Leopard: Difference between revisions

In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group recognized the following eight subspecies as valid taxa:<ref name=CatSG2017>{{cite journal |author1=Kitchener, A. C. |author2=Breitenmoser-Würsten, C. |author3=Eizirik, E. |author4=Gentry, A. |author5=Werdelin, L. |author6=Wilting, A. |author7=Yamaguchi, N. |author8=Abramov, A. V. |author9=Christiansen, P. |author10=Driscoll, C. |author11=Duckworth, J. W. |author12=Johnson, W. |author13=Luo, S.-J. |author14=Meijaard, E. |author15=O’Donoghue, P. |name-list-style=amp |author16=Sanderson, J. |author17=Seymour, K. |author18=Bruford, M. |author19=Groves, C. |author20=Hoffmann, M. |author21=Nowell, K. |author22=Timmons, Z. |author23=Tobe, S. |year=2017 |title=A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group |journal=Cat News |issue=Special Issue 11 |pages=73–75 |url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/32616/A_revised_Felidae_Taxonomy_CatNews.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y#page=73 |access-date=2019-07-25 |archive-date=2020-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117172708/https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/32616/A_revised_Felidae_Taxonomy_CatNews.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y#page=73 |url-status=live }}</ref>

||It is the most widespread leopard subspecies and is native to most of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], but likely [[Local extinction|locally extinct]] in [[Mauritania]], [[Togo]], [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]] and [[Libya]] and most likely also in [[Gambia]] and [[Lesotho]].<ref name=IUCN/>

||It is the smallest leopard subspecies and considered [[Endemism|endemic]] to the [[Arabian Peninsula]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spalton, J. A. |last2=Al Hikmani, H. M. |name-list-style=amp |year=2006 |title=The Leopard in the Arabian Peninsula – Distribution and subspecies status |journal=Cat News |issue=Special Issue 1 |pages=4–8 |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/leopard/Spalton___Hikmani_2006_Status_of_the_Leopard_on_the_Arabian_Peninsula.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619075145/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/leopard/Spalton___Hikmani_2006_Status_of_the_Leopard_on_the_Arabian_Peninsula.pdf |archive-date=2015-06-19 |url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2023, the population was estimated to comprise 100–120 individuals in [[Oman]] and [[Yemen]]; it was therefore assessed as [[Critically Endangered]] in 2023.<ref>{{cite iucn |title=''Panthera pardus ssp. nimr'' |name-list-style=amp |author=Al Hikmani, H. |author2=Spalton, A. |author3=Zafar-ul Islam, M. |author4=al-Johany, A. |author5=Sulayem, M. |author6=Al-Duais, M. |author7=Almalki, A. |date=2023 |page=e.T15958A46767457 |access-date=17 March 2024}}</ref> It is locally extinct in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates.<ref name=IUCN/>

||It occurs from eastern [[Turkey]] and the [[Caucasus]] to the [[Iranian Plateau]] and the [[Hindu Kush]] into the western [[Himalayas]]. It is listed as [[Endangered]].<ref>{{cite iucn |title=''Panthera pardus ssp. tulliana'' |name-list-style=amp |author=Ghoddousi, A. |author2=Khorozyan, I. |date=2023 |page=e.T15961A50660903 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2023-1.RLTS.T15961A50660903.en |access-date=17 March 2024}}</ref> It is locally extinct in [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Tajikistan]].<ref name=IUCN/>

||It occurs in mainland Southeast Asia and [[southern China]], and is listed as Critically Endangered.<ref>{{cite iucn |title=''Panthera pardus'' ssp. ''delacouri'' |author1=Rostro-García, S. |author2=Kamler, J.F. |author3=Clements, G.R. |author4=Lynam, A.J. |author5=Naing, H. |name-list-style=amp |year=2019 |page=e.T124159083A163986056 |access-date=17 March 2024}}</ref> It is locally extinct in [[Hong Kong]], [[Singapore]], [[Laos]] and [[Vietnam]].<ref name=IUCN/>

The geographic origin of the ''Panthera'' is most likely northern Central Asia. The leopard-lion clade was distributed in the Asian and African [[Palearctic]] since at least the early [[Pliocene]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Tseng, Z. J. |author2=Wang, X. |author3=Slater, G. J. |author4=Takeuchi, G. T. |author5=Li, Q. |author6=Liu, J. |author7=Xie, G. |name-list-style=amp |date=2014 |title=Himalayan fossils of the oldest known pantherine establish ancient origin of big cats |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=281 |issue=1774 |page=20132686 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2013.2686|pmid=24225466 |pmc=3843846 }}</ref> The leopard-lion clade diverged 3.1–1.95 million years ago.<ref name=davis2010>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=B. W. |last2=Li |first2=G. |last3=Murphy |first3=W. J. |name-list-style=amp |title=Supermatrix and species tree methods resolve phylogenetic relationships within the big cats, ''Panthera'' (Carnivora: Felidae) |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |year=2010 |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=64–76 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2010.01.036 |pmid=20138224 |bibcode=2010MolPE..56...64D |url=http://web.csulb.edu/~acarter3/course-evolution/files/cat-phylogeny.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305131606/http://web.csulb.edu/~acarter3/course-evolution/files/cat-phylogeny.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-05}}</ref><ref name=mazak2011>{{cite journal |last1=Mazák |first1=J. H. |last2=Christiansen |first2=P. |last3=Kitchener|first3=A. C. |last4=Goswami |first4=A. |name-list-style=amp |title=Oldest known pantherine skull and evolution of the tiger |journal=PLOS ONE |year=2011 |volume=6 |issue=10 |pages=e25483 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0025483 |pmid=22016768 |pmc=3189913 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...625483M |doi-access=free}}</ref> Additionally, a 2016 study revealed that the [[mitochondrial genome]]s of the leopard, lion and [[snow leopard]] are more similar to each other than their [[nuclear genome]]s, indicating that their ancestors [[Hybridization (biology)|hybridized]] with the snow leopard at some point in their [[evolution]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=G. |last2=Davis |first2=B. W. |last3=Eizirik |first3=E. |last4=Murphy |first4=W. J. |name-list-style=amp |title=Phylogenomic evidence for ancient hybridization in the genomes of living cats (Felidae) |journal=Genome Research |date=2016 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1101/gr.186668.114 |pmid=26518481 |pmc=4691742}}</ref>

