Thomistic sacramental theology

Thomistic sacramental theology is St. Thomas Aquinas's theology of the sacraments of the Catholic Church. It can be found through his writings in the Summa contra Gentiles and in the Summa Theologiæ.

General view of the sacraments

See also: Sacraments of the Catholic Church

In the Catholic Church, there are seven sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation, Holy Eucharist, Penance, Extreme unction (Anointing of the Sick), Holy Orders, Matrimony.

From Summa Contra Gentiles, Book 4:

since the spiritual remedies of salvation (as was said) have been given to men under sensible signs, it was suitable also to distinguish the remedies provided for the spiritual life after the likeness of bodily life. Now, in bodily life we find a twofold order: for some propagate and order the bodily life in others; and some are propagated and ordered in the bodily life. [...] [I]n the spiritual life, also, the first thing is spiritual generation: by baptism; the second is spiritual growth leading to perfect strength: by the sacrament of confirmation; the third is spiritual nourishment: by the sacrament of the Eucharist. A fourth remains, which is the spiritual healing; it takes place either in the soul alone through the sacrament of penance; or from the soul flows to the body when this is timely, through extreme unction. These, therefore, bear on those who are propagated and preserved in the spiritual life.
[...] Matrimony, then, in that it consists in the union of a husband and wife purposing to generate and educate offspring for the worship of God, is a sacrament of the Church; hence, also, a certain blessing on those marrying is given by the ministers of the Church.

Aquina also states, in the Summa Theologica: "a sacrament is nothing else than a sanctification conferred on man with some outward sign. Wherefore, since by receiving orders a consecration is conferred on man by visible signs, it is clear that Order is a sacrament."

Baptism

See also: Baptism (Catholic Church)

The sacrament of Baptism has the outward sign of a washing. "He that washes himself (baptuzatur) after touching the dead, if he touched them again, what does his washing avail?" (Sirach 34,30). The sacrament does not come from the water, but from the act of pouring the water, in the form of a washing. (St. Hugh of Victor held that the water was the sacrament, but this is in error.) The outward reality is in the washing with water, while the sacramental sign is the inward justification: this is the reality, or inward reality of the sacrament. The inward reality is a seal and a safeguarding. Dionysius defined Baptism by its relation to the other sacraments (Eccl. Hier.ii) that it is the principle that forms the habits of the soul for the reception of those most holy words and sacraments; by its relation to heavenly glory, which is the universal end of all sacraments, preparing the way for us, whereby we mount to the repose of the heavenly kingdom, conferring on us our most sacred and Godlike regeneration. The power of Baptism was initiated when Christ was Baptized, and not during the passion. The proper way to Baptize is "I Baptize you in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit." This comes from Matthew 28,19: "Going .... teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit." Ephesians 5,26: "Cleansing the world by the cleaning laver of the water." Augustine says (De Unico Baptismo iv) that Baptism is consecrated by the words of the Gospel. Full immersion in water is not necessary. It is symbolic of the inward cleansing of the sin. Hebrews 10.22: "Let us draw near with a true heart in fullness of faith, having our hearts sprinkled from an evil conscience, and our bodies washed with clean water." Ezekiel 36:25: "25Then will I sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean: from all your filthiness, and from all your idols, will I cleanse you." Baptism cannot be reiterated. Ephesians 4, 5: "One Faith, one Baptism." Baptism is a spiritual rebirth. John 3,5: "Unless a man is born again of water and the Holy Spirit, he cannot enter into the Kingdom of Heaven." John 3,4: "A man cannot re-enter the womb." Therefore, he cannot be re-Baptized. (cf. Romans 4, 3-4) Because we are baptized in Christ's death, by which we die to sin and rise again into a newness of life. Now, Christ died once. Baptism imprints a character which is indelible. Baptism is the principle remedy against original sin. Romans 5,18: "...as by the offense of one, unto all men to condemnation, so also by the justice of one, all men are justified of life." There are three kinds of Baptism: Baptism of water, of Blood (Martyrdom) and of the Spirit (Baptism of Desire). Hebrews 4,2: "[Of baptism) He uses the plural, because there is Baptism of Water, of Repentance and of Blood." Isaiah 4, 4: "The Lord shall wash away the filth of the daughters of Zion, and shall wash away the blood of Jerusalem, out of the midst thereof, by the spirit of judgment, and by the spirit of burning." Augustine (De Unico Baptismo Parvulrum, iv): "The Blessed Cyprian argues with considerable reason from the thief to whom, though not baptized, it was said, 'Today you shall be with Me in Paradise', that suffering can take the place of Baptism. Having weighed this again and again, I perceive that not only can suffering for the name of Christ supply what is lacking in Baptism, but even faith and conversion of heart, if perchance on account of stress of the times the celebration of the mystery of Baptism is not practicable." Priests are the proper ministers to perform Baptism. Isidore (of Spain) says priests are the only ministers who can perform Baptism. However, even Isidore and Pope Gelasius I say that it is often permissible for Christian laymen to baptize in cases of urgency. Women can baptize. This was approved by Pope Urban II and from Colossians 3: "In Christ there is neither male nor female.: Isidore indicates that even a person who is not baptized may baptize, since it is the Holy Spirit Who performs the mystery of the Baptism. Augustine never answered this question. But the Church has long since determined that Jews and non-baptized heretics can baptize. It is possible to be saved even without Baptism of Water, if the person has the proper desire, and has no contempt for the Sacrament. Baptism should not be delayed. Sirach 5, 8: "Delay not to be converted to the Lord and defer it not from day to day." Children of heretics and Jews should not be baptized against the will of their parents. (See Thought of Thomas Aquinas for a detailed discussion.) It is beneficial to baptize imbeciles and madmen. Baptism opens the gates of heaven to sinners. Luke 3,21: "Heaven was opened." The gloss of Bede "We see here the power of Baptism; from which when a man comes forth, the gates of the heavenly kingdom are opened to him." Baptism has an equal effect on all. Ephesians 4, 5: "One Faith, One Baptism." After one has reached the age of reason, it is necessary to receive the Baptism with sincerity. If the Sacrament is received in bad faith, then one has a change of heart, the effects of Baptism are salutory (Augustine). From Summa Contra Gentiles, Book 4, Chapter 59: Bede: "Baptism opens the gates of heaven." A spiritual generation is needed only once, hence baptism is given only once. The sin of Adam makes a man guilty only once. Baptism is chiefly directed at this infection. This excludes the errors of the Donatists or the Rebaptizers (Augustine).

Confirmation

Confirmation

See also: Confirmation in the Catholic Church

since the spiritual remedies of salvation (as was said) have been given to men under sensible signs, it was suitable also to distinguish the remedies provided for the spiritual life after the likeness of bodily life. Now, in bodily life we find a twofold order: for some propagate and order the bodily life in others; and some are propagated and ordered in the bodily life. [...] [I]n the spiritual life, also, the first thing is spiritual generation: by baptism; the second is spiritual growth leading to perfect strength: by the sacrament of confirmation; the third is spiritual nourishment: by the sacrament of the Eucharist. A fourth remains, which is the spiritual healing; it takes place either in the soul alone through the sacrament of penance; or from the soul flows to the body when this is timely, through extreme unction. These, therefore, bear on those who are propagated and preserved in the spiritual life.

Eucharist

See also: Eucharist in the Catholic Church

Condensed from Summa Contra Gentiles, Book 4, Chapters 61 to 69:

Life needs material nourishment to increase in quantity and to maintain the body. Spiritual effects are given under the likeness of things that are visible, hence are given the appearance of things men commonly use for bodily nourishment. These are bread and wine. He who begets is joined to the begotten in a way. The nourished and the nourishment are joined. It is the spiritual mystery that unites the Eucharist to us. John 6, 56: "My flesh is meat indeed, and my blood is drink indeed." John 6, 61: "This saying is hard, and who can bear it?" So it is with the heretics who put themselves at odds with the teaching of the Church. Matthew 26, 26 "This is my body." He did not say, "This is a sign or representation of my body." Yet some heretics disclaim the truth of the presence of Christ in the Eucharist. To some, it appears scandalous to eat the flesh and drink the blood of Christ. John 6, 64: "The words I have spoken to you are spirit and life." A thing begins to be where it was not before in two ways: 1.) by local motion; 2.) Conversion of something into itself. Manifestly, the body of Christ ascended into heaven, hence cannot be always on the altar. It does not seem possible to some there is a new conversion of another into itself on the altar. In a similar manner, a thing cannot be moved from one place to another without ceasing to be in the original place. Therefore, it seems to some that Christ must cease to be in heaven when He is on the altar. It seems impossible to some that the large body of a man could be contained in the host used in the Eucharist. It is also hard to understand how the body of Christ can be present simultaneously, on many altars at once. Another stumbling block is the appearance of the bread and wine. The accidents of color, taste, figure, etc. remain. Aristotle "The being of an accident is by inheritance." Another problem occurs from the fact that the action and passion of the bread and wine are unchanged after the consecration. Another problem occurs in the breaking of the bread, for it seems to some that the fragment of the bread cannot contain the whole body. This would be as if a man lost an arm or leg, his whole being would be contained in the portion. It is true that the teachings of the Church about the Eucharist are difficult. Divine power operates in this sacrament with great secrecy and sublimity. It is beyond the ability of man to search it out. The conversion occurs by a divine mode, and is not natural (in the way we understand it) in any way. Air can be converted to fire. This is called a formal conversion. But in the conversion of the Eucharist, a subject passes over into a subject without a change in the accidents. This is called "substantial". It was wise of Christ to assume the form of bread and wine, since it would be horrible for the believers to consume a real human body and blood. Furthermore, it would be an abomination for those watching to observe such a thing. There is a real conversion which takes place: "This is My Body...This is My Blood." His body is contained in the bread by the force of conversion, while the blood is a natural accompaniment. Under the appearance of wine, the converse is true. The body of Christ is not related to place, with its own dimensions as a medium. In the body of Christ, His own dimensions exist in one place only, but through the mediation of the dimensions of the bread passing into its places are as many as there are places in which this sort of conversion is celebrated. It is not divided into parts, but is entire in every single one. Every consecrated bread is converted into the entire Body of Christ. The Body and Blood of Christ is not affected by the accidents of the bread and wine. It is not impossible that divine power can affect the subject without changing the nature of the accidents. In this sacrament He conserves the accident while changing the substance. According to Aristotle, the Platonists held that this was not possible. But it is clear that God can do more in operation that the intellect of man can comprehend. The Body and Blood are contained under the appearance. Aristotle: "Position is the order of parts of the whole... quantity is that which has position... with the quantity gone, all substance is indivisible." Since we hold that in this sacrament the measurements subsist of themselves and that the other accidents are founded on these as on a subject, we need not say that accidents of this kind are not individuated; for there persists in the measurements themselves the root of individuation. In this sacrament, the accidents of the bread and wine persists. Concerning passions (such as those which take place in the alterations of accidents of this kind), the difficulty is not hard to understand if the premises are granted. The difficulty occurs regarding the generation and corruption which seems to take place in this sacrament. If enough quantity of this sacrament were to be consumed, one could be nourished, and even made drunk. I Corinthians 11, 21: "One indeed is hungry and another is drunk." It is amazing that some would claim that the bread and wine could not be converted into the body and blood of Christ, when we know that by putrefaction and combustion, this same bread is converted to dust and ashes. However, the substance of a thing should not be confused with the accidents. Combustion and putrefaction are not miracles, but the normal order of nature. The conversion of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ is miraculous. The final difficulty is that whereby every portion of the bread contains the whole Christ. We should not seek the solutions in terms of mediating dimensions. For every drop of water contains the nature and species of water. The whole soul is in every part of the body. Therefore, the breaking of the bread does not affect the dimensions of the whole body of Christ. Ultimately, the Eucharist should be viewed from this standpoint: nothing is impossible for God Who can do all things. John 6, 64: "The words that I have spoken to you are spirit and life." We are to take this that there are certain spiritual foods given to us that are quite apart from earthly carnal foods. One properly calls wine the liquid expressed from grapes. We call bread that which is made from grain wheat. If an admixture is introduced, the nature of the bread or wine can be lost. It is not essential whether the bread be leavened or unleavened. St. Gregory "the Roman Church offers unleavened bread because our Lord took on flesh without any admixture. But the rest of the Churches offer leavened bread, since the Word of God was clothed with flesh, and is true God and true man, just as the leavened bread is mixed with paste." Still, it is in greater harmony with the truth to use unleavened bread. I Corinthians 5, 7-8: "Christ our pasch is sacrificed. Therefore, let us feast... with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth." There are certain Greek heretics who say that the sacrament cannot be offered with unleavened bread. However, in Matthew 26,17; Mark 14,12; Luke 22,7, it is indicated that Christ performed the first Eucharist with unleavened bread. Furthermore, it is clear that the use of unleavened bread is required by the Old Law (Exodus 12,15). The Greek arguments against the Latin Church for using unleavened bread are not based on scriptural interpretation. Some use I Corinthians 11,23 and John 18,28 to indicate that leavened bread was used in the first pasch. However, the Old Law was observed, and it is clear that unleavened bread would have been used at the Last Supper. All the Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke) indicate that the pasch was celebrated in accordance with the Old law. It is clear that the Latin Church is reasonable in the use of unleavened bread.

Penance

See also: Penance

he following is condensed from Summa Contra Gentiles, Book 4, Chapters 70-72:

Although grace is bestowed upon men by the sacraments, they are not rendered incapable of sin. He who receives the gratuitous gifts of grace, can still sin by acting against grace. Aristotle "every evil man is ignorant." Proverbs 14,22: "They err that work evil." Hebrews 12,15: "Looking diligently, lest any man be wanting to the grace of God; lest any root of bitterness springing up to hinder." Ephesians 4, 30: "Grieve not the Holy Spirit of God whereby you are sealed." I Corinthians 9.27: "I chastise my body and bring into subjection, lest perhaps when I preached to others, I myself should become a castaway." This does away with the belief of some heretics that say that after a man has received the grace of the Spirit, is unable to sin, and that if he sins, he never had the grace of the Holy Spirit. In this, they used to following to support their position: I Corinthians 13: "Charity never falls away." John 3, 6-9: "Whoever abides in Him sins not, and whosoever sins has not seen Him nor known Him." This is rebutted by the following: Apocalypse 2, 4: "I have somewhat against you because you have your first charity." I Corinthians 1, 8-10: "Shall be made void... when that which is perfect is come." It is then that a perfect state of charity shall abide. As long as a man lives with grace granted him, he will not sin. If he turns from that grace, he will sin. (Note: This is an interesting doctrine of some fundamentalist churches that was taught in Aquinas' time, and it is taught today: "he that has been baptized in the Spirit cannot sin, and he who sins never had the Spirit." Of course, the doctrine is considered false by the Catholic Church. It completely ignores both our concupiscent nature (which is not abrogated with baptism) and free will, which is not necessarily changed, at least immediately, by the action of the sacrament. As long as we are alive, the will is mutable toward good or evil. Good is more powerful than evil. I Corinthians 6,9-11: "Neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, shall possess the Kingdom of God. And such of you were; but you are washed, but you are sanctified, but you were justified in the name of Jesus Christ and the Spirit of our God." Grace and the sacrament increases nature's good. If sin takes place after grace is received, we can still be led back to a state of justice. Despair is an invitation to sinfulness. Ephesians 4,19: "Despairing have given themselves up to lasciviousness, unto the working of all uncleanness, unto covetousness."

Despair is a dangerous cesspool leading men to vices. I John 2, 1-2: "My little children, these things I write to you, that you may not sin. But if any man sins, we have an advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ, the just. And He is the propitiation for our sins." II Corinthians 2, 6-7, 7-9: "[To the Corinthian fornicator] To him who is such a one, this rebuke is sufficient which is given by many: so that on the contrary you should rather forgive him and comfort him... I am glad: not because you were made sorrowful, but because you were made sorrowful unto penance." Jeremiah 3,1: "You have prostituted yourself to many lovers; nevertheless, return to Me, says the Lord." Lamentations 5, 21: "Convert us, O Lord, and we shall be converted; renew our days, as from the beginning." In this way one excludes the error of the Novatians who were wont to deny forgiveness to those who had sinned after Baptism. They used the following to justify their error: Hebrews 6, 4-5: "It is impossible for those who were once illuminated, who have tasted the heavenly gift, and were made partakers of the Holy Spirit, have moreover tasted the good of God, and the powers of the world to come, and are fallen away: to be renewed again to penance." However, these overlooked the passage which followed: "Crucify again themselves the Son of God and of Him a mockery." Therefore, to be renewed, one must be again crucified with the penance of Christ. Romans 6, 3: "All we who were baptized in Christ Jesus are baptized in His death." Titus 3, 5: "According to His mercy, He has saved us, by the laver of regeneration and renovation of the Holy Spirit."

Extreme unction (Anointing of the Sick)

Main article: Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church

The following is condensed from Summa Contra Gentiles, Book 4, Chapter 73:

The body is the instrument of the soul, and the instrument is for the use of the principal agent. Hence, the body is disposed to be in harmony with the soul. therefore, infirmity of the soul sometimes flows from the body, causing infirmity as well. Also, bodily infirmity can sometimes hinder spiritual health. Therefore, it was proper to employ a spiritual medicine against sin. James 5, 14-15: "Is any man sick among you? Let him bring in the priests of the Church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of the faith shall heal the sick man." There is no guarantee that even is a man healed from his bodily infirmity, that he will necessarily be forgiven the infirmity of the soul. Also, some who do not recover, physically, may enjoy great spiritual restoration from the sacrament. James adds: "And the Lord shall raise him up... if he be in sins, they shall be forgiven." Now it frequently occurs that a man in a state of illness has no recollection of the sins he has committed, and never confessed, nor performed penance for remission. It is impossible for one to lead a daily life without committing some form of sin. This sacrament should serve to cleanse these sins. This sacrament does not confer a consecration as occurs in Baptism or Confirmation. Still, the sacrament should not be administered to one who is healthy, but rather reserved for the sick, since it has the external appearance of a medicine, or a medicinal rite. The oils should be applied to the sources of the sins, namely the organs of the senses and the hands and the feet, by which the works of sin are carried out. Some engage in anointing the loins, since these are a source of sin. There is nothing incorrect in this practice. Since no sin is forgiven, except by grace, it is clear that grace is conferred in this sacrament. Dionysius: "It is proper for priests to confer this sacrament." This is because the sacrament confers enlightening grace, and the order of priests tends to enlightenment. However, the sacrament does not require a bishop. The effect of the sacrament can be blocked by a pretense in the receiver. In this way, it is no different from any other sacrament.

Holy Orders

Main article: Holy orders in the Catholic Church

The following is condensed from Summa Contra Gentiles, Book 4, Chapters 74-77. According to Dionysius, all the sacraments confer a spiritual grace. This is a correct assessment. The sacraments are conferred by visible men, who employ visual methods, to dispense invisible grace. Hebrews 5, 1: "Every high priest taken from among men is ordained for men in the things that appertain to God." Ephesians 5, 25-26: "Christ loved the Church and delivered Himself up for it: that He might sanctify it, cleansing it by the laver of water in the word of life." I Corinthians 4, 1: "Let no man so account of us as ministers of Christ and dispensers of the mysteries of God." Luke 22, 19: "Do this in commemoration of Me." John 20, 23: "Whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven them." The same instructions are given concerning teaching and baptizing. Matthew 28, 19: "Going, therefore, teach all nations, baptizing them." II Corinthians 13, 10: "The power which the Lord has given me unto edification and not into destruction." St. Paul says this power is "for building up the Church." Mark 13, 27: "What I say to you, I say to all." Matthew 28, 20: "Behold, I am with you all days even to the consummation of the world." The conferring of spiritual power is the province of the divine liberality. This is the sacrament of Holy Orders. The power of orders as a sacrament is established for the dispensation of the sacraments. Aristotle: "Everything is denominated from its end." The power of orders must extend itself to the remission of sins by the dispensation of the sacraments which are ordered to the remission of sins: baptism and penance (confession, reconciliation). The powers of orders is also toward the Eucharist. This is the meaning of the "keys to the Kingdom." Matthew 15, 19: "I will give to you the keys to the Kingdom." The lowest orders serves the priestly order. These are doorkeepers who let the faithful in, and keep the unfaithful out. Acolytes help prepare the sacred vessels. Others prepare the people in the consummation of the sacrament. The three orders - the priesthood, the diaconate, and the subdiaconate are called sacred orders because they receive a ministry in something sacred. There is a superior power within the Church which has a ministry of dispensing the sacrament of orders. Church unity requires that all the faithful agree as to the faith. In matters of faith, questions are bound to arise. The unity of the Church demands that there is a single head of the Church. This single head of the Church provides one voice to answer these questions. Isaiah 5, 4: "What is there that I ought to do more to My vineyard that I have not done to it?" It is a mistake to doubt that there is a single head of the Church. Proverbs 8, 15: "Kings reign, and lawmakers decree just things." the best government is one ruled by one. The Church is a militant Church. Apocalypse 21, 2: "Jerusalem is coming down from heaven." Exodus 25, 10; 26, 30: "[Moses was told to make everything] according to the pattern I have shown you on the mountain." Apocalypse 21, 3: "They shall be His people and God Himself with them shall be their God." In the militant Church, there must be one who presides over the things universally. Osee 1, 11: "The children of Juda and the children of Israel shall be gathered together; and they shall appoint themselves a head." John 10, 16: "There shall be one fold and one shepherd." John 21, 17:"Feed My sheep." Luke 22, 32: "You being once converted confirm your brethren." Matthew 16, 19: "I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven." Isaiah 9, 7: "He shall sit upon the throne of David and upon His kingdom to establish and strengthen it with judgment and with justice from henceforth and forever." Matthew 28, 20: "Behold I am with all days even to the consummation of the world." By this is excluded all those who partake of the presumptuous error of saying that the Roman Pontiff is not the true successor of the rule of Peter. It is in the nature of a consecration that it is persistent and lasts forever. Nothing consecrated can be consecrated a second time. A man is called good or bad in accord with the vice or virtue. In this way, there is a habit of a sort. Habit differs from power. By power, we are able to do something. By a habit we are not rendered able or unable to make something, but ready or unready in doing well or badly what we are able to do. Habit neither gives ability nor removes it. John 1, 33: "He it is that baptizes." The minister is an animate tool. Jeremiah 7, 5: "Cursed be the man that trusts in man." Matthew 23, 2-3: "The Scribes and Pharisees have sat on the chair of Moses. All things, therefore, whatsoever they do you, observe and do. But according to their works, do you not." This dispenses of the error of those who say that only good men can dispense sacraments, while evil ones cannot.

Matrimony

See also: Marriage in the Catholic Church

General view of the sacraments

See also: Sacraments of the Catholic Church

In the Catholic Church, there are seven sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation, Holy Eucharist, Penance, Extreme unction (Anointing of the Sick), Holy Orders, Matrimony.

From Summa Contra Gentiles, Book 4:

since the spiritual remedies of salvation (as was said) have been given to men under sensible signs, it was suitable also to distinguish the remedies provided for the spiritual life after the likeness of bodily life. Now, in bodily life we find a twofold order: for some propagate and order the bodily life in others; and some are propagated and ordered in the bodily life. [...] [I]n the spiritual life, also, the first thing is spiritual generation: by baptism; the second is spiritual growth leading to perfect strength: by the sacrament of confirmation; the third is spiritual nourishment: by the sacrament of the Eucharist. A fourth remains, which is the spiritual healing; it takes place either in the soul alone through the sacrament of penance; or from the soul flows to the body when this is timely, through extreme unction. These, therefore, bear on those who are propagated and preserved in the spiritual life.
[...] Matrimony, then, in that it consists in the union of a husband and wife purposing to generate and educate offspring for the worship of God, is a sacrament of the Church; hence, also, a certain blessing on those marrying is given by the ministers of the Church.

Aquinas also states, in the Summa Theologica: "a sacrament is nothing else than a sanctification conferred on man with some outward sign. Wherefore, since by receiving orders a consecration is conferred on man by visible signs, it is clear that Order is a sacrament."

See also

• Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church
• Baptism (Catholic Church)
• Confirmation in the Catholic Church
• Eucharist in the Catholic Church
• Ex opere operato
• Holy orders in the Catholic Church
• Marriage in the Catholic Church
• Penance
• Sacramental matter and form
• Scholasticism
• Thought of Thomas Aquinas
• Validity and liceity (Catholic Church)

Further reading

• Liam G. Walsh, OP (1988). The Sacraments of Christian Initiation. Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist. London: Geoffrey Chapman. p. 317. ISBN 0 225 66499 2.
• Reginald Lynch, OP (2017). The Cleansing of the Heart: The Sacraments as Instrumental Causes in the Thomistic Tradition. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press.
• Garrigou-Lagrange, Reginald (1950). "Sixth Part – The Sacraments of the Church". Reality: A Synthesis of Thomistic thought. St. Louis: Herder. pp. 245–71.