Wikipedia

Arya Samaj

Arya Samaj (Hindi: आर्य समाज, lit. 'Noble Society') is a monotheistic Indian Hindu reform movement that promotes values and practices based on the belief in the infallible authority of the Vedas. The sannyasi (ascetic) Dayananda Saraswati founded the samaj in the 1870s.

Arya Samaj
Formation10 April 1875 (149 years ago) (1875-04-10)
Bombay, Bombay Presidency, British India (present-day Mumbai, Maharashtra, India)
FounderDayananda Saraswati
TypeReligious organisation
Legal statusFoundation
PurposeEducational, Religious studies, Spirituality, Social Reforms
Area served
Worldwide
Official language
Hindi

Arya Samaj was the first Hindu organization to introduce proselytization in Hinduism.[1][2]

Etymology

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"Arya Samaj" is a compound Sanskrit term consisting of the words "arya" and "samaj." The term "arya" refers to an individual who possesses virtuous attributes and noble characteristics, whereas "samaj" denotes a social group or organized community. Therefore, the term "arya samaj" refers to a community of individuals of high moral character.[3]

History

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The beginning

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Swami Dayanand Saraswati established the Arya Samaj in April 1875 in Bombay with ten principles. However, these principles were finally settled in 1877 in Lahore.[4][5]

Vedic schools

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Between 1869 and 1873, Dayanand began his efforts to reform orthodox Hinduism in India. He established Gurukul (Vedic schools) which emphasised Vedic values, culture, and Satya (Truth). The schools gave separate educations to boys and girls based on ancient Vedic principles. The Vedic school system was also to relieve Indians from the pattern of a British education.[6]

 
A meeting of the Arya Samaj for investing boys with the sacred thread.
 
A 2000 postage stamp dedicated to Arya Samaj.

Emergence of Arya Samaj in Punjab

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Due to Schisms in Adi Brahmo Samaj at Calcutta, a new variant of Adi Brahmoism called Arya Samaj began to take root in the Punjab. When he traveled to Calcutta Swami Dayanand had come into close and extended contact with Raj Narayan Bose, Debendranath Tagore etc. Swami Dayanand closely studied Tagore's book Brahmo Dharma, a comprehensive manual of religion and ethics for Adi Dharma, while in Calcutta. The bone of contention between these two Samajs was over the authority of the Vedas–whose authority the Adi Dharma reject and hold to be inferior works, whereas Arya Samaj hold Vedas to be divine revelation. Despite this difference of opinion, however, it seems that the members of the Brahmo Samaj and Swami Dayanand parted on good terms, the former having publicly praised the latter’s visit to Calcutta in several journals and the latter having taken inspiration from the former’s activity in the social sphere.[7]

Growth of Arya Samaj after Dayanand

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Dayanand was assassinated in 1883. Despite this set back, the Arya Samaj continued to grow, especially in Punjab. The early leaders of the Samaj were Pandit Lekh Ram (1858–1897) and Swami Shraddhanand (Mahatma Munshi Ram Vij) (1856–1926). Some authors claim that the activities of the Samaj led to increased antagonism between Muslims and Hindus.[8] Shraddhanand led the Shuddhi movement that aimed to bring Hindus who had converted to other religions back to Hinduism.[9]

In 1893, the Arya Samaj members of Punjab were divided on the question of vegetarianism. The group that refrained from eating meat were called the "Mahatma" group and the other group, the "Cultured Party".[10]

In the early 1900s, the Samaj (or organizations inspired by it such as Jat Pat Todak Mandal) campaigned against caste discrimination.[11] They also campaigned for widow remarriage and women's education.[12] The samaj also established chapters in British colonies having Indian population such as South Africa, Fiji, Mauritius, Suriname, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago.[13]

Prominent Indian Nationalists such as Lala Lajpat Rai belonged to Arya Samaj and were active in its campaigning.[14] Bhagat Singh's grandfather followed Arya Samaj, which had a considerable influence on Bhagat Singh.[15] The British colonial government in the early part of 20th century viewed the Samaj as a political body. Some Samajis in government service were dismissed for belonging to the Samaj.[16]