The leopard's fur is generally soft and thick, notably softer on the belly than on the back.<ref name=Skinner>{{cite book |year=2005 |title=The mammals of the southern African sub region |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521844185 |editor1-last=Skinner |editor1-first=J. D. |editor2-last=Chimimba |editor2-first=C. T. |edition=Third |last1=Mills |first1=M. G. L. |chapter=Subfamily Pantherinae |pages=385–396 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqwEYkTDZf4C&pg=PA385 |access-date=2021-05-19 |archive-date=2024-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505150034/https://books.google.com/books?id=iqwEYkTDZf4C&pg=PA385#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Its skin colour varies between individuals from pale yellowish to dark golden with dark spots grouped in [[Rosette (zoology)|rosette]]s. Its underbelly is white and its ringed tail is shorter than its body. Its pupils are round.<ref name=Mivart1900>{{cite book |last1=Mivart |first1=St. G. J. |author-link=St. George Jackson Mivart |title=The Cat: An Introduction to the Study of Backboned Animals, Especially Mammals |date=1900 |publisher=John Murray |location=London |chapter=Different kind of Cats |pages=391–439 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/catintroductiont00miva/page/394}}</ref> Leopards living in arid regions are pale cream, yellowish to [[ochraceous]] and [[rufous]] in colour; those living in forests and mountains are much darker and deep golden. Spots fade toward the white underbelly and the insides and lower parts of the legs.<ref name=Pocock1932>{{cite journal |last1=Pocook |first1=R. I. |year=1932 |title=The Leopards of Africa |journal=Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=543–591 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1932.tb01085.x}}</ref> Rosettes are circular in East African leopard populations, and tend to be squarish in Southern African and larger in Asian leopard populations. The fur tends to be grayish in colder climates, and dark golden in [[rainforest]] habitats.<ref name=CAP>{{cite book |author=Nowell, K. |author2=Jackson, P. |name-list-style=amp |year=1996 |title=Wild Cats: status survey and conservation action plan |publisher=IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group |location=Gland, Switzerland |chapter=Leopard ''Panthera pardus'' (Linnaeus, 1758) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222223654/http://lynx.uio.no/lynx/catsgportal/cat-website/catfolk/ssaprd01.htm |archive-date=2014-02-22 |chapter-url=http://lynx.uio.no/lynx/catsgportal/cat-website/catfolk/ssaprd01.htm}}</ref> Rosette patterns are unique in each individual.<ref name=Schutze>{{cite book |last1=Schütze |first1=H. |title=Field Guide to the Mammals of the Kruger National Park |date=2002 |publisher=Struik Publishers|location=Cape Town, South Africa |isbn=978-1-86872-594-6 |pages=92–93}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Menon |first1=V. |title=Indian Mammals: A Field Guide |date=2014 |publisher=Hachette |location=Gurgaon, India |isbn=978-93-5009-761-8}}</ref> This pattern is thought to be an adaptation to dense vegetation with patchy shadows, where it serves as [[camouflage]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Allen, W. L. |author2=Cuthill, I. C. |author3=Scott-Samuel, N. E. |author4=Baddeley, R. |year=2010 |name-list-style=amp |title=Why the leopard got its spots: relating pattern development to ecology in felids |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B |volume=278 |issue=1710 |pages=1373–1380 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2010.1734 |pmc=3061134 |pmid=20961899}}</ref>

Its white-tipped tail is about {{cvt|60|-|100|cm|1}} long, white underneath and with spots that form incomplete bands toward the end of the tail.<ref name=Hoath>{{cite book |last1=Hoath |first1=R. |title=Field Guide to the Mammals of Egypt |date=2009 |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |location=Cairo, Egypt |isbn=978-977-416-254-1 |pages=106–107 |chapter=Leopard ''Panthera pardus'' (Linnaeus, 1758) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agWfg6oEKKkC&pg=PA106 |access-date=2021-05-19 |archive-date=2024-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505145927/https://books.google.com/books?id=agWfg6oEKKkC&pg=PA106#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

The guard hairs protecting the basal hairs are short, {{cvt|3-4|mm|1}} in face and head, and increase in length toward the flanks and the belly to about {{cvt|25|-|30|mm|1}}. Juveniles have woolly fur that appear to be dark-coloured due to the densely arranged spots.<ref name=Schutze/><ref name=estes>{{cite book |last=Estes |first=R. |year=1991 |title=The Behavior Guide to African Mammals, Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates |location=Los Angeles |publisher=The University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-08085-0 |chapter=Leopard ''Panthera pardus'' |pages=366–369 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g977LsZHpcsC&pg=PA366 |access-date=2021-05-19 |archive-date=2024-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505145853/https://books.google.com/books?id=g977LsZHpcsC&pg=PA366#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

