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Tsarin taka Tsantsan

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Tsarin taka Tsantsan
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Ka'idar yin taka tsantsan (ko tsarin taka tsantsan) hanya ce mai fa'ida ta hanya ilimin zamani, falsafanci da shari'a ga sabbin abubuwa tare da yuwuwar haifar da kuma cutarwa yayin da aka rasa ilimin kimiyya mai zurfi a kan lamarin. Yana jaddada taka tsantsan, dakata da bita kafin yin tsalle cikin sababbin sabbin abubuwa waɗanda zasu iya haifar da bala'i. Masu sukar lamirin sun yi nuni da cewa, rashin fahimta ne, soke kai, rashin kimiyya da fasaha da kuma kawo cikas ga ci gaba.

A cikin mahallin aikin injiniya, ƙa'idar taka tsantsan tana bayyana kanta a matsayin mahimmancin aminci, an tattauna dalla-dalla a cikin monograph na Elishakoff . [1] An ba da shawarar a fili, a cikin injiniyan farar hula, ta Belindor [2] a cikin 1729. Dangantakar da ke tsakanin aminci da abin dogaro [3] [2] [4] injiniyoyi da masana falsafa sun yi nazari sosai.

Masu tsara manufofi galibi suna amfani da ƙa'idar a cikin yanayi inda akwai yuwuwar cutarwa daga yanke shawara (misali ɗaukar wani mataki na musamman) kuma ba a samu tabbataccen shaida ba tukuna. Misali, gwamnati na iya yanke shawarar iyakancewa ko taƙaita yaduwar magani ko sabuwar fasaha har sai an gwada ta sosai. Ƙa'idar ta yarda cewa yayin da ci gaban kimiyya da fasaha sau da yawa yakan kawo babban fa'ida ga bil'adama, ya kuma ba da gudummawa ga ƙirƙirar sabbin barazana da haɗari. Yana nuna cewa akwai wani alhaki na zamantakewa don kare jama'a daga kamuwa da irin wannan cutar, lokacin da binciken kimiyya ya gano haɗari mai ma'ana. Ya kamata a sassauta waɗannan kariyar kawai idan ƙarin binciken kimiyya ya fito wanda ke ba da tabbataccen shaidar cewa babu wani lahani da zai haifar.

Ƙa'idar ta zama dalili mai mahimmanci ga adadi mai yawa da karuwar yarjejeniyoyin kasa da kasa a cikin fagagen ci gaba mai ɗorewa, kare muhalli, kiwon lafiya, kasuwanci, da amincin abinci, ko da yake a wasu lokuta yana jawo muhawara kan yadda za a yi daidai. ayyana shi kuma yi amfani da shi zuwa ga hadaddun yanayi tare da haɗari masu yawa. A cikin wasu tsarin shari'a, kamar yadda yake a cikin dokar Tarayyar Turai, yin amfani da ƙa'idar taka tsantsan an sanya shi a matsayin abin da ake buƙata na doka a wasu wuraren doka. [5]

Asalin da ƙa'idar

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Manufar "ƙa'idar yin taka tsantsan" gabaɗaya ana ɗaukar ta taso ne a cikin Ingilishi daga fassarar kalmar Jamusanci Vorsorgeprinzip a cikin 1970s don mayar da martani ga lalata gandun daji da gurɓataccen ruwa, inda 'yan majalisar dokokin Jamus suka amince da dokar iska mai tsafta ta hana amfani da wasu abubuwan da ake zargi da haifar da lalatawar daji. lalacewar muhalli duk da cewa shaidar tasirinsu ba ta cika ba a wancan lokacin. An gabatar da ra'ayin cikin dokokin muhalli tare da wasu sabbin hanyoyin (a wancan lokacin) hanyoyin kamar "masu gurɓata muhalli", ƙa'idar rigakafin gurɓataccen iska da alhakin tsira ga yanayin muhalli na gaba.

