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This article is about the Iron Age cultures on the Eurasian Steppe. For the Iranian people of the Pontic steppe, see Scythians. For other uses, see Scythian (disambiguation).
Scythian cultures
Geographical rangeEurasian Steppe
PeriodIron Age
Datesc. 900 BCE–200 CE
Preceded bySrubnaya culture, Andronovo culture
Followed byGoths, Alans, Xiongnu

"Scythian cultures"[a] is a conventional historiographic term for a group of similar archaeological cultures which flourished across the entire Eurasian Steppe during the Iron Age from approximately the 9th century BCE to the 2nd century CE. Primary written sources like Herodotus do not call these cultures Scythian; in the Greco-Roman world, Scythia proper was located to the north of the Black Sea, where the people called Scythians traded with the Greeks.

The Scythian cultures are characterized by the Scythian triad, which are similar, yet not identical, styles of weapons, horses' bridles, and jewelry and decorative art. The question of how related these cultures were is disputed among scholars. Its peoples were of diverse origins, and included not just Scythians, from which the cultures are named, but other peoples as well, such as the Cimmerians, Massagetae, Saka, Sarmatians, and obscure forest steppe populations. Mostly speakers of the Scythian branch of the Iranian languages,[b] all of these peoples are sometimes collectively referred to as Scythians, Scytho-Siberians, Early Nomads, or Iron Age Nomads.[2]

Origins and spread

Further information: Scythia
Horseman from the Pazyryk burials, c. 300 BCE, one of the most famous archaeological discoveries from the Scythian cultures.[1] Equestrianism is one of the chief characteristics of the Scythian cultures.

The Scythian cultures emerged on the Eurasian Steppe at the dawn of the Iron Age in the early 1st millennium BCE. The origins of the Scythian cultures has long been a source of debate among archaeologists.[3] The Pontic–Caspian steppe was initially thought to have been their place of origin, until the Soviet archaeologist Aleksey Terenozhkin suggested a Central Asian origin.[4][5]

Recent excavations at Arzhan in Tuva, Russia have uncovered the earliest Scythian-style kurgan yet found.[6] Similarly the earliest examples of the animal style art which would later characterize the Scythian cultures have been found near the upper Yenisei River and North China, dating to the 10th century BCE. Based on these finds, it has been suggested that the Scythian cultures emerged at an early period in southern Siberia.[4] It is probably in this area the Scythian way of life initially developed.[1][7] Recent genetic studies have concluded that the Scythians formed from European-related groups of the Yamnaya culture and East Asian/Siberian groups during the Bronze Age and early Iron Age.[8][9][4][10]

The Scythian cultures quickly came to stretch from the Pannonian Basin in the west to the Altai Mountains in the east.[11] There were however significant cultural differences between east and west.[9] Over time they came in contact with other ancient civilizations, such as Assyria, Greece and Persia. In the late 1st millennium BCE, peoples belonging to the Scythian cultures expanded into Iran (Sakastan), India (Indo-Scythians) and the Tarim Basin.[12] In the early centuries CE, the western Scythian cultures came under pressure from the Goths and other Germanic peoples.[12] The end of the Scythian period in archaeology has been set at approximately the 2nd century CE.[1]

Recent archeological and genetic data confirmed that Western and Eastern Scythians of the 1st millennium BC originated independently, but both formed from a combination of a Yamnaya-related ancestry component from the area of the European steppes,[13] and an East Asian-related component most closely corresponding to the modern North Siberian Nganasan people of the lower Yenesei.[13] Furthermore, archaeological evidence now tends to suggest that the origins of Scythian culture, characterized by its kurgans burial mounds and its Animal style of the 1st millennium BC, are to be found among Eastern Scythians rather than their Western counterparts: eastern kurgans are older than western ones (such as the Altaic kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva), and elements of the Animal style are first attested in areas of the Yenisei river and modern-day China in the 10th century BCE.[14] The rapid spread of Scythian culture, from the Eastern Scythians to the Western Scythians, is also confirmed by significant east-to-west gene flow across the steppes during the 1st millennium BC.[13][14]

Peoples

See also: Eurasian nomads and Scythian languages
Depiction of a Sarmatian from a Roman sarcophagus, 2nd century CE. Although a different people than the Scythians, the Sarmatians were part of the broader Scythian cultures.[4]