Melanistic leopards are also known as [[black panther]]s. [[Melanism]] in leopards is caused by a [[recessive allele]] and is inherited as a [[recessive trait]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Robinson |first1=R. |title=Inheritance of the black form of the leopard ''Panthera pardus'' |journal=Genetica |year=1970 |volume=41 |issue=1|pages=190–197 |doi=10.1007/BF00958904 |pmid=5480762 |s2cid=5446868}}</ref><ref name=Eizirik>{{cite journal |last1=Eizirik |first1=E. |last2=Yuhki |first2=N. |last3=Johnson |first3=W. E.|last4=Menotti-Raymond |first4=M. |last5=Hannah |first5=S. S. |last6=O'Brien |first6=S. J. |title=Molecular genetics and evolution of melanism in the cat family |journal=Current Biology |year=2003 |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=448–453 |doi=10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00128-3 |pmid=12620197 |s2cid=19021807 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2003CBio...13..448E }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kawanishi |first1=K. |last2=Sunquist |first2=M. E. |last3=Eizirik |first3=E. |last4=Lynam |first4=A. J. |last5=Ngoprasert |first5=D. |last6=Wan Shahruddin |first6=W. N. |last7=Rayan |first7=D. M. |last8=Sharma |first8=D. S. K.|last9=Steinmetz|first9=R. |name-list-style=amp |title=Near fixation of melanism in leopards of the Malay Peninsula |journal=Journal of Zoology |year=2010 |volume=282 |issue=3 |pages=201–206 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2010.00731.x}}</ref><ref name=daSilva17>{{cite journal |author1=daDa Silva L. G. |author2=Kawanishi, K. |first=K. |author3=Henschel P. |author4=Kittle, A. |author5=Sanei, A. |author6=Reebin, A. |author7=Miquelle, D. |author8=Stein, A. B. |author9=Watson, A. |author10=Kekule, L. B. |author11=Machado, R. B. |author12=Eizirik, E. |name-list-style=amp |year=2017 |title=Mapping black panthers: Macroecological modeling of melanism in leopards (''Panthera pardus'') |journal= PLOS ONE |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=e0170378 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0170378 |pmid=28379961 |pmc=5381760 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1270378D |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The leopard is a slender and muscular cat, with relatively short limbs and a broad head. It is [[sexually dimorphic]] with males larger and heavier than females.<ref name=Hoath/> Males stand {{cvt|60|-|70|cm}} at the shoulder, while females are {{cvt|57|-|64|cm}} tall. The head-and-body length ranges between {{cvt|92|and|183|cm}} with a {{cvt|66|to|102|cm|}} long tail. Sizes vary geographically. Males typically weigh {{cvt|30.9|-|72|kg}}, and females {{cvt|20.5|-|43|kg}}.<ref name="Kingdon">{{cite book |author1=Hunter, L. |author2=Henschel, P. |author3=Ray, J. C. |name-list-style=amp |chapter=''Panthera pardus'' Leopard |pages=159–168 |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-4081-8996-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B_07noCPc4kC&pg=RA4-PA159 |editor1=Kingdon, J. |editor2=Happold, D. |editor3=Butynski, T. |editor4=Hoffmann, M. |editor5=Happold, M. |editor6=Kalina, J. |title=Mammals of Africa |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |location=London |access-date=2021-05-19 |archive-date=2024-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505145933/https://books.google.com/books?id=B_07noCPc4kC&pg=RA4-PA159#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Occasionally, large males can grow up to {{cvt|91|kg}}. Leopards from the [[Cape Province]] in South Africa are generally smaller, reaching only {{cvt|20|-|45|kg}} in males.<ref name=estes/><ref name=mammal /><ref name=nowak>{{cite book |last1=Nowak |first1=R. M. |title=Walker's Mammals of the World |year=1999 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore, US |isbn=978-0-8018-5789-8 |edition=Sixth |pages=828–831 |chapter=''Panthera pardus'' (Leopard) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T37sFCl43E8C&pg=PA828 |access-date=2021-05-19 |archive-date=2024-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505145930/https://books.google.com/books?id=T37sFCl43E8C&pg=PA828#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

The maximum recorded weight of aheaviest wild leopard in Southern Africa wasweighed around {{cvt|96|kg}}, and it measured {{cvt|262|cm}}.<ref name=Burnie>{{cite book |editor-last1=Burnie |editor-first1=D. |editor-last2=Wilson |editor-first2=D. E. |name-list-style=amp |year=2001 |title=Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife |publisher=DK Adult |isbn=978-0-7894-7764-4}}</ref> In 2016, an Indian leopard killed in [[Himachal Pradesh]] measured {{cvt|261|cm}} with an estimated weight of {{cvt|78.5|kg}}; it was perhaps the largest known wild leopard in India.<ref>{{cite news |year=2016 |title=Is this the longest leopard in India? |newspaper=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/Is-this-the-longest-leopard-in-India/articleshow/56227308.cms |access-date=2018-03-14 |archive-date=2019-04-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406154410/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/Is-this-the-longest-leopard-in-India/articleshow/56227308.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |year=2016 |title=Leopard shot in Bilaspur turns out to be a record breaker |newspaper=The Tribune Trust |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/news/himachal/community/leopard-shot-in-bilaspur-turns-out-to-be-a-record-breaker/342548.html |access-date=2018-03-14 |archive-date=2019-03-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326180717/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/himachal/community/leopard-shot-in-bilaspur-turns-out-to-be-a-record-breaker/342548.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The largest recorded skull of a leopard was found in India in 1920 and measured {{cvt|28|cm}} in [[Basal (anatomy)|basal]] length, {{cvt|20|cm}} in breadth, and weighed {{cvt|1|kg}}. The skull of an African leopard measured {{cvt|286|mm}} in basal length, and {{cvt|181|mm}} in breadth, and weighed {{cvt|790|g}}.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Prater, S. H. |title=Record Pantherpanther Skullskull (''P. p. pardus'') |journal=The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |date=1921 |volume=XXVII |issue=Part IV |pages=933–935 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/95740#page/1055/mode/1up |date=1921 |access-date=2019-08-24 |archive-date=2019-05-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502064501/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/95740#page/1055/mode/1up |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{multiple image|total_width=300 |perrow=2 |image1=David Raju Leopard0827.jpg |caption1=Leopard in a tree in India |image2=Edgar Grooming (49611421486).jpg |caption2=A leopard [[personal grooming|grooming himselfitself]]}}