In the 1930s, when the Hindu Nationalist group, the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh grew in prominence in Northern India, they found support from the Arya Samaj of Punjab.[17]

Arya Samaj in Punjab

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In Punjab, the Arya Samaj was opposed by the Ahmadiyya movement which provided the Samaj one of its most aggressive opponents from among the various Muslim groups and whose founder Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was extensively involved in theological disputations with Samaj leaders, most notably with Pandit Lekh Ram.[18][19] It was also opposed by the Sikh dominated Singh Sabha, the forerunner of the Akali Dal.[20] It was also opposed by Vaishnavs, who were criticized by Dayānanda Sarasvatī.[21]

Arya Samaj in Sindh

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The Samaj was active in Sindh at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. The activities of the Samaj in the region included using shuddhi in integrating half-Muslim or low-caste communities into the organization. Narayan Dev, a Samaj member active in making many conversions is extolled as a Sindhi martyr. He is sometimes referred to as 'Dayanand ka vir sipahi' (Dayanand's heroic soldier). Dev was killed in a street fight in 1948.[22] The history of Sindhi nationalism is also tied with the activities of the Arya Samaj. In the 19th century, the Hindu community of Sindh had been challenged by Christian missionaries and the Samaj served as a deterrent to the "conversion" done by Christian missionaries in the region. A Hindu Sindhi leader, K. R. Malkani, later on became prominent in the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), and the BJP. According to Malkani, the Arya Samaj created a "new pride" among the Hindu Sindhis by opening gymnasia and Sanskrit pathshalas in the 1930s.[23]

Arya Samaj in Gujarat

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The Arya Samaj of Gujarat members were missionaries from Punjab who had been encouraged to move to Gujarat to carry out educational work amongst the untouchable castes by the Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad III. The Gujarat Samaj opened orphanages. The Samaj starting losing support when Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in 1915 because many activist joined his movement.[24]

Reconversion in Malabar

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In 1921, during a rebellion by the Muslim Moplah community of Malabar Indian newspapers reported that a number of Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam. The Arya Samaj extended its efforts to the region to reconvert these people back to Hinduism through Shuddhi ceremonies.[25]: p.141–152 

Views of Orthodox Hindu on the Samaj

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The then Shankaracharya of Badrinath Math in 1939 in a letter to the archbishop of Canterbury, called Arya Samajis Un-Hindu. He also criticized the Samaj efforts at converting Christians and Muslims.[26]

Arya Samaj in Hyderabad state

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A branch of Arya Samaj was established at Dharur in Beed district of Hyderabad state, the largest princely state during British colonial rule. Keshav Rao Koratkar was the president of the organization until 1932. During his tenure, the Samaj, established schools and libraries throughout the state. Although a social and religious organization, the Samaj activities assumed a great political role in resisting the government of the Nizam during 1930s. In 1938–1939, Arya Samaj teamed up with the Hindu Mahasabha to resist the Nizam government through Satyagraha. The Nizam government responded by raiding and desecrating Arya Samaj mandirs. The Samaj, in turn, criticized Islam and the Islamic rulers of the state. This widely increased the gulf between the Hindu and Muslim population of the state.[27][28]

Language issue

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Arya Samaj promoted the use of Hindi in Punjab and discouraged the use of Punjabi. This was a serious point of difference between the Sikhs, represented by the Shiromani Akali Dal group and the Arya Samaj. The difference was marked during the period immediately following the independence of India and the time of the Punjabi Suba movement (demand for a Punjabi speaking state).[29][30][31]

Humanitarian efforts

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Arya Samaj is a charitable organisation. For example, donations were made to victims of the 1905 Kangra earthquake. The samaj campaigned for women's right to vote, and for the protection of widows.[32]

Contemporary Arya Samaj

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Arya Samaj in India

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Arya Samaj schools and temples are found in almost all major cities and as well as in rural areas (especially in the North) of India. Some are authorised to conduct weddings. The Samaj is associated with the Dayanand Anglo Vedic (DAV) schools which number over eight hundred.[33] There are eight million followers of the Samaj in India.[34]

Arya Samaj around the world

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Arya Samaj is active in countries including Guyana, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Fiji, Australia,[35] South Africa,[citation needed] Kenya,[36] Mauritius[37] and other countries where a significant Hindu diaspora is present. The Arya Samaj in Kenya runs a number of schools in Nairobi and other cities of the country.[38]

Immigrants to Canada and the United States from South Asia, Eastern Africa, South Africa, and the Caribbean countries have set up Arya Samaj temples for their respective communities.[39] Most major metropolitan areas of the United States have chapters of Arya Samaj.[40]

Core beliefs

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Aum considered by the Arya Samaj to be the highest and most proper name of God.