Ethnicity

The peoples of the Scythian cultures are mentioned by contemporary Persian and Greek historians. They were mostly speakers of Iranian languages.[b]

Despite belonging to similar material cultures, the peoples of the Scythian cultures belonged to many separate ethnic groups.[15][16] Peoples associated with the Scythian cultures include speakers of the Scythian languages:[4][17]

Although the peoples of the forest steppe were part of the greater Scythian culture, their origins are obscure;[17] there might have been early Slavs, Balts, and Finnic peoples among them.[19][20] The settled population in Scythian cultural areas also included Thracians.[8]

Terminology

Among the diverse peoples of the Scythian cultures, the Scythians are the most famous, due to the reports on them published by the 5th century Greek historian Herodotus. The ancient Persians referred to all nomads of steppe as Saka. In modern times, term Scythians is sometimes applied to all the peoples associated with the Scythian cultures.[19] Within this terminology it is often distinguished between "western" Scythians living on the Pontic–Caspian steppe, and "eastern" Scythians living on the Eastern Steppe.[4][12]

The terms Saka or Sauromates, and Scytho-Siberians, is sometimes used for the "eastern" Scythians living in Central Asia and southern Siberia respectively.[8][21] The term Scytho-Siberians has also been applied to all peoples associated with the Scythian cultures.[22] The terms Early Nomads[23] and Iron Age Nomads have also been used.[9]

The ambiguity of the term Scythian has led to a lot of confusion in literature.[c][17]

Nicola Di Cosmo (1999) questions the validity of referring to the cultures of all early Eurasian nomads as "Scythian", and recommends the use of alternative terms such as Early Nomadic.[25][d]

By ancient authors, the term "Scythian" eventually came to be applied to a wide range of peoples "who had no relation whatever to the original Scythians", such as Huns, Goths, Türks, Avars, Khazars, and other unnamed nomads.[12]

Characteristics

Further information: Scythian art
Horse attacked by tiger, Ordos culture, 4th-1st century BCE. Scythian cultures are characteristic for their art, which was made in the animal style.

The Scythian cultures are recognized for three characteristics known as the Scythian triad:[17][21]

Their art was made in the animal style, so characteristic that it is also called Scythian art.

Finds

See also: Solokha, Kul-Oba, and Tillya Tepe

In the beginning of the 18th century, Russian explorers began uncovering Scythian finds throughout their newly acquired territories.

Significant Scythian archaeological finds have been uncovered up to recent times. A major find are the Pazyryk burials, which were discovered on the Ukok Plateau in the 1940s. The finds are notably for revealing the form of mummification practiced by the Scythians.[1] Another important find is the Issyk kurgan.[7]

Society

See also: Equestrianism and Horses in warfare
The Golden Man of Issyk Kurgan, c. 4th–3rd century BCE

The Scythians were excellent craftsmen with complex cultural traditions. Horse sacrifices are common in Scythian graves, and several of the sacrificed horses were evidently old and well-kept, indicating that the horse played a prominent role in Scythian society.[1] They played a prominent role in the network connecting ancient civilizations known as the Silk Road.[12] The homogeneity of patrilineal lineages and contrasting diversity of matrilineal lineages of samples from Scythian burial sites indicate that Scythian society was strongly patriarchal.[21]

Numerous archaeological finds have revealed that the Scythians led a warlike life: Their competition for territory must have been fierce. The numerous weapons placed in graves are indicative of a highly militarized society. Scythian warfare was primarily conducted through mounted archery. They were the first great power to perfect this tactic. The Scythians developed a new, powerful type of bow known as the Scythian bow. Sometimes they would poison their arrows.[1]

Physical appearance

They were tall and powerfully built, even by modern standards.[e] Skeletons of Scythian elite differ from those of today by their longer arms and legs, and thicker, stronger bones. This was particularly the case for warriors and elite men, who were often more than 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) tall. Sometimes they exceeded 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) in height; even a few remains of Scythian men taller than 2.0 m (6 ft 6 in) have been excavated. The common people whom they dominated were much smaller and lighter, averaging 10–15 cm (4–6 in) shorter than the elite.[26]

Their physical traits are characteristic of Iranian peoples and support a common origin indicated by the genetic and linguistic evidence.[e][26]

Genetics

PCA of ancient individuals (n = 214) of the Eurasian Steppe from three major periods projected onto contemporary Eurasians (Scythians as "Chandman_IA" symbols).[27]

The genetics of remains from Scythian-identified cultures show broad general patterns, among these are remarkably different histories for men and women. Their ethnic affiliations are summarized above. Their familial inter-relations are discussed below.