The leopard's has the largest distribution of all wild cats, occurring widelyrange in Africa, the [[CaucasusWest Africa]] and Asia, although populations are fragmented and declining. It is consideredestimated to behave [[Localdrastically extinction|locallydeclined extinct]] in [[North Africa]].<refby name=IUCN/> It inhabits foremost [[savanna]] and [[rainforest]]95%, and areasin wherethe [[grassland]]s,Sahara [[woodlanddesert]]s, andby riverine forests remain largely undisturbed97%.<ref name=CAP/Jacobson2016>{{cite Itjournal can|last1=Jacobson|first1=A. alsoP. persist|last2=Gerngross in|first2=P. urban|last3=Lemeris environments,|first3=J. ifR. itJr.|last4=Schoonover is|first4=R. notF. persecuted,|name-list-style=amp has|last5=Anco sufficient|first5=C. prey|last6=Breitenmoser-Würsten and|first6=C. patches|last7=Durant of|first7=S. vegetationM. for|last8=Farhadinia shelter|first8=M. during the dayS.<ref name|last9=Powell2021>{{CiteHenschel journal|first9=P. |lastlast10=PowellKamler |firstfirst10=J. F. |last2last11=AxmacherLaguardia |first2first11=JA. C|last12=Rostro-García |first12=S. |last3last13=LinnellStein |first3first13=JA. D.CB. |last4last14=DurantDollar |first4first14=S. ML. |title=Diverse locations and a long history: Historical context for urban LeopardsLeopard (''Panthera pardus'') instatus, distribution, and the earlyresearch anthropoceneefforts Fromacross Seoul,its Korearange |yearjournal=2021PeerJ |doidate=10.3389/fcosc.2021.765911 |journal=Frontiers in Conservation Science2016 |volume=24 |pagepages=765911e1974 |doi-access=free10.7717/peerj.1974 |name-list-stylepmid=amp27168983 |hdlpmc=11250/29997644861552 |hdldoi-access=free }}</ref> In [[sub-Saharan Africa]], it is still numerous and surviving in marginal habitats where other large cats have disappeared. There is considerable potential for human-leopard conflict due to leopards preying on livestock.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pirie |first1=T. J. |last2=Thomas |first2=R. L. |last3=Fellowes |first3=M. D. E. |name-list-style=amp |date=2017 |title=Increasing game prices may alter farmers' behaviours towards leopards (''Panthera pardus'') and other carnivores in South Africa |page=e3369 |journal=PeerJ |volume=5 |doi=10.7717/peerj.3369|pmid=28584709 |pmc=5452990 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In southeastern [[Egypt]], an individual found killed in 2017 was the first sighting of the leopard in this area in 65 years.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Soultan, A. |last2=Attum, O. |last3=Hamada, A. |last4=Hatab, E. B. |last5=Ahmed, S. E. |last6=Eisa, A. |last7=Al Sharif, I. |last8=Nagy, A. |name-list-style=amp |author9=Shohdi, W. |date=2017 |title=Recent observation for leopard ''Panthera pardus'' in Egypt |journal=Mammalia |volume=81 |issue=1 |pages=115–117 |doi=10.1515/mammalia-2015-0089 |s2cid=90676105}}</ref>

The leopard is a solitary and [[Territory (animal)|territorial]] animal. It is typically shy and alert when crossing roadways and encountering oncoming vehicles, but may be emboldened to attack people or other animals when threatened. Adults associate only in the mating season. Females continue to interact with their offspring even after weaning and have been observed sharing kills with their offspring when they can not obtain any prey. They produce a number of vocalizations, including growls, snarls, meows, and purrs.<ref name=estes/> The [[roaring]] sequence in leopards consists mainly of grunts,<ref name="WCW">{{Cite book |last1=Sunquist |first1=M. E. |year=2002 |last2=Sunquist |first2=F. |name-list-style=amp |title=Wild Cats of the World |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-77999-7 |chapter=Leopard ''Panthera pardus'' |pages=318–342 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IF8nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA320 |access-date=2021-05-19 |archive-date=2024-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240430033051/https://books.google.com/books?id=IF8nDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA320#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> also called "sawing", as it resembles the sound of sawing wood. Cubs call their mother with an ''urr-urr'' sound.<ref name=estes/>

Leopards are mainly active from dusk till dawn and will rest for most of the day and some hours at night in thickets, among rocks or over tree branches. Leopards have been observed walking {{cvt|1|-|25|km|mi}} across their range at night; wandering up to {{cvt|75|km}} if disturbed.<ref name=estes/><ref name=nowak/> In some regions, they are [[Nocturnality|nocturnal]].<ref name=Hunter_al2003>{{cite journal |last1=Hunter |first1=L. |last2=Balme |first2=G. |last3=Walker |first3=C. |last4=Pretorius |first4=K. |last5=Rosenberg |first5=K. |name-list-style=amp |year=2003 |title=The landscape ecology of leopards (''Panthera pardus'') in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: a preliminary project report |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=5 |pages=24–30 |url=http://www.biolsci.monash.edu.au/research/leopards/docs/ecojournal-2003.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304233241/http://www.biolsci.monash.edu.au/research/leopards/docs/ecojournal-2003.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2009}} {{open access}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spalton |first1=J.A. |name-list-style=amp |last2=Al Hikmani |first2=H. M. |last3=Willis |first3=D. |last4=Said |first4=A. S. B. |title=Critically endangered Arabian leopards ''Panthera pardus nimr'' persist in the Jabal Samhan Nature Reserve, Oman |journal=Oryx |date=2006 |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=287–294 |doi=10.1017/S0030605306000743 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In western African forests, they have been observed to be largely [[Diurnality|diurnal]] and hunting during twilight, when their prey animals are active; activity patterns vary between seasons.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jenny |first1=D. |last2=Zuberbuhler |first2=K. |name-list-style=amp |title=Hunting behaviour in west African forest leopards |journal=African Journal of Ecology |date=2005 |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=197–200 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00565.x |bibcode=2005AfJEc..43..197J |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229882994 |access-date=2018-09-25 |archive-date=2018-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925142137/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229882994 |url-status=live }}</ref>

They can run at over {{cvt|58|km/h|mph m/s}}, leap over {{cvt|6|m}} horizontally, and jump up to {{cvt|3|m}} vertically.<ref name="WCW"/>

[[File:Day 47 Leopard (Panthera pardus) male marking a bush with urine ... (53310719953).jpg|thumb|A male leopard [[scent mark|scent-marking]] his territory<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bothma |first1=Jacobus du P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPvuCAAAQBAJ |title=Larger Carnivores of the African Savannas |last2=Walker |first2=Clive |date=2013-11-11 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-662-03766-9 |language=en |access-date=2024-01-06 |archive-date=2024-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106170223/https://books.google.com/books?id=DPvuCAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