Members of the Arya Samaj believe in one creator God referred to with the syllable 'Aum' as mentioned in the Yajurveda (40:17). They believe the Vedas are an infallible authority, and they respect the Upanishads and Vedic philosophy. The Arya Samaj members reject other Hindu religious texts because they are not pure works, and because these texts promote things do not support their ideology and are therefore against the Vedas. For instance, they believe epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata are legends of historical figures, and reject them as reference to supreme beings and avatars. The members of Arya Samaj also reject other scriptural works such as the Puranas, the Bible, and the Quran.[41] Worship of idols (murti puja) is strictly prohibited in the samaj.[42]

The core beliefs of Arya Samaj are postulated below:

  1. The primeval cause of all genuine knowledge and all that is known by means of knowledge is God.[43]
  2. God is truth-consciousness: formless, omnipotent, unborn, infinite, unchangeable, incomparable, omnipresent, internal, undecaying, immortal, eternal, holy, and creator of the universe. God alone deserves worship.[43]
  3. The Vedas are repositories of all of true knowledge. It is the paramount duty of all Aryas to study and teach and to propound the Vedas.[43]
  4. One should be ever ready to imbibe truth and forsake untruth.[43]
  5. All acts should be done in accordance with Dharma, i.e. after deliberating upon what is truth and untruth.[43]
  6. The prime object of Arya Samaj is to do good to the whole world, i.e. to achieve physical, spiritual and social prosperity for all.[43]
  7. Our conduct towards all should be guided by love, by injunctions of Dharma and according to their respective positions.[43]
  8. One should dispel ignorance and promote knowledge.[43]
  9. One should not be content with one's own prosperity only, but should consider the prosperity of all as his own prosperity.[43]
  10. All human beings should abide by the rules concerning social or everyone's benefit, while everyone should be free to follow any rule beneficial for him/her.[43]

Practices

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A havan being performed by Arya Samaj.

The Arya Samaj members consider the Gayatri Mantra,[44] as the most holy mantra and chant it periodically, do the meditation known as Sandhya and make offering to the holy fire (havan).[45] The havan can be performed with a priest for special occasions or without a priest for personal worship. The havan is performed as per the havan pustika, usually a simplified guide to do havan, having mantras for general or special occasions. The priest is generally a Vedic scholar from the local Arya Samaj Mandir or Gurukul. Sometimes elder members of family or neighbours can also perform the havan acting as a purohit. The host is known as the "yajmana". The priest can be called an "acharya", "shastri" or "pandit" depending upon his scholarly status and local reputation. It is customary to give a nominal "dakshina" to the priest after havan, although in Arya Samaj it is more symbolic and the priest does not state any sum. The sum is decided by the host's capability and status but is still a small amount.[46] After a death, Arya Samajis will often conduct a havan and collect the ashes on the fourth day.[47]

Diwali

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Diwali is a very important day in Arya Samaj as Swami Dayanand died this day. A special havan is done for the same.

 
Diya with one wick
 
Diya with four wicks, pointing in each direction (N, W, S, E)

The Arya Samaj version of the Hindu festival Diwali is typified by the celebration in Suriname. The festival celebrates the victory of good over evil. A vegetarian fast is kept. The Gayatri Mantra is recited while oil lamps are lit, in front of a fire altar lit with sandalwood. One Diya lamp, which is of larger size has two wicks crossed to produce four lights, one in each direction and is lit first. The smaller lamp has one wick. A lamp is kept in every room except the bathroom and restroom. More lamps can be lit, which can be placed arbitrarily in the yard, living room and so on.[48]