There are two distinct paternal lineages in the east and west,[4][9][21] with the eastern and western paternal lineages being themselves homogeneous. The paternal western Scythian haplogroups are closely related to modern Europeans,[3] but disappeared from the Scythian steppe region,[9] being eventually replaced by the eastern Scythians.[28] The surviving modern populations most closely related to the paternal western Scythian lineages are in Europe; apparently none remain in mid- and northern-Asia.[3][21]

In contrast, the maternal lineages among Scythians are diverse,[4][9][21] and the eastern and western maternal lines were significantly mixed.[8][28] The free intermarriage of women across all of the Scythian cultures could be what maintained trans-Scythian cultural coherence.[4] Further, rather than dying out, local maternal Scythian lineages persist among modern people living near the excavated graves.[4]

Ethnogenesis

In 2017, a genetic study of various Scythian cultures, including the Scythians, was published in Nature Communications. The study suggested that the Scythians arose as admixture between European-related groups from the Yamnaya culture and East Asian/Siberian groups. While the origin of the Scythian material culture is disputed, their evidence suggest an origin in the East. Modern populations relative closely related to the ancient Scythians were found to be populations living in proximity to the sites studied, suggesting genetic continuity.[29]

Krzewińska et al. (2018) found that the historical Central Asian Steppe population was genetically heterogeneous and carried genetic affinities with populations from several other regions including the Far East and the southern Urals.[30]

Järve et al. (2019) found that the nomadic Scythians were of different genetic origins, while sharing a common material culture. They suggested that migrations must have played a role in the emergence of the Scythians as the dominant power on the Pontic steppe.[31]

A 2021 study by Gnecchi-Ruscone et al., concluded that the Scythians were of multiple origin and that they originated from an admixture event in the Bronze Age. The Scythians genetically formed from mixture between steppe_MLBA sources (which could be associated with different cultures such as Sintashta, Srubnaya, and Andronovo) and a specific East-Eurasian source that was already present during the LBA in the neighboring northern Mongolia region.[32]

Western Scythian culture genetics

This section lists the findings of genetic studies of the remains excavated in western Asia and eastern Europe ascribed to one of the Scythian cultures.

Mathieson & Reich (2015)[33][34] analyzed the remains of an individual from Samara Oblast, Russia, dated c. 380–200 BCE and ascribed to the Scythian cultures. The individual was found to belong to haplogroup R1a1a1b2a2a.[33][34] This lineage is associated with earlier Srubnaya culture of the Pontic–Caspian steppe, which again traces its origin to the Yamnaya culture.[8]

Unterländer (2017), in a genetic study about various Scythian culture remains, suggested that the Scythian cultures on the Pontic-Caspian steppe and the Eastern Steppe emerged independently of each other, and were a mixture of Yamnaya culture-related and East Asian ancestry. Much of this admixture probably happened during the earlier expansion of the Afanasievo culture and Andronovo culture onto the Eastern Steppe. The peoples of the areas of the Scythian cultures were more closely related to each other than modern populations in the same areas, and there appears to have been significant gene flow between them.[4] Juras (2017)[8] reported similar results in another genetic study.[8]

Järve (2019)[3] studied genetics of various peoples belonging to the Scythian cultures, such as Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, and Saka. Most of the remains in all groups were found to carry various subclades of haplogroup R1a, with a few haplogroup Q samples also found, suggesting contact with East Asian-related groups.[3]

Eastern Scythian culture genetics

This section lists the findings of genetic studies of the remains excavated in central Eurasia and the eastern steppe ascribed to one of the Scythian cultures.

Pilipenko (2018)[28] studied mtDNA from remains of the Tagar culture, which is considered a Scythian culture. Although found in Turkic Khakassia, at the eastern extreme of the Eurasian steppe, remains from the early years of the Tagar culture were found to be closely related to those of contemporary Scythians on the Pontic steppe far to the west. The authors suggested that the source of this genetic similarity was an eastwards migration of west Eurasians during the Bronze Age, which probably contributed to the formation of the Tagar culture.[28]

Mary (2019)[21] studied the genetics of remains from the Aldy-Bel culture in and around Tuva in central Asia, adjacent to western Mongolia; the Aldy-Bel culture is considered one of the Scythian cultures. The majority of the samples (9 out of 17) were found to be carriers of haplogroup R1a, including two carriers of haplogroup R1a1a1b2‑Z93. East Asian admixture was also detected, as 6 haplogroup Q-L54 (including 5 in Sagly culture) and 1 haplogroup N-M231 were excavated. The haplogroup of the remaining 1 sample was uncertain (probably group R).[21]

The Scythian groups of the Pontic Steppe and South Siberia had significantly different paternal genetics, which indicates that the Pontic and South Siberian Scythians had completely different paternal origins, with almost no paternal gene flow between them.[21][f]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Also referred to as Scythic cultures, Scytho-Siberian cultures, Early Nomadic cultures, the Scythian civilization, the Scythian horizon, the Scythian world, or the Scythian continuum.
  2. ^ a b "[A] nomadic people made up of many different tribes thrived across a vast region that stretched from the borders of northern China and Mongolia, through southern Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, as far as the northern reaches of the Black Sea. Collectively they were known by their Greek name: the Scythians. They spoke Iranian languages ..."[1]
  3. ^ "The Achaemenids called the Scythians 'Saka' which sometimes leads to confusion in the literature. The term 'Scythians' is particularly used for the representatives of this culture who lived in the European part of the steppe zone. Those who lived in Central Asia are often called Sauromates or Saka and in the Altai area, they are generally known as Scytho-Siberians."[24]
  4. ^ "Even though there were fundamental ways in which nomadic groups over such a vast territory differed, the terms 'Scythian' and 'Scythic' have been widely adopted to describe a special phase that followed the widespread diffusion of mounted nomadism, characterized by the presence of special weapons, horse gear, and animal art in the form of metal plaques. Archaeologists have used the term 'Scythic continuum' in a broad cultural sense to indicate the early nomadic cultures of the Eurasian steppe. The term 'Scythic' draws attention to the fact that there are elements – shapes of weapons, vessels, and ornaments, as well as lifestyle – common to both the eastern and western ends of the Eurasian steppe region. However, the extension and variety of sites across Asia makes Scythian and Scythic terms too broad to be viable, and the more neutral 'early nomadic' is preferable, since the cultures of the Northern Zone cannot be directly associated with either the historical Scythians or any specific archaeological culture defined as Saka or Scytho-Siberian."[25]
  5. ^ a b "[T]he [elite] Scythians were relatively tall. This tallness is particular noticeable in warrior burials and those of men of the upper social stratum, who would seem tall even today ... [T]hese skeletons differ from those of today in their longer arm and leg bones and a generally stronger bone formation ... The physical characteristics of the Scythians correspond to their cultural affiliation: [T]heir origins place them within the group of Iranian peoples ... [W]e are dealing with a period in which huge areas of Siberia far into Mongolia were still inhabited by ancient Europoids."[26]
  6. ^ "The absence of R1b lineages in the Scytho-Siberian individuals tested so far and their presence in the North Pontic Scythians suggest that these two groups had a completely different paternal lineage makeup with nearly no gene flow from male carriers between them."[21]

References

  • Batty, Roger (2007). Rome and the Nomads: The Pontic-Danubian Realm in Antiquity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-198-14936-1.
  • Medrano, Kastalia (2018). "The undisturbed tomb of a Scythian prince was found frozen in time in Siberia". Newsweek. Retrieved 2020-01-01.

Bibliography

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Scythian cultures.