In [[Kruger National Park]], most leopards tend to keep {{cvt|1|km|mi}} apart.<ref name="bailey93">{{cite book |last=Bailey |first=T. N. |year=1993 |title=The African leopard: a study of the ecology and behaviour of a solitary felid |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-932846-11-9}}</ref> Males occasionally interact with their partners and cubs, and exceptionally this can extend beyond to two generations.<ref name="Kingdon"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pirie |first1=T. J.|last2=Thomas |first2=R. L.|last3=Reilly|first3=B. K. |last4=Fellowes |first4=M. D. E. |name-list-style=amp |date=2014 |title=Social interactions between a male leopard (''Panthera pardus'') and two generations of his offspring |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=574–576 |doi=10.1111/aje.12154 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014AfJEc..52..574P }}</ref> Aggressive encounters are rare, typically limited to defending territories from intruders.<ref name=mammal/> In a South African reserve, a male was wounded in a male–male territorial battle over a carcass.<ref name=Hunter_al2003/>

Males occupy [[home range]]s that often overlap with a few smaller female home ranges, probably as a strategy to enhance access to females. In the [[Ivory Coast]], the home range of a female was completely enclosed within a male's.<ref name=Ivory>{{cite journal |author=Jenny, D. |year=1996 |title=Spatial organization of leopards ''Panthera pardus'' in Tai National Park, Ivory Coast: Is rainforest habitat a "tropical haven"? |journal=Journal of Zoology |issue=3 |volume=240 |pages=427–440 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1996.tb05296.x |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227901726 |access-date=2021-09-06 |archive-date=2024-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505145917/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227901726_Spatial_organization_of_leopards_Panthera_pardus_in_Tai_National_Park_Ivory_Coast_Is_rainforest_habitat_a_%27tropical_haven%27 |url-status=live }}</ref> Females live with their cubs in home ranges that overlap extensively, probably due to the association between mothers and their offspring. There may be a few other fluctuating home ranges belonging to young individuals. It is not clear if male home ranges overlap as much as those of females do. Individuals try to drive away intruders of the same sex.<ref name=estes/><ref name=nowak/>

A study of leopards in the Namibian farmlands showed that the size of home ranges was not significantly affected by sex, rainfall patterns or season; the higher the prey availability in an area, the greater the leopard population density and the smaller the size of home ranges, but they tend to expand if there is human interference.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Marker |first1=L. L. |last2=Dickman |first2=A. J. |name-list-style=amp |title=Factors affecting leopard (''Panthera pardus'') spatial ecology, with particular reference to Namibian farmlands |journal=South African Journal of Wildlife Research |date=2005 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=105–115 |url=http://reference.sabinet.co.za/webx/access/journal_archive/03794369/3418.pdf}} {{open access}}</ref>

Sizes of home ranges vary geographically and depending on habitat and availability of prey. In the [[Serengeti]], males have home ranges of {{cvt|33|-|38|km2|sqmi}} and females of {{cvt|14|-|16|km2|sqmi}};<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bertram |first1=B. C. R.|title=Leopard ecology as studied by radio tracking |journal=Symposia of the Zoological Society of London |date=1982 |volume=49|pages=341–352}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mizutani, F. |last2=Jewell, P. A. |name-list-style=amp |year=1998 |title=Home-range and movements of leopards (''Panthera pardus'') on a livestock ranch in Kenya |journal=Journal of Zoology |pages=269–286 |volume=244 |issue=2 |doi=10.1017/S0952836998002118}}</ref> but males in northeastern Namibia of {{cvt|451|km2|sqmi}} and females of {{cvt|188|km2|sqmi}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stander |first1=P. E. |last2=Haden |first2=P. J. |last3=Kaqece |first3=II. |last4=Ghau |first4=II. |name-list-style=amp|title=The ecology of asociality in Namibian leopards|journal=Journal of Zoology |date=1997 |volume=242|issue=2 |pages=343–364 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb05806.x}}</ref> They are even larger in arid and montane areas.<ref name=mammal/> In Nepal's [[Bardia National Park]], male home ranges of {{cvt|48|km2|sqmi}} and female ones of {{cvt|5|-|7|km2|sqmi}} are smaller than those generally observed in Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Odden, M. |author2=Wegge, P. |name-list-style=amp |year=2005 |title=Spacing and activity patterns of leopards ''Panthera pardus'' in the Royal Bardia National Park, Nepal |journal=Wildlife Biology |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=145–152 |doi=10.2981/0909-6396(2005)11[145:SAAPOL]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=86140708 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229018846 |doi-access=free |access-dates2cid=2021-09-06 |archive-date=2024-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505150606/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229018846_Spacing_and_activity_patterns_of_leopards_Panthera_pardus_in_the_Royal_Bardia_National_Park_Nepal |url-status=live 86140708}}</ref>

The leopard depends mainly on its acute senses of hearing and vision for hunting.<ref name=Mills>{{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=M. G. L. |last2=Hes |first2=L. |name-list-style=amp |isbn=978-0-947430-55-9|pages=178–180 |publisher=Struik Publishers|location=Cape Town, South Africa |title=The Complete Book of Southern African Mammals |year=1997}}</ref> It primarily hunts at night in most areas.<ref name=estes/> In western African forests and Tsavo National Park, they have also been observed hunting by day.<ref name=hamilton76>{{cite thesis |last=Hamilton |first=P. H. |year=1976 |title=The movements of leopards in Tsavo National Park, Kenya, as determined by radio-tracking |degree= M.Sc. |publisher=University of Nairobi |location=Nairobi}}</ref> They usually hunt on the ground. In the Serengeti, they have been seen to ambush prey by descending on it from trees.<ref name= Kruuk>{{cite journal |last1=Kruuk |first1=H. |last2=Turner |first2=M. |name-list-style=amp |date=1967 |title=Comparative notes on predation by lion, leopard, cheetah and wild dog in the Serengeti area, East Africa |journal=Mammalia |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=1–27 |doi=10.1515/mamm.1967.31.1.1 |s2cid=84619500}}</ref> It stalks its prey and tries to approach as closely as possible, typically within {{cvt|5|m}} of the target, and, finally, pounces on it and kills it by suffocation. It kills small prey with a bite to the back of the neck, but holds larger animals [[Throat clamp|by the throat and strangles them]].<ref name=estes/> It [[Cache (biology)|caches]] kills up to {{cvt|2|km|mi}} apart.<ref name=Kingdon/> It is able to take large prey due to its powerful jaw muscles, and is therefore strong enough to drag carcasses heavier than itself up into trees; an individual was seen to haul a young giraffe weighing nearly {{cvt|125|kg}} up {{cvt|5.7|m|ftin}} into a tree.<ref name=hamilton76/> It eats small prey immediately, but drags larger carcasses over several hundred meters and caches it safely in trees, bushes or even caves; this behaviour allows the leopard to store its prey away from rivals, and offers it an advantage over them. The way it stores the kill depends on local topography and individual preferences, varying from trees in Kruger National Park to bushes in the plain terrain of the Kalahari.<ref name=mammal/><ref name=Schaller72>{{cite book |last=Schaller |first=G. |year=1972 |title=Serengeti: a kingdom of predators |publisher=Knopf |location=New York |isbn=978-0-394-47242-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wJ_wAAAAMAAJ |access-date=2020-09-18 |archive-date=2024-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505150524/https://books.google.com/books?id=wJ_wAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Across its range, the leopard coexists with a number of other large predators. In Africa, the leopardit is part of a large predator [[Guild (ecology)|guild]] with lions, cheetahs, [[spotted hyena|spotted]] and [[brown hyena]]s, and [[African wild dog]]s.<ref name=Rafiaq2020>{{cite journal|last1=Rafiq|first1=K.|last2=Wayward |first2=M. W.|last3=Wilson|first3=A. M.|last4=Meloro|first4=C. |last5=Jordan|first5=N. R. |last6=Wich |first6=S. A. |last7=McNutt|first7=J. W. |last8=Golabek|first8=K. A.|year=2020|title=Spatial and temporal overlaps between leopards (''Panthera pardus'') and their competitors in the African large predator guild|journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=311 |issue=4 |pages=246–259 |doi=10.1111/jzo.12781}}</ref> The leopard is dominant only over the cheetah while the others have the advantage of size, pack numbers or both.<ref name=estes/> Lions pose a particulargreat mortal threat and can be responsible for 22% percent of leopard deaths in an[[Sabi area,Sand whileGame Reserve]]. Spotted hyenas are less threatening but are more likely to [[Kleptoparasitism|steal kills]], spotted hyenas being the culprits of up to 50% of stolen leopard kills in anthe same area.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Balme|first1=G. A.|last2=Pitman|first2=R. T.|last3=Robinson|first3=H. S.|last4=Miller|first4=J. R. B.|last5=Funston|first5=P. J.|last6=Hunter|first6=L. T. B.|year=2017|title=Leopard distribution and abundance is unaffected by interference competition with lions|journal=Behavioral Ecology |volume=28|issue=28 |issue=5 |pages=1348–1358 |doi=10.1093/beheco/arx098}}</ref><ref name=Balme2017>{{cite journal|last1=Balme|first1=G. A. |last2=Miller |first2=J. R. B.|last4last3=Pitman|first4first3=R. T.|last5last4=Hunter|first5first4=L. T. B.|year=2017|title=Caching reduces kleptoparasitism in a solitary, large felid|journal=Journal of Animal Ecology|volume=86|issue=3 |pages=634–644 |doi=10.1111/1365-2656.12654 |pmid=28217865 |bibcode=2017JAnEc..86..634B}}</ref> To counter this, leopards store their kills in the trees and out of reach.<ref name=Balme2017/><ref name=Vissia2022>{{cite journal|last1=Vissia|first1=S.|last2=Fattebert|first2=J. |last3=van Langevelde|first3=F. |year=2022 |title=Leopard density and interspecific spatiotemporal interactions in a hyena-dominated landscape|journal=Ecology and Evolution |volume=12 |issue=10 |page=e9365 |doi=10.1002/ece3.9365 |pmid=36225822 |pmc=9534747 |bibcode=2022EcoEv..12E9365V}}</ref> Lions may have a high successfulsuccess rate in fetching leopard kills from trees.<ref name=Balme2017/> Leopards do not seem to actively avoid their competitors but rather difference in prey and habitat preferences appear to limit their spatial overlap.<ref name=Rafiaq2020/> In particular, leopards use heavy vegetation regardless of whether lions are present in an area and both cats are active at the same time of day.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller|first1=J. R. B. |last2=Pitman |first2=R. T. |last3=Mann |first3=G. K. H. |last4=Fuller|first4=A. K.|last5=Balme|first5=G. A. |year=2018|title=Lions and leopards coexist without spatial, temporal or demographic effects of interspecific competition |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=1709–1726 |doi=10.1111/1365-2656.12883 |pmid=30010193 |bibcode=2018JAnEc..87.1709M}}</ref>