Holi

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Holi is celebrated as the conclusion of winter and the start of spring to sow the land and hope for a good harvest. This day is marked by colors and songs (Chautal). It does not require specific prayer or fasting, however, some people keep a vegetarian fast on this day. The festivities do not associate Holi with a particular deity such as Vishnu or Shiva. The early Arya Samajist in 19th century Lahore adapted the festival to include prayers and havan but avoid the intoxication, and obscenities associated with traditional celebrations.[46]

Arya Samaj across the world

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See also: Yatra

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Thursby, G. R. (1977). Hindu-Muslim relations in British India : a study of controversy, conflict, and communal movements in northern India 1923–1928. Leiden: Brill. p. 3. ISBN 9789004043800.
  2. ^ Gyanendra Pandey (25 March 2013). A History of Prejudice: Race, Caste, and Difference in India and the United States. Cambridge University Press. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-107-02900-2.
  3. ^ Upadhyaya, Ganga Prasad (1940). The Origin, Scope and Mission of the Arya Samaj - No. 4 (2nd ed.). Allahabad: J.K. Sharma at The Allahabad Law Journal Press. p. 5.
  4. ^ Lajpat Rai, Lala (1915). The Arya Samaj : an account of its origin, doctrines, and activities : with a biographical sketch of the founder. University of California Libraries. London : Longmans, Green. ISBN 978-0-524-01191-1.
  5. ^ Upadhyaya, Ganga Prasad. The Origin, Scope and Mission of the Arya Samaj. No. 4. Arya Samaj, 1954.
  6. ^ Sharma, Ram Nath; Sharma, Rajendra Kumar (2006). Problems of Education in India. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 978-81-7156-612-9.
  7. ^ Emergence of Arya Samaj in Punjab (1875).
  8. ^ Barrier, Norman G. (1967). "The Arya Samaj and Congress Politics in the Punjab, 1894-1908". The Journal of Asian Studies. 26 (3): 363–379. doi:10.2307/2051414. JSTOR 2051414. S2CID 154569230.
  9. ^ Nair N. Changing Homelands: Hindu Politics and the Partition of India. Permanent Black, New Delhi 2011. p. 53 ISBN 9780674057791.
  10. ^ "Punjab" Imperial Gazetteer of India 1909. vol. 20 p. 291. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
  11. ^ Rajivlochan M. Coping with Exclusions the Non-Political Way in Judge P. S. Mapping Social Exclusion in India: Caste, Religion and Borderlands Cambridge University Press 2014 pp. 82–83. ISBN 1107056098.
  12. ^ Kishwar M. (26 April 1986). "Arya Samaj and Women's Education: Kanya Mahavidyalaya, Jalandhar". Economic and Political Weekly. 21 (17): WS9–WS24. JSTOR 4375593.
  13. ^ Vertovec, Steven (2000). The Hindu Diaspora: Comparative Patterns. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-23893-9.
  14. ^ Rai L. L. The Arya Samaj: An Account of its Aims, Doctrine and Activities, with a Biographical Sketch of the Founder Longman, London 1915. ISBN 978-81-85047-77-5.
  15. ^ "Twitter hails Bhagat Singh on his 112th birth anniversary". Mid-day. 28 September 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
  16. ^ Kumar, Raj, ed. (2004). Essays on Social Reform Movements. New Delhi: Discovery Pub. House. pp. 2–4. ISBN 9788171417926.
  17. ^ Jaffrelot C. The Hindu Nationalist Movement and Indian Politics: 1925 to the 1990s. Penguin Books, New Delhi 1999. pp. 67 and 68. ISBN 9780140246025.
  18. ^ Kenneth W. Jones (1976). Arya Dharm: Hindu Consciousness in 19th-century Punjab. University of California Press. p. 148. ISBN 0-520-02920-8.
  19. ^ Kenneth W. Jones (1989). Socio-Religious Reform Movements in British India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 116–118. ISBN 9780521249867.
  20. ^ Jones, Kenneth W. (1973). "Ham Hindu Nahin: Arya-Sikh Relations, 1877-1905". The Journal of Asian Studies. 32 (3): 457–475. doi:10.2307/2052684. JSTOR 2052684. S2CID 163885354.
  21. ^ Entwistle, Alan W. (1982). The Rāsa Māna ke Pada of Kevalarāma: A Medieval Hindi Text of the Eighth Gaddī of the Vallabha Sect (PhD thesis). University of London School of Oriental and African Studies. p. 92.