Further reading


  1. ^ a b c d e f g Simpson 2017.
  2. ^ Unterländer 2017. Genomic inference reveals that Scythians in the east and the west of the steppe zone can best be described as a mixture of Yamnaya-related ancestry and an East Asian component. Demographic modelling suggests independent origins for eastern and western groups with ongoing gene-flow between them, plausibly explaining the striking uniformity of their material culture. We also find evidence that significant gene-flow from east to west Eurasia must have occurred early during the Iron Age. The origin of the widespread Scythian culture has long been debated in Eurasian archaeology. The northern Black Sea steppe was originally considered the homeland and centre of the Scythians3 until Terenozhkin formulated the hypothesis of a Central Asian origin4. On the other hand, evidence supporting an east Eurasian origin includes the kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva5, which is considered the earliest Scythian kurgan5. Dating of additional burial sites situated in east and west Eurasia confirmed eastern kurgans as older than their western counterparts6,7. Additionally, elements of the characteristic 'Animal Style' dated to the tenth century BCE1,4 were found in the region of the Yenisei river and modern-day China, supporting the early presence and origin of Scythian culture in the East.
  3. ^ a b c d e Järve 2019.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Unterländer 2017.
  5. ^ Krzewińska 2018. The nomadic populations were heterogeneous and carried genetic affinities with populations from several other regions including the Far East and the southern Urals. Genetic analyses of maternal lineages of Scythians suggest a mixed origin and an east-west admixture gradient across the Eurasian steppe (10–12). The genomics of two early Scythian Aldy-Bel individuals (13) showed genetic affinities to eastern Asian populations (12).
  6. ^ Medrano 2018.
  7. ^ a b Alekseev 2017.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Juras 2017.
  9. ^ a b c d e f Krzewińska 2018.
  10. ^ Gnecchi-Ruscone, Guido Alberto; Khussainova, Elmira; Kahbatkyzy, Nurzhibek; Musralina, Lyazzat; Spyrou, Maria A.; Bianco, Raffaela A.; Radzeviciute, Rita; Martins, Nuno Filipe Gomes; Freund, Caecilia; Iksan, Olzhas; Garshin, Alexander (March 2021). "Ancient genomic time transect from the Central Asian Steppe unravels the history of the Scythians". Science Advances. 7 (13). Bibcode:2021SciA....7.4414G. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abe4414. PMC 7997506. PMID 33771866. Our findings shed new light onto the debate about the origins of the Scythian cultures. We do not find support for a western Pontic-Caspian steppe origin, which is, in fact, highly questioned by more recent historical/archeological work (1, 2). The Kazakh Steppe origin hypothesis finds instead a better correspondence with our results, but rather than finding support for one of the two extreme hypotheses, i.e., single origin with population diffusion versus multiple independent origins with only cultural transmission, we found evidence for at least two independent origins as well as population diffusion and admixture (Fig. 4B). In particular, the eastern groups are consistent with descending from a gene pool that formed as a result of a mixture between preceding local steppe_MLBA sources (which could be associated with different cultures such as Sintashta, Srubnaya, and Andronovo that are genetically homogeneous) and a specific eastern Eurasian source that was already present during the LBA in the neighboring northern Mongolia region (27).
  11. ^ Kennedy 2017.
  12. ^ a b c d e Nicholson 2018, pp. 1346–1347.
  13. ^ a b c Unterländer 2017."Genomic inference reveals that Scythians in the east and the west of the steppe zone can best be described as a mixture of Yamnaya-related ancestry and an East Asian component. Demographic modelling suggests independent origins for eastern and western groups with ongoing gene-flow between them, plausibly explaining the striking uniformity of their material culture. We also find evidence that significant gene-flow from east to west Eurasia must have occurred early during the Iron Age." and "The blend of EHG [European hunter-gatherer] and Caucasian elements in carriers of the Yamnaya culture was formed on the European steppe and exported into Central Asia and Siberia"}}
  14. ^ a b Unterländer 2017. "The origin of the widespread Scythian culture has long been debated in Eurasian archaeology. The northern Black Sea steppe was originally considered the homeland and centre of the Scythians until Terenozhkin formulated the hypothesis of a Central Asian origin. On the other hand, evidence supporting an east Eurasian origin includes the kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva, which is considered the earliest Scythian kurgan. Dating of additional burial sites situated in east and west Eurasia confirmed eastern kurgans as older than their western counterparts. Additionally, elements of the characteristic ‘Animal Style' dated to the tenth century BCE were found in the region of the Yenisei river and modern-day China, supporting the early presence of Scythian culture in the East."}}