In Asia, the leopard's main competitors are tigers and [[dhole]]s. Both the larger tiger and pack-living dhole dominate leopards during encounters. Interactions between the three predators involve chasing, [[Kleptoparasitism|stealing kills]] and direct killing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Srivathsa |first1=A. |last2=Ramachandran|first2=V. |last3=Saravanan |first3=P. |last4=Sureshbabu |first4=A. |last5=Ganguly |first5=D. |last6=Ramakrishnan |first6=U. |year=2023 |title=Topcats and underdogs: intraguild interactions among three apex carnivores across Asia's forestscapes |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=98 |issue=6 |pages=2114–2135 |doi=10.1111/brv.12998 |pmid=37449566 |s2cid=259903849 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Tigers appear to inhabit the deep parts of the forest while leopards and dholes are pushed closer to the fringes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Thinley, P. |author2=Rajaratnam, R. |author3=Lassoie, J. P. |author4=Morreale, S. J. |author5=Curtis, P. D. |author6=Vernes, K. |author7=Leki Leki |author8=Phuntsho, S. |author9=Dorji, T. |author10=Dorji, P. |name-list-style=amp |year=2018 |title=The ecological benefit of tigers (''Panthera tigris'') to farmers in reducing crop and livestock losses in the eastern Himalayas: Implications for conservation of large apex predators |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=219 |pages=119–125 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2018.08.007 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The three predators coexist by hunting different sized prey.<ref name=Karanth>{{cite journal |last=Karanth |first=K. U. |author2=Sunquist, M. E. |name-list-style=amp |year=2000 |title=Behavioural correlates of predation by tiger (''Panthera tigris''), leopard (''Panthera pardus'') and dhole (''Cuon alpinus'') in Nagarahole, India | journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=250 |pages=255–265 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2000.tb01076.x |issue=2}}</ref> In [[Nagarhole National Park]], the average size for a leopard kill was {{cvt|37.6|kg}} compared to {{cvt|91.5|kg}} for tigers and {{cvt|43.4|kg}} for dholes.<ref name=KaranthSunquist1995>{{cite journal |author1=Karanth, K. U. |author2=Sunquist, M. E. |name-list-style=amp |title=Prey selection by tiger, leopard and dhole in tropical forests |jstor=5647 |doi=10.2307/5647 |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |volume=64 |issue=4 |year=1995 |pages=439–450|bibcode=1995JAnEc..64..439K}}</ref> At [[Kui Buri National Park]], following a reduction in prey numbers, tigers continued to feed on favoured prey while leopards and dholes had to increase their consumption of small prey.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Steinmetz, R. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Seuaturien, N. |author3=Intanajitjuy, P. |author4=Inrueang, P. |author5=Prempree, K. |year=2021 |title=The effects of prey depletion on dietary niches of sympatric apex predators in Southeast Asia |journal=Integrative Zoology |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=19–32 |doi=10.1111/1749-4877.12461|pmid=32627329 }}</ref> Leopards can live successfully in tiger habitat when there is abundant food and vegetation cover.<ref name=Karanth/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Odden, M. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Wegge, P. |author3=Fredriksen, T. |year=2010 |title=Do tigers displace leopards? If so, why? |journal=Ecological Research |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=875–881 |doi=10.1007/s11284-010-0723-1 |bibcode=2010EcoR...25..875O}}</ref> Otherwise, they appear to be less common where tigers are numerous. The recovery of the tiger population in [[Rajaji National Park]] during the 2000s led to a reduction in leopard population densities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harihar |first1=A. |last2=Pandav |first2=B. |last3=Goyal |first3=S. P. |year=2011 |title=Responses of leopard ''Panthera pardus'' to the recovery of a tiger ''Panthera tigris'' population |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=806–814 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.01981.x|doi-access=free |bibcode=2011JApEc..48..806H |name-list-style=amp}}</ref>

In some areas, leopards mate all year round. In [[Manchuria]] and [[Siberia]], they mate during January and February. On average, females begin to breed between the ages of 2½ and three, and males between the ages of two and three.<ref name=CAP/> The female's [[estrous cycle]] lasts about 46 days, and she is usually in heat for 6–7 days.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1748-1090.1966.tb01746.x |author=Sadleir, R. |year=1966 |title=Notes on the Reproduction of the larger Felidae |journal=International Zoo Yearbook|volume=6 |pages=184–187}}</ref> [[Gestation]] lasts for 90 to 105 days.<ref>{{cite book |author=Hemmer, H. |year=1976 |chapter=Gestation period and postnatal development in felids |pages=143–165 |editor=Eaton, R.L. |title=The World's Cats |volume=3 |publisher=Carnivore Research Institute, Univ. Washington, Seattle}}</ref> Cubs are usually born in a [[Litter (zoology)|litter]] of 2–4 cubs.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Eaton, R.L. |year=1977 |title=Reproductive biology of the leopard |journal=Zoologischer Garten |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages =329–351}}</ref> The mortality rate of cubs is estimated at 41–50% during the first year.<ref name="bailey93" /> Lions and spotted hyenasPredators are the biggest cause for leopard cub mortality during their first year. Male leopards are known to cause [[infanticide (zoology)|infanticide]], in order to bring the female back into heat.<ref name="Kingdon"/> Intervals between births average 15 to 24 months, but can be shorter, depending on the survival of the cubs.<ref name=CAP/>

Females give birth in a cave, crevice among boulders, hollow tree or thicket. Newborn cubs weigh {{Cvt|280-1000|g}}, and are born with closed eyes, which open four to nine days after birth.<ref name="WCW"/><ref name="mammal" /> The fur of the young tends to be longer and thicker than that of adults. Their pelage is also more gray in colour with less defined spots. They begin to eat meat at around nine weeks.<ref name="Kingdon"/> Around three months of age, the young begin to follow the mother on hunts. At one year of age, cubs can probably fend for themselves, but will remain with the mother for 18–24 months.<ref name=CMBC>{{cite web |url=http://brainmuseum.org/Specimens/carnivora/leopard/index.html |title=Leopard (''Panthera pardus''); Physical characteristics and distribution |work=Comparative Mammalian Brain Collections |access-date=2008-06-07 |archive-date=2011-01-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103183140/http://www.brainmuseum.org/specimens/carnivora/leopard/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> After separating from their mother, sibling cubs may travel together for months.<ref name=CAP/> Both male and female leopards typically reach sexual maturity at 2–2⅓ years.<ref name="Kingdon"/>

The average life span of a leopard is 12–17 years.<ref name="WCW"/>

In 2007, a leopard reintroduction programme was initiated in the Russian Caucasus, where captive bred individuals are reared and trained in {{cvt|0.5–0.9|ha}} large enclosures in [[Sochi National Park]]; six individuals released into [[Caucasus Nature Reserve]] and [[Alaniya National Park]] in 2018 survived as of February 2022.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Rozhnov, V.V. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Yachmennikova, A.A. |author3=Dronova, N.A. |author4=Naidenko, S.V. |author5=Hernandez-Blanco, J.A. |author6=Chistopolova, M.D. |author7=Pkhitikov, A.B. |author8=Tembotova, F.A. |author9=Trepet, S.A. |author10=Chestin, I.E. |year=2022 |title=Experience of the leopard re-covering through reintroduction in the Russian Caucasus |journal=Cat News |issue=Special issue |pages=67–71 |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/5.Cat_News/5.3._Special_Issues/5.3.14._SI_15/Cat_News_Special_Issue_15_Persian_leopard_FINAL.pdf#page=67 |access-date=2023-11-11 |archive-date=2023-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111083835/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/5.Cat_News/5.3._Special_Issues/5.3.14._SI_15/Cat_News_Special_Issue_15_Persian_leopard_FINAL.pdf#page=67 |url-status=live }}</ref> The leopard is locally extinct in [[Morocco]], [[Mauritania]], [[Togo]], [[Libya]], [[Tunisia]], [[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], Israel, Jordan, [[Kuwait]], the United Arab Emirates, [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Singapore]], [[South Korea]] and most likely in [[Gambia]], [[Lesotho]], [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]] and [[North Korea]].<ref name=IUCN/>