A cikin 1988, Konrad von Moltke ya bayyana ra'ayin Jamus ga masu sauraron Biritaniya, wanda ya fassara zuwa Turanci a matsayin ƙa'idar yin taka tsantsan. :31

A cikin tattalin arziki, an yi nazari kan ƙa'idar taka tsantsan cikin sharuɗɗan "tasirin yanke shawara mai ma'ana", na "mu'amalar da ba za a iya canzawa ba " da " rashin tabbas ". Marubuta irin su Epstein (1980) da Arrow and Fischer (1974) sun nuna cewa “rashin jujjuyawar sakamakon da za a iya samu a nan gaba” ya haifar da “tasirin zaɓin zaɓe” wanda yakamata ya jawo al’umma ta “ tsaka -tsaki” don fifita halin yanzu. yanke shawara da ke ba da damar ƙarin sassauci a nan gaba. Gollier et al. ƙarasa da cewa "ƙarin rashin tabbas na kimiyya game da rarraba haɗarin nan gaba - wato, babban bambancin imani - ya kamata ya sa al'umma su ɗauki matakan rigakafi masu ƙarfi a yau."

An kuma samo ƙa'idar daga aƙidar addini cewa ya kamata a takaita wasu bangarori na kimiyya da fasaha saboda "na cikin mulkin Allah ne", kamar yadda Yarima Charles da Paparoma Benedict XVI suka gabatar.

Tsarin tsari

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Akwai ma'anoni da yawa na ƙa'idar taka tsantsan: Ana iya bayyana taka tsantsan a matsayin "tsanaki a gaba", " taka tsantsan da aka yi a cikin mahallin rashin tabbas ", ko kuma sanar da hankali . Ra'ayoyi guda biyu sun kwanta a jigon ƙa'idar: [6] :34

  • nunin buƙatu da masu yanke shawara su yi hasashen cutarwa kafin ta faru. A cikin wannan sigar akwai jujjuyawar hujja a fakaice: ƙarƙashin ƙa'idar taka tsantsan alhakin mai ba da shawara ne don tabbatar da cewa aikin da aka tsara ba zai haifar da babbar illa ba.
  • ra'ayi na daidaitattun haɗari da farashi da yuwuwar aikin da aka gabatar.

Ɗaya daga cikin tushe na farko na ƙa'idar yin taka tsantsan, da ma'anar da aka yarda da ita a duniya, sakamakon aikin Rio Conference, ko " Taron Duniya " a 1992. Ƙa'ida ta 15 na bayanin sanarwar Rio :

A cikin 1998 Bayanin Wingspread game da ƙa'idodin taka tsantsan an kira shi ta hanyar Cibiyar Sadarwar Kiwon Lafiyar Muhalli da Kimiyya kuma ta ƙare tare da tsari mai zuwa, wanda Stewart Brand ya bayyana a matsayin "mafi bayyananne kuma mafi akai-akai":

A cikin Fabrairu 2000, Hukumar Tarayyar Turai ta lura a cikin Sadarwar da Hukumar Kula da Ka'idodin Kariya cewa, "Ba a bayyana ka'idar rigakafin ba a cikin yarjejeniyoyin Tarayyar Turai, wanda ya ba da izini [ƙa'idar kariya] sau ɗaya kawai - zuwa kare muhalli. Amma a aikace, iyakarta ta fi girma, kuma musamman inda kima-maƙasudin-kimiyya-kimiyya ya nuna cewa akwai dalilai masu ma'ana don damuwa cewa tasirin haɗari ga muhalli, mutum, dabba ko [da] lafiyar shuka na iya zama sabani da babban matakin kariya [ga abin da] aka zaba don Al'umma." [7] :10

Yarjejeniyar Cartagena na Janairu 2000 akan Biosafety ta ce, dangane da taƙaddama kan GMOs : "Rashin tabbacin kimiyya saboda rashin isasshen bayanan kimiyya ... tasiri, daga yanke shawara, kamar yadda ya dace, dangane da shigo da kwayoyin halitta da aka gyara da ake tambaya." :6

Aikace-aikace

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Buƙatu daban-daban da ƙungiyoyi daban-daban ke wakilta waɗanda ke ba da shawarar ƙa'idar ya haifar da babban canji na ƙirƙira ta: bincike ɗaya ya gano ƙa'idodi 14 daban-daban na ƙa'idar a cikin yarjejeniyoyin da ba yerjejeniya ba. RB Stewart (2002) ya rage ƙa'idar yin taka tsantsan zuwa nau'ikan asali guda huɗu:

  • Rashin tabbas na kimiyya bai kamata ya hana tsara ayyukan da ke haifar da haɗari mai mahimmanci ba ( rashin ƙaddamarwa ).
  • Gudanar da tsari yakamata ya ƙunshi gefen aminci; ayyukan ya kamata a iyakance su ƙasa da matakin da ba a taɓa ganin wani mummunan tasiri ko annabta ba ( gefe na aminci ).
  • Ayyukan da ke gabatar da yiwuwar rashin tabbas ga mummunar cutarwa ya kamata su kasance ƙarƙashin mafi kyawun fasahar da ake samuwa don rage haɗarin cutarwa sai dai idan mai goyon bayan aikin ya nuna cewa ba su gabatar da wani haɗari mai haɗari ba ( BAT ).
  • Ayyukan da ke gabatar da yuwuwar rashin tabbas ga babban lahani yakamata a haramta su sai dai idan mai gabatar da aikin ya nuna cewa bai gabatar da haɗarin cutarwa ba ( haramta ).

Carolyn Raffensperger na babban taron Wingspread ya sanya ƙa'ida ta adawa da hanyoyin da suka danganci gudanar da haɗari da ƙididdigar fa'ida . Dave Brower ( Abokan Duniya ) ya kammala da cewa "dukkan fasaha ya kamata a ɗauka da laifi har sai an tabbatar da cewa ba su da laifi". [8] Freeman Dyson ya bayyana amfani da ka'idar yin taka tsantsan a matsayin "da gangan mai gefe ɗaya", misali idan aka yi amfani da shi azaman hujja don lalata gonakin binciken injiniyan kwayoyin halitta da kuma yin barazana ga masu bincike duk da shaidar kimiyya da ke nuna rashin lahani. [8]

Kamar yadda Rupert da O'Riordan suka lura, ƙalubalen da ake fuskanta wajen aiwatar da ƙa'idar shine "tabbatar da cewa rashin tabbas, ko kuma rashin isasshen bincike mai tushe, ba shi da cikas ga ƙirƙira, muddin babu wata ma'ana mai ma'ana. na cutarwa mai tsanani". Rashin wannan ƙayyadaddun aikace-aikacen yana sanya ka'idar "warkewa da kai" a cewar Stewart Brand, saboda "babu wani abu da ya tabbata" a cikin kimiyya, yana farawa daga ƙa'idar taka tsantsan da kanta kuma ya haɗa da "nauyi ko juyin Darwiniyanci". Daidaitaccen aikace-aikacen ya kamata ya tabbatar da cewa "ya kamata a dauki matakan kiyayewa" kawai "a lokacin farkon matakan" kuma yayin da "shaidar kimiyya masu dacewa ta kafu", matakan daidaitawa yakamata su amsa wannan shaidar kawai.

Mai ƙarfi vs. rauni

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Tsanani mai ƙarfi yana riƙe da cewa ana buƙatar ƙa'ida a duk lokacin da akwai yuwuwar haɗari ga lafiya, aminci, ko muhalli, koda kuwa shaidar goyan bayan tana da hasashe kuma koda farashin tattalin arziƙin ƙa'ida yana da yawa. :1295–96A cikin 1982, Yarjejeniya ta Duniya ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta ba da amincewa ta farko ta ƙasa da ƙasa ga ƙa'idar mai ƙarfi, tana mai nuna cewa lokacin da "ba a fahimci illar da za ta iya haifar da illa ba, bai kamata ayyukan su ci gaba ba". Sanarwar Wingspread da aka yaɗa, daga taron masana muhalli a 1998, wani misali ne na ƙaƙƙarfan sigar. Hakanan ana iya kiran taka tsantsan mai ƙarfi a matsayin ƙa'idar "ba a yi nadama ba", inda ba a la'akari da farashi a matakin rigakafin.