  15. ^ David & McNiven 2018, p. 156.
  16. ^ Watson 1972, p. 142.
  17. ^ a b c d e f Ivanchik 2018.
  18. ^ a b Batty 2007, p. 205.
  19. ^ a b West 2002, pp. 439–440.
  20. ^ Davis-Kimball, Bashilov & Yablonsky 1995, p. 33.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Mary 2019.
  22. ^ Jacobson 1995, pp. 36–37.
  23. ^ David & McNiven 2018.
  24. ^ Ancient Nomads of the Altai Mountains: Belgian-Russian multidisciplinary archaeological research on the Scytho-Siberian culture. Royal Museums of Art and History. 2000. p. 18.
  25. ^ a b Di Cosmo 1999, p. 891.
  26. ^ a b c Rolle 1989, pp. 55–56.
  27. ^ Jeong, Choongwon; Wang, Ke; Wilkin, Shevan; Taylor, William Timothy Treal; Miller, Bryan K.; Bemmann, Jan H.; Stahl, Raphaela; Chiovelli, Chelsea; Knolle, Florian; Ulziibayar, Sodnom; Khatanbaatar, Dorjpurev (2020-11-12). "A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe". Cell. 183 (4): 890–904.e29. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015. ISSN 0092-8674. PMID 33157037.
  28. ^ a b c d Pilipenko 2018.
  29. ^ Unterländer 2017. Genomic inference reveals that Scythians in the east and the west of the steppe zone can best be described as a mixture of Yamnaya-related ancestry and an East Asian component. Demographic modelling suggests independent origins for eastern and western groups with ongoing gene-flow between them, plausibly explaining the striking uniformity of their material culture. We also find evidence that significant gene-flow from east to west Eurasia must have occurred early during the Iron Age. The origin of the widespread Scythian culture has long been debated in Eurasian archaeology. The northern Black Sea steppe was originally considered the homeland and centre of the Scythians3 until Terenozhkin formulated the hypothesis of a Central Asian origin4. On the other hand, evidence supporting an east Eurasian origin includes the kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva5, which is considered the earliest Scythian kurgan5. Dating of additional burial sites situated in east and west Eurasia confirmed eastern kurgans as older than their western counterparts6,7. Additionally, elements of the characteristic ‘Animal Style’ dated to the tenth century BCE1,4 were found in the region of the Yenisei river and modern-day China, supporting the early presence and origin of Scythian culture in the East.}}
  30. ^ Krzewińska 2018. The nomadic populations were heterogeneous and carried genetic affinities with populations from several other regions including the Far East and the southern Urals. Genetic analyses of maternal lineages of Scythians suggest a mixed origin and an east-west admixture gradient across the Eurasian steppe (10–12). The genomics of two early Scythian Aldy-Bel individuals (13) showed genetic affinities to eastern Asian populations (12).}}
  31. ^ Järve 2019. "The Early Iron Age nomadic Scythians have been described as a confederation of tribes of different origins, based on ancient DNA evidence [1, 2, 3]. All samples of this study also possessed at least one additional eastern component, one of which was nearly at 100% in modern Nganasans (orange) and the other in modern Han Chinese (yellow; Figure S2). The eastern components were present in variable proportions in the samples of this study."
  32. ^ Gnecchi-Ruscone, Guido Alberto; Khussainova, Elmira; Kahbatkyzy, Nurzhibek; Musralina, Lyazzat; Spyrou, Maria A.; Bianco, Raffaela A.; Radzeviciute, Rita; Martins, Nuno Filipe Gomes; Freund, Caecilia; Iksan, Olzhas; Garshin, Alexander (March 2021). "Ancient genomic time transect from the Central Asian Steppe unravels the history of the Scythians". Science Advances. 7 (13). Bibcode:2021SciA....7.4414G. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abe4414. PMC 7997506. PMID 33771866. Our findings shed new light onto the debate about the origins of the Scythian cultures. We do not find support for a western Pontic-Caspian steppe origin, which is, in fact, highly questioned by more recent historical/archeological work (1, 2). The Kazakh Steppe origin hypothesis finds instead a better correspondence with our results, but rather than finding support for one of the two extreme hypotheses, i.e., single origin with population diffusion versus multiple independent origins with only cultural transmission, we found evidence for at least two independent origins as well as population diffusion and admixture (Fig. 4B). In particular, the eastern groups are consistent with descending from a gene pool that formed as a result of a mixture between preceding local steppe_MLBA sources (which could be associated with different cultures such as Sintashta, Srubnaya, and Andronovo that are genetically homogeneous) and a specific eastern Eurasian source that was already present during the LBA in the neighboring northern Mongolia region (27).
  33. ^ a b Mathieson & Reich 2015.
  34. ^ a b Mathieson 2015.
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