The leopard is primarily threatened by [[habitat fragmentation]] and conversion of forest to agriculturally used land, which lead to a declining natural prey base, [[human–wildlife conflict]] with livestock herders and high leopard mortality rates. It is also threatened by [[trophy hunting]] and [[poaching]].<ref name=IUCN /> Contemporary records suggest that the leopard occurs in only 25% of its historical range.<ref name=Jacobson2016>{{cite journal |last1=Jacobson|first1=A. P.|last2=Gerngross |first2=P. |last3=Lemeris |first3=J. R. Jr.|last4=Schoonover |first4=R. F. |name-list-style=amp |last5=Anco |first5=C. |last6=Breitenmoser-Würsten |first6=C. |last7=Durant |first7=S. M.|last8=Farhadinia |first8=M. S. |last9=Henschel |first9=P. |last10=Kamler |first10=J. F. |last11=Laguardia |first11=A. |last12=Rostro-García |first12=S. |last13=Stein |first13=A. B. |last14=Dollar |first14=L. |title=Leopard (''Panthera pardus'') status, distribution, and the research efforts across its range |journal=PeerJ |date=2016 |volume=4 |pages=e1974 |doi=10.7717/peerj.1974 |pmid=27168983 |pmc=4861552 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Williams2017>{{cite journal|last1=Williams|first1=S. T. |last2=Williams |first2=K. S. |last3=Lewis |first3=B. P. |last4=Hill |first4=R. A. |name-list-style=amp |title=Population dynamics and threats to an apex predator outside protected areas: implications for carnivore management |journal=Royal Society Open Science |date=2017 |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=161090 |doi=10.1098/rsos.161090 |doi-access=free |pmid=28484625 |pmc=5414262 |bibcode=2017RSOS....461090W}}</ref>

In spring 2013, 37 leopard skins were found during a 7-week long market survey in major Moroccan cities.<ref name=Bergin>{{cite journal |last1=Bergin |first1=D. |last2=Nijman |first2=V. |name-list-style=amp |year=2014 |title=Open, Unregulated Trade in Wildlife in Morocco's Markets |journal=TRAFFIC Bulletin |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=65–70 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267748463 |access-date=2015-03-23 |archive-date=2018-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031133219/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267748463 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2014, 43 leopard skins were detected during two surveys in Morocco. Vendors admitted to have imported skins from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bergin |first1=D. |last2=Nijman |first2=V. |name-list-style=amp |date=2015 |title=Potential benefits of impending Moroccan wildlife trade laws, a case study in carnivore skins |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=199–201 |doi=10.1007/s10531-015-1042-1 |s2cid=34533018 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287807462 |access-date=2017-01-11 |archive-date=2020-01-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107220433/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287807462_Potential_benefits_of_impending_Moroccan_wildlife_trade_laws_a_case_study_in_carnivore_skins |url-status=live }}</ref>

In Java, the leopard is threatened by illegal hunting and trade. Between 2011 and 2019, body parts of 51 Javan leopards were seized including six live individuals, 12 skins, 13 skulls, 20 canines and 22 claws.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Gomez, L. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Shepherd, C.R. |year=2021 |title=The illegal exploitation of the Javan Leopard (''Panthera pardus melas'') and Sunda Clouded Leopard (''Neofelis diardi'') in Indonesia |journal=Nature Conservation |volume=43 |issue=43 |pages=25–39 |doi=10.3897/natureconservation.43.59399 |s2cid=233286106 |url=https://natureconservation.pensoft.net/article/59399/download/pdf/ |doi-access=free |access-dates2cid=2021-09-11 |archive-date=2024-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240505150618/https://natureconservation.pensoft.net/article/59399/download/pdf/ |url-status=live 233286106}}</ref>

In [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s "How the Leopard Got His Spots", one of his ''[[Just So Stories]]'', a leopard with no spots in the [[Highveld]] lives with his hunting partner, the Ethiopian. When they set off to the forest, the Ethiopian changed his brown skin, and the leopard painted spots on his skin.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kipling |first1=R. |title=Just So Stories |date=1902 |publisher=Macmillan |chapter=How the Leopard Got His Spots |chapter-url=https://theshortstory.co.uk/devsitegkl/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Short-stories-Rudyard-Kipling-How-the-Leopard-got-his-Spots.pdf |access-date=2023-05-14 |archive-date=2023-11-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129190512/https://theshortstory.co.uk/devsitegkl/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Short-stories-Rudyard-Kipling-How-the-Leopard-got-his-Spots.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> A leopard played an important role in the 1938 Hollywood film ''[[Bringing Up Baby]]''. African chiefs, European queens, Hollywood actors and [[burlesque]] dancers wore coats made of leopard skins.<ref name=reaktion/>

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* {{Cite journal |author1=Sanei, A. |author2=Zakaria, M. |author3=Yusof, E. |author4=Roslan, M. |year=2011 |title=Estimation of leopard population size in a secondary forest within Malaysia's capital agglomeration using unsupervised classification of pugmarks |journal=Tropical Ecology |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=209–217 |url=http://www.tropecol.com/pdf/open/PDF_52_2/Jour-07-F.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002102927/http://www.tropecol.com/pdf/open/PDF_52_2/Jour-07-F.pdf |archive-date=2011-10-02 |url-status=live |ref=none }}