Raunan taka tsantsan yana ƙunshe da cewa rashin shaidar kimiyya baya hana yin aiki idan in ba haka ba lalacewa zai yi tsanani kuma ba za a iya dawowa ba. :1039Mutane suna yin taka tsantsan a kowace rana, kuma galibi suna jawo farashi, don guje wa haɗarin da ba su da tabbas: ba ma tafiya a wurare masu haɗari da tsaka-tsaki da dare, muna motsa jiki, muna siyan abubuwan gano hayaki, muna ɗaure bel ɗin mu.

Bisa ga littafin da Ma'aikatar Baitulmali ta New Zealand ta wallafa,

Siga mai rauni [na Ka'idodin Tsare-tsare] shine mafi ƙarancin ƙuntatawa kuma yana ba da damar ɗaukar matakan kariya ta fuskar rashin tabbas, amma baya buƙatar su (misali, Sanarwar Rio 1992; Tsarin Tsarin Mulki na Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya 1992). Don gamsar da bakin kofa na cutarwa, dole ne a sami wasu shaidun da suka shafi yuwuwar faruwa da tsananin sakamakon. Wasu, amma ba duka ba, suna buƙatar la'akari da farashin matakan kariya. Ƙirƙirar ƙira ba ta hana yin la'akari da fa'ida ba. Abubuwan da ban da rashin tabbas na kimiyya, gami da la'akari da tattalin arziki, na iya samar da halaltattun dalilai na jinkirta aiki. Ƙarƙashin ƙayyadaddun ƙayyadaddun ƙayyadaddun tsari, abin da ake buƙata don tabbatar da buƙatar aiki (nauyin hujja) gabaɗaya ya hau kan waɗanda ke ba da shawarar daukar matakin yin taka tsantsan. Ba a yi magana game da alhakin cutar da muhalli ba. Ƙarfafan juzu'i suna ba da hujja ko buƙatar matakan kiyayewa kuma wasu kuma suna kafa alhaki don cutar da muhalli, wanda ke da inganci mai ƙarfi nau'i na "masu gurɓata muhalli". Misali, Yarjejeniya Ta Duniya ta ce: “Idan ilimi ya yi iyaka sai a yi amfani da hanyar taka-tsantsan . . . Sanya nauyin hujja a kan waɗanda ke jayayya cewa aikin da aka tsara ba zai haifar da lahani mai mahimmanci ba, kuma ya sanya masu alhakin cutar da muhalli. " Juya hujja na buƙatar waɗanda ke ba da shawarar aiki don tabbatar da cewa samfur, tsari ko fasaha suna da isasshe "lafiya" kafin a ba da izini. Bukatar shaidar "babu cutar da muhalli" kafin duk wani aiki da aka samu yana nuna jama'a ba su shirya karɓar duk wani haɗarin muhalli ba, ko da wane irin fa'idar tattalin arziki ko zamantakewa za ta iya tasowa (Peterson, 2006). A matsananci, irin wannan buƙatun na iya haɗawa da hani da hani akan duka nau'ikan ayyuka ko abubuwa masu haɗari (Cooney, 2005). A tsawon lokaci, an sami sauyi a hankali na ƙa'idar yin taka tsantsan daga abin da ya bayyana a cikin sanarwar Rio zuwa wani tsari mai ƙarfi wanda ake iya cewa [wanda] ke aiki a matsayin hani kan ci gaba idan babu tabbataccen shaidar cewa ba zai cutar da shi ba. [9]

Yarjejeniyar ƙasa da ƙasa da sanarwa

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"Ka'ida" vs. "kusantarwa"

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Babu gabatarwa ga ƙa'idar taka tsantsan da za ta kasance cikakke ba tare da taƙaitaccen magana game da bambanci tsakanin ƙa'idar yin taka tsantsan da hanyar taka tsantsan ba.[10]

