Bessemer is a city in Jefferson County, Alabama, United States and a southwestern suburb of Birmingham. The population was 26,019 at the 2020 census.[4] It is within the Birmingham-Hoover, AL Metropolitan Statistical Area, of which Jefferson County is the center. It developed rapidly as an industrial city in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Bessemer, Alabama | |
|---|---|
 Jefferson County Courthouse in Bessemer | |
 Flag  Seal | |
| Nickname: The Marvel City | |
 Location of Bessemer in Jefferson County, Alabama | |
| Coordinates: 33°24′2.03″N 86°57′33.08″W / 33.4005639°N 86.9591889°W | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Alabama |
| County | Jefferson |
| Incorporated | August 27, 1887[1] |
| Government | |
| • Mayor | Kenneth E. Gulley |
| Area | |
• Total | 40.74 sq mi (105.51 km2) |
| • Land | 40.53 sq mi (104.96 km2) |
| • Water | 0.21 sq mi (0.55 km2) |
| Elevation | 509 ft (155 m) |
| Population | |
• Total | 26,019 |
• Estimate (2022)[5] | 25,264 |
| • Density | 626.0/sq mi (241.7/km2) |
| Time zone | UTC–6 (Central (CST)) |
| • Summer (DST) | UTC–5 (CDT) |
| ZIP Codes | 35020, 35021, 35022, 35023, 35111 |
| Area code(s) | 205 and 659 |
| FIPS code | 01-05980 |
| GNIS feature ID | 2403864[3] |
| Sales tax | 10.0%[6] |
| Website | bessemeral.org |
History
editThe town was founded in the Reconstruction Era by the Bessemer Land and Improvement Company, named after Henry Bessemer and owned by coal magnate Henry F. DeBardeleben.[7] He had inherited Daniel Pratt's investments.[8] The mayor and councilmen voted to incorporate the city of Bessemer on September 9, 1887.[9] Located 16 miles southwest of Birmingham, Bessemer grew rapidly and its promoters believed that it might overtake the other city in economic power.
Given the iron ore, coal and limestone deposits in the area, the city became a center of steelmaking from about 1890 through the 20th century. It attracted rural migrants from across the South, as well as European immigrants. By the 1950s, the city was majority African American in population.[10]
The industry went through considerable restructuring in the late 20th century, and jobs moved out of the area. Steel is no longer made there.[citation needed]
In 2019, it was named Alabama's "Worst City to Live in" by 24/7 Wall Street.[11]
Geography
editBessemer is located approximately 16 miles (26 km) southwest of Birmingham.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 40.74 square miles (105.5 km2), of which 40.53 square miles (105.0 km2) is land and 0.55 square miles (1.4 km2) (0.55%) is water.[2]
Bessemer is situated in the midst of the iron ore and limestone district of Alabama, in the southern part of Jones Valley (about 3 miles (4.8 km) wide).[12] Iron ore was mined on the hills on the city's southeast side, coal was, and still is mined to the north and west, and limestone deposits were also nearby. All three ingredients were necessary for steelmaking, which led to the area becoming a major steel center from about 1890 through the twentieth century. Steel is no longer made within the city limits but is still manufactured in the neighboring city of Fairfield.
Climate
editThe climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. Bessemer has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps, within the Köppen Climate Classification system.[13]
| Climate data for Bessemer, Alabama (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1977–present) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °F (°C) | 79 (26) |
89 (32) |
90 (32) |
98 (37) |
102 (39) |
105 (41) |
108 (42) |
109 (43) |
103 (39) |
102 (39) |
90 (32) |
88 (31) |
109 (43) |
| Mean maximum °F (°C) | 72.4 (22.4) |
76.2 (24.6) |
82.4 (28.0) |
86.4 (30.2) |
91.9 (33.3) |
96.8 (36.0) |
98.1 (36.7) |
98.8 (37.1) |
95.6 (35.3) |
89.1 (31.7) |
80.3 (26.8) |
73.2 (22.9) |
100.2 (37.9) |
| Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 55.7 (13.2) |
60.6 (15.9) |
68.3 (20.2) |
76.0 (24.4) |
83.0 (28.3) |
89.1 (31.7) |
91.8 (33.2) |
91.7 (33.2) |
87.1 (30.6) |
77.1 (25.1) |
66.0 (18.9) |
57.9 (14.4) |
75.4 (24.1) |
| Daily mean °F (°C) | 44.8 (7.1) |
48.8 (9.3) |
55.8 (13.2) |
63.1 (17.3) |
71.2 (21.8) |
77.9 (25.5) |
81.2 (27.3) |
80.6 (27.0) |
75.4 (24.1) |
64.8 (18.2) |
53.8 (12.1) |
47.3 (8.5) |
63.7 (17.6) |
| Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 33.8 (1.0) |
37.0 (2.8) |
43.3 (6.3) |
50.1 (10.1) |
59.4 (15.2) |
66.7 (19.3) |
70.5 (21.4) |
69.6 (20.9) |
63.8 (17.7) |
52.6 (11.4) |
41.5 (5.3) |
36.7 (2.6) |
52.1 (11.2) |
| Mean minimum °F (°C) | 15.7 (−9.1) |
19.7 (−6.8) |
25.2 (−3.8) |
33.5 (0.8) |
43.5 (6.4) |
55.0 (12.8) |
61.4 (16.3) |
59.6 (15.3) |
47.9 (8.8) |
34.3 (1.3) |
24.4 (−4.2) |
20.8 (−6.2) |
13.5 (−10.3) |
| Record low °F (°C) | −6 (−21) |
3 (−16) |
6 (−14) |
15 (−9) |
36 (2) |
43 (6) |
52 (11) |
47 (8) |
37 (3) |
21 (−6) |
16 (−9) |
−1 (−18) |
−6 (−21) |
| Average precipitation inches (mm) | 5.40 (137) |
5.38 (137) |
5.42 (138) |
5.11 (130) |
4.55 (116) |
4.53 (115) |
4.76 (121) |
3.98 (101) |
3.45 (88) |
3.26 (83) |
4.45 (113) |
5.20 (132) |
55.49 (1,409) |
| Average snowfall inches (cm) | 0.4 (1.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.7 (1.8) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.1 (0.25) |
1.2 (3.0) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) | 10.4 | