, Décret n° 2005-992 du 21 octobre 2005 relatif à l'orthographe et à la séparation des mots en wolof.
Wolof edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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