[11][12][13] Ƙa'ida ta 15 na sanarwar Rio 1992 ta ce: "domin kare muhalli, dole ne jihohi su yi amfani da tsarin yin taka tsantsan gwargwadon ƙarfinsu. Inda akwai barazanar mummunar barna ko kuma ba za a iya jurewa ba, ba za a yi amfani da rashin cikakkiyar tabbacin kimiyya ba a matsayin dalilin dage matakan da za su dace don hana lalata muhalli." Kamar yadda Garcia (1995) ya yi nuni da cewa, “kalmomin, galibi kama da na ƙa’idar, sun bambanta sosai a cikin wannan: ya gane cewa za a iya samun bambance-bambance a cikin iyawar gida don amfani da tsarin, kuma yana kira ga ingancin farashi wajen amfani da shi. hanyar da za a bi, misali, yin la'akari da tsadar tattalin arziki da zamantakewa." Gabaɗaya ana ɗaukar "kusantar" azaman tausasa "ƙa'ida".

"Kamar yadda Recuerda ya lura, banbance tsakanin ƙa'idar yin taka tsantsan da tsarin yin taka tsantsan yana da yaɗuwa kuma, a wasu mahallin, ana jayayya. A tattaunawar da ake yi na shelanta ƙasa da ƙasa, Amurka ta nuna adawa da amfani da kalmar ka'ida saboda wannan kalma tana da ma'ana ta musamman a cikin harshe na shari'a, saboda ka'idar doka ita ce tushen doka. Wannan yana nufin cewa wajibi ne, don haka kotu na iya soke ko tabbatar da yanke shawara ta hanyar aiwatar da ƙa'idar taka tsantsan. A wannan ma'anar,[14] ƙa'idar yin taka tsantsan ba ra'ayi mai sauƙi ba ne ko fatalwa amma tushen doka. Wannan shine matsayin doka na ƙa'idar yin taka tsantsan a cikin Tarayyar Turai. A daya bangaren kuma, 'kusantar' yawanci ba ta da ma'ana iri daya, ko da yake a wasu lokuta hanya na iya zama daure. Hanyar yin taka tsantsan shine “ruwan tabarau” na musamman da ake amfani da su don gano haɗarin da kowane mai hankali ke da shi (Recuerda, 2008)

Tarayyar Turai

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A ranar 2 ga Fabrairun 2000, Hukumar Tarayyar Turai ta ba da Sadarwa kan ƙa'idar taka tsantsan, [7] inda ta ɗauki hanyar aiwatar da wannan ra'ayi, amma ba tare da ba da cikakken ma'anarsa ba. Sakin layi na 2 na labarin 191 na yarjejeniyar Lisbon ya bayyana cewa

Manufar ƙungiyar game da muhalli za ta yi niyya a matakin kariya ta la'akari da bambance-bambancen yanayi a yankuna daban-daban na ƙungiyar. Ya dogara ne akan ƙa'idar yin taka tsantsan da ƙa'idojin da ya kamata a ɗauki matakan kariya, ya kamata a gyara lalacewar muhalli a matsayin fifiko daga tushe kuma mai gurbata muhalli ya biya. [15]

Bayan amincewa da sadarwar Hukumar Tarayyar Turai kan ƙa'idar taka tsantsan, ƙa'idar ta zo don sanar da manufofin EU da yawa, gami da yankunan da suka wuce manufofin muhalli . Tun daga 2006 an haɗa shi cikin dokokin EU "a cikin al'amura kamar amincin samfur na gabaɗaya, amfani da abubuwan ƙari don amfani da su a cikin abinci mai gina jiki na dabba, ƙona sharar gida, da ka'idojin gyare-gyaren kwayoyin halitta". :282–83Ta hanyar aikace-aikacen sa idan doka ta kasance, ya zama "gaba ɗaya ƙa'idar dokar EU". [16] :283

A cikin shari'ar T-74/00 Artegodan, Kotun Ƙoli (sannan Kotun ta farko) ta bayyana a shirye don cirewa daga ƙayyadaddun tanadi don ƙa'idar rigakafi a cikin manufofin muhalli a cikin labarin 191 (2) TFEU zuwa ga kowa. ƙa'idar dokokin EU.

Faransa

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A Faransa, Yarjejeniya ta Muhalli ta ƙunshi tsari na ƙa'idar yin taka tsantsan (lashi na 5):[17]

LMuhalli da lafiya

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Filayen da aka fi damuwa da ƙa'idar rayuwar taka tsantsan sune;

  • Dumamar yanayi ko canjin yanayi gabaɗaya
  • Bacewa na nau'in
  • Gabatar da sabbin samfura a cikin muhalli, tare da yuwuwar tasiri akan bambancin halittu (misali, kwayoyin halitta da aka gyara )
  • Barazana ga lafiyar jama'a, saboda sabbin cututtuka da dabaru (misali, HIV da ake ɗauka ta hanyar ƙarin jini)
  • Tasirin sabbin fasahohi na dogon lokaci (misali matsalolin kiwon lafiya game da radiation daga wayoyin salula da sauran na'urorin sadarwar lantarki)
  • M ko m gurbatawa (misali, asbestos, endocrine disrupters )
  • Amintaccen abinci (misali, cutar Creutzfeldt-Jakob )
  • Wasu sabbin al'amurran da suka shafi biosafety (misali, rayuwar wucin gadi, sabbin kwayoyin halitta )

Ana amfani da ƙa'idar taka tsantsan sau da yawa akan filayen ilimin halitta saboda canje-canje ba za a iya ƙunsa cikin sauƙi ba kuma suna da yuwuwar zama na duniya. Ƙa'idar ba ta da mahimmanci ga filayen da ke ƙunshe kamar su aeronautics, inda ƴan mutanen da ke fuskantar haɗari sun ba da izini ga bayanai (misali, matukin jirgi ). A cikin yanayin ƙirƙira fasaha, ɗaukar tasiri yana da wahala idan wannan fasahar za ta iya kwafi kanta. Bill Joy ya nanata hatsarori da ke tattare da yin kwafin fasahar kwayoyin halitta, nanotechnology, da fasahar mutum-mutumi a cikin labarinsa na Wired, " Me ya sa gaba ba ta bukatar mu ", ko da yake bai yi nuni da ka'idar taka tsantsan ba. Ana iya ganin aikace-aikacen ƙa'idar a cikin manufofin jama'a na buƙatar kamfanonin harhada magunguna don gudanar da gwaje-gwaje na asibiti don nuna cewa sababbin magunguna ba su da lafiya.

Masanin falsafa na Oxford Nick Bostrom ya tattauna ra'ayin na gaba mai iko mai zurfi, da kasada idan yayi ƙoƙarin samun ikon sarrafa kwayoyin halitta. [18]

Aikace-aikacen ƙa'idar yana canza matsayin ƙima da ƙima na haɗari : ba haɗarin da dole ne a kauce masa ko gyara ba, amma haɗari wanda dole ne a hana shi. Don haka, a cikin yanayin ƙa'idar binciken kimiyya, akwai wani ɓangare na uku fiye da masanin kimiyya da mai gudanarwa: mabukaci.

A cikin wani bincike game da aikace-aikace na ka'idar yin taka tsantsan ga nanotechnology, Chris Phoenix da Mike Treder sun bayyana cewa akwai nau'i biyu na ka'idar, wanda suke kira "tsararren tsari" da "siffa mai aiki". Tsohon "yana buƙatar rashin aiki lokacin da aiki zai iya haifar da haɗari", yayin da na biyun yana nufin "zabar mafi ƙarancin haɗari lokacin da suke samuwa, da kuma [...] ɗaukar alhakin haɗarin haɗari." Thomas Alured Faunce ya bayar da hujjar yin amfani da ƙa'idar taka tsantsan ta hanyar masu kula da kimiyya da fasaha na kiwon lafiya musamman dangane da Ti0 2 da ZnO nanoparticles a cikin sunscreens, biocidal nanosilver a cikin hanyoyin ruwa da samfuran da kera, sarrafa ko sake amfani da su yana fallasa ɗan adam ga haɗarin shakar da yawa. - bangon carbon nanotubes.[19]

Gudanar da albarkatun

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Yarjejeniyar launi na hasken zirga-zirga, tana nuna manufar ka'idar sarrafa girbi (HCR), ƙayyade lokacin da shirin sake ginawa ya zama tilas cikin sharuddan yin taka tsantsan da ƙayyadaddun wuraren nuni don haifar da ƙwayoyin cuta da yawan mace-macen kamun kifi .

Yawancin albarkatun ƙasa kamar kifin kifi yanzu ana sarrafa su ta hanyar taka tsantsan, ta hanyar ka'idojin sarrafa girbi (HCRs) bisa ka'idar yin taka tsantsan. Adadin ya nuna yadda ake aiwatar da ƙa'idar a cikin tsarin kula da kamun kifi da Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya mai binciken teku ta gabatar.[20][21][22]

A cikin rarraba nau'ikan da ke cikin haɗari, ƙa'idar yin taka tsantsan na nufin cewa idan akwai shakku game da ainihin matsayin dabba ko shuka, yakamata a zaɓi wanda zai haifar da matakan kariya mafi ƙarfi. Don haka, nau'in nau'in nau'in tattabara na azurfa wanda zai iya wanzu da adadi mai yawa kuma kawai a yi rikodin su ko kuma kamar yadda mai yiwuwa ya daɗe ba a rarraba shi a matsayin "rashin bayanai" ko "bacewa" (wanda duka biyun ba sa buƙatar kowane mataki na kariya don haka. a ɗauka), amma a matsayin "matsakaicin haɗari" (matsayin kiyayewa wanda ke ba da buƙatun kariya mafi ƙarfi), yayin da mafi ƙarancin ƙaƙƙarfan ƙaƙƙarfan ƙaƙƙarfan ƙaƙƙarfan, amma mai yiwuwa ba tukuna cikin haɗarin emerald starling an rarraba shi a matsayin "ƙananan bayanai", saboda akwai buƙatar gaggawa. bincike don bayyana matsayinsa maimakon aikin kiyayewa don kubutar da shi daga bacewa.[ana buƙatar hujja]

Idan, alal misali, babban jikin ruwa na ƙasa wanda mutane ke amfani da shi don ruwan sha ya gurɓata da ƙwayoyin cuta (misali Escherichia coli O157: H7, Campylobacter ko Leptospira ) kuma tushen gurbatawa yana da karfi da ake zargi da zama shanun kiwo amma ainihin kimiyya ba ta iya ba da cikakkiyar hujja ba, ya kamata a cire shanu daga yanayin har sai an tabbatar da su, ta hanyar masana'antar kiwo, ba don zama tushen ba ko har sai masana'antar ta tabbatar da cewa irin wannan gurɓataccen abu ba zai sake faruwa ba.[ana buƙatar hujja]

Ci gaba da karatu

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  • Kai Purnhagen [1]
  • Sadarwa daga Hukumar Tarayyar Turai kan ka'idar taka tsantsan Brusells (2000)
  • Ƙungiyar Tarayyar Turai (2002), Ƙungiyar Tarayyar Turai ta haɗa nau'o'in yarjejeniya kan Tarayyar Turai da na yarjejeniyar kafa al'ummar Turai, Jarida ta Tarayyar Turai, C325, 24 Disamba 2002, Title XIX, labarin 174, sakin layi na 2 da 3.
  • Greenpeace, "Safeffen ciniki a cikin karni na 21st, Greenpeace cikakkun shawarwari da shawarwari don taron ministoci na 4th na Ƙungiyar Ciniki ta Duniya" pp. 8-9 [2]
  • O'Riordan, T. da Cameron, J. (1995), Fassara Ƙa'idar Tsaro, London: Earthscan Publications
  • Raffensperger, C., da Tickner, J. (eds.) (1999) Kare Kiwon Lafiyar Jama'a da Muhalli: Aiwatar da Ka'idodin Kariya. Island Press, Washington, DC.
  • Rees, Martin. Sa'ar Karshen Mu (2003).
  • Recuerda Girela, MA, (2006), Seguridad Alimentaria y Nuevos Alimentos, Régimen jurídico-administrativo. Thomson-Aranzadi, Cizur Menor.
  • Recuerda Girela, MA, (2006), "Haɗari da Dalili a cikin Dokar Tarayyar Turai", Bitar Dokar Abinci da Ciyarwa ta Turai, 5.
  • Sandin, P. "Mafi Aminci fiye da Yi Hakuri: Aiwatar da Hanyoyin Falsafa zuwa Muhawara kan Hadari da Ka'idodin Tsare," (2004).
  • Stewart, RB "Yanke Shawarar Tsarin Muhalli a ƙarƙashin Rashin tabbas". A Gabatarwa ga Doka da Tattalin Arziki na Manufofin Muhalli: Batutuwa a Tsarin Tsara, Juzu'i 20: 71-126 (2002).
  • Sunstein, Cass R. (2005), Dokokin Tsoro: Bayan Ka'ida ta Kariya . New York: Jami'ar Cambridge Press