  22. ^ Khan, Dominique-Sita; Boivin, Michel (2008). SINDH through History and Representations, Chapter 6 JHULELAL AND THE IDENTITY OF INDIAN SINDHIS (PDF). Oxford, England: Oxford University press. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-19-547503-6. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
  23. ^ Dhabhai, G., 2018. The Purusharthi Refugee. Economic & Political Weekly, 53(4), p.67[1].
  24. ^ Purifying the Nation, the Arya Samaj in Gujarat 1895–1930 Indian Economic and Social History Review 2000. 44:1 p. 41 – 65.
  25. ^ Thursby, Gene R. (1975). Hindu-Muslim Relations in British India: A Study of Controversy, Conflict, and Communal Movements in Northern India 1923-1928. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-04380-0.
  26. ^ Lucien D. Benichou (2000). From Autocracy to Integration: Political Developments in Hyderabad State, 1938–1948. Orient Blackswan. p. 79. ISBN 978-81-250-1847-6.
  27. ^ P. V. Kate (1987). Marathwada Under the Nizams, 1724–1948. Mittal Publications. pp. 51, 64–66. ISBN 978-81-7099-017-8.
  28. ^ Lucien D. Benichou (2000). From Autocracy to Integration: Political Developments in Hyderabad State, 1938-1948. Orient Blackswan. p. 79. ISBN 978-81-250-1847-6.
  29. ^ Lamba K. G. Dynamics of Punjabi Suba Movement Deep and Deep 1999. p. 90 ISBN 9788176291293 Accessed 3 February 2017.
  30. ^ Chopra R. Love Is The Ultimate Winner Partridge, India 2013. p. 9072. ISBN 9781482800050 Accessed 3 February 2017.
  31. ^ Grewal J. S. The Sikhs of the Punjab Cambridge University Press 1998. p. 187 ISBN 9780521637640 Accessed 3 February 2017.
  32. ^ Sharma S. C. Punjab, the Crucial Decade Atlantic 1987. p. 133.
  33. ^ Arya Samaj Arya Samaj website.
  34. ^ Adam, Michel (22 October 2015). Indian Africa: Minorities of Indian-Pakistani Origin in Eastern Africa. Mkuki na Nyota Publishers. p. 77. ISBN 978-9987-08-297-1.
  35. ^ Arya Samaj Queensland website. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
  36. ^ Ombongi K. S. Hindu Socio-Religious Organizations in Kenya: A Case Study of Arya Samaj, 1903–1978 University of Nairobi 1993.
  37. ^ Eisenlohr P. Little India: Diaspora, Time, and Ethnolinguistic Belonging in Hindu Mauritius University of California Press, Berkeley, California 2006. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-520-24879-3.
  38. ^ Adam, Michel (22 October 2015). Indian Africa: Minorities of Indian-Pakistani Origin in Eastern Africa. Mkuki na Nyota Publishers. p. 47. ISBN 978-9987-08-297-1.
  39. ^ Coward H. Hindus in Canada, the Third National Metropolis Conference Archived 30 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Centre of Excellence for Research on Immigration and Integration in the Metropolis 1999.
  40. ^ Arya Pratinidhi Sabha America Archived 31 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine Arya Samaj website. Retrieved 30 December 2013.
  41. ^ Kenneth W. Jones (1976). Arya Dharm: Hindu Consciousness in 19th-century Punjab. University of California Press. pp. 139–143. ISBN 978-0-520-02920-0.
  42. ^ "Arya Samaj in Hindu Dharma - VCC". vedicculturalcentre.com. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  43. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "10 Principles of Arya Samaj – English & Hindi". Arya Samaj India. 5 September 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
  44. ^ Naidoo, T. (1992). The Arya Samaj Movement in South Africa (First ed.). Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. pp. 30, 71. ISBN 978-81-208-0769-3.
  45. ^ Bhattacharyya, Sivaprasad (1987). Morgan, Kenneth W. (ed.). The Religion of the Hindus (Reprint. ed.). Delhi: M. Banarsidass. p. 199. ISBN 978-8120803879. Retrieved 26 July 2017.
  46. ^ a b Jones, Kenneth W. (1976). Arya Dharm: Hindu Consciousness in 19th-century Punjab. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02920-0.
  47. ^ Firth S. Dying, death and bereavement in a British Hindu community Peeters, Leuven 1997. p. 89. ISBN 9789068319767
  48. ^ Arya Dharm: Hindu Consciousness in 19th-century Punjab Paperback – 1 January 2006 Jones, Kenneth W. (1976). Arya Dharm : Hindu Consciousness in 19th-century Punjab. New Delhi: Manohar. p. 67. ISBN 978-8173047091.

Further reading

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  • Chamupati M. A. (2001) Ten Commandments of Arya Samaj New Delhi: D.A.V. Publications.
  • Jordens J. T. F. (1978) Dayanada Saraswati Oxford University Press, Delhi
  • Madhu Kishwar, "The Daughters of Aryavarta: Women in the Arya Samaj movement, Punjab." Chapter in Women in Colonial India; Essays on Survival, Work and the State, edited by J. Krishnamurthy, Oxford University Press, 1989.
  • Rai L. (1915) The Arya Samaj: an Account of its Aims, Doctrine and Activities, with a Biographical Sketch of the Founder D.A.V. College Managing Committee, New Delhi ISBN 978-81-85047-77-5.
  • Rai L. (1993) A History of the Arya Samaj New Delhi ISBN 81-215-0578-X.
  • Ruthven M. (2007) Fundamentalism: a Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-19-921270-5.
  • Sharma J. M. (1998) Swami Dayanand: a Biography USB, India ISBN 81-7476-212-4.
  • Sethi R. "Rashtra Pitamah Swami Dayanand Saraswati" M R Sethi Educational Trust, Chandigarh.
  • Upadhyaya G. P. (1954) The Origin, Scope and Mission of the Arya Samaj Arya Samaj.
  • Shastri V. (1967) The Arya Samaj Sarvadeshik Arya Pratinidhi Sabha.
  • Pandey D. (1972) The Arya Samaj and Indian Nationalism, 1875–1920 S. Chand.
  • Pandit S. (1975) A Critical Study of the Contribution of the Arya Samaj to Indian Education Sarvadeshik Arya, Pratinidhi Sabha.
  • Vedalanker N. and Somera M. (1975) Arya Samaj and Indians Abroad Sarvadeshik Arya Pratinidhi Sabha.
  • Vable D. (1983) The Arya Samaj: Hindu Without Hinduism VikasISBN 0-7069-2131-3.
  • Sharma S. K. (1985) Social Movements and Social Change: a Study of Arya Samaj and Untouchables in Punjab B.R. Publishing.
  • Yadav K. C. and Arya K. S. (1988) Arya Samaj and the Freedom Movement: 1875–1918 Manohar Publications. ISBN 81-85054-42-8.
  • Saxena G. S. (1990) Arya Samaj Movement in India, 1875–1947 Commonwealth Publishers. ISBN 81-7169-045-9.
  • Sethi R. (2009) Rashtra Pitamah, Swami Dayanand Saraswati M R Sethi Educational Trust, Chandigarh
  • Chopra R. M. (2009) Hinduism Today
  • Jamnager A. S. and Pandya D. Aryasamaj Ke Stambh A. S. Jamnager's website.
  • Jones K. Arya Dharm: Hindu Consciousness in 19th-Century Punjab
  • Dayananda, S., & Bharadwaja, C. (1932). Light of truth, or, An English translation of the Satyartha prakasha: The well-known work of Swami Dayananda Saraswati. Madras: Arya Samaj.
  • Swami Shraddhananda, . (1926). Hindu sangathan: Saviour of the dying race. Delhi: Shraddhananda.
  • Swami Śraddhānanda, . (1984). Inside the Congress: A collection of 26 articles. New Delhi: Dayanand Sansthan.
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