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ Elishakoff, I. Safety factors and reliability: friends or foes?, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 de Bélidor, Bernard Forest, La science des ingénieurs, dans la conduite des travaux de fortification et d'architecture civile, Paris: Chez Claude Jombert 1729
  3. ↑ Elishakoff, I., Interrelation between safety factors and reliability, NASA/CR-2001-211309, 2001
  4. ↑ Doorn, N. and Hansson, S.O., Should probabilistic design replace safety factors?, Philosophy & Technology, 24(2), pp.151-16, 2011
  5. ↑ Art. 191 (2) TFEU, Explanations Relating to the Charter of Fundamental Rights (2007/C 303/02, OJ EU C303/35 14.12.2007 explanation on article 52 (5) of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, T-13/99 Pfizer vs Council p.114-125
  6. ↑ Andrew Jordan & Timothy O'Riordan. Chapter 3, The precautionary principle: a legal and policy history, in The precautionary principle: protecting public health, the environment and the future of our children Archived 2023-01-08 at the Wayback Machine. Edited by: Marco Martuzzi and Joel A. Tickner. World Health Organization 2004
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Commission of the European Communities. 2 February 2000 Communication From The Commission on the Precautionary Principle
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :5
  9. ↑ "Precautionary Principle: Origins, definitions, and interpretations." Treasury Publication, Government of New Zealand. 2006. http://www.treasury.govt.nz/publications/research-policy/ppp/2006/06-06/05.htm
  10. ↑ "Greenpeace Southeast Asia (Philippines), et. al. vs. Environmental Management Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, et. al" (PDF). Manila: Republic of the Philippines Court of Appeals. 17 May 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 January 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2016.
  11. ↑ "Greenpeace Southeast Asia (Philippines), et. al. vs. Environment Management Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, et. al" (PDF). Manila: Republic of the Philippines Court of Appeals. 17 May 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2016 – via ELAW.
  12. ↑ "Greenpeace Southeast Asia (Philippines), et. al. vs. Environment Management Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, et. al" (PDF). Manila: Republic of the Philippines Court of Appeals. 20 September 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2016 – via ELAW.
  13. ↑ "Philippines' Supreme Court bans development of genetically engineered products" (Press release). Greenpeace International. 11 December 2015. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015.
  14. ↑ "Boost for Bt 'talong'". inquirer.net. July 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
  15. ↑ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union article 191, paragraph 2
  16. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Recuerda
  17. ↑ "Chemicals Strategy" (PDF). The Body Shop. August 2006. Retrieved 12 March 2016.
  18. ↑ Nick Bostrom 2003 Ethical Issues in Advanced Artificial Intelligence – section 2
  19. ↑ Faunce TA, et al. (2008). "Sunscreen Safety: The Precautionary Principle, The Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration and Nanoparticles in Sunscreens" (PDF). Nanoethics. 2 (3): 231–240. doi:10.1007/s11569-008-0041-z. S2CID 55719697. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 February 2011.
  20. ↑ Steel, Daniel (2013). "The Precautionary Principle and the Dilemma Objection". Ethics, Policy and Environment: A Journal of Philosophy and Geography. 16 (3): 321–340. doi:10.1080/21550085.2013.844570. S2CID 56089605.
  21. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Sunstein
  22. ↑ Sunstein, Cass (2005). "The Precautionary Principle as a Basis for Decision Making" (PDF). The Economists' Voice. 2 (2): 8. doi:10.2202/1553-3832.1079. S2CID 52241337.

Hanyoyin haɗi na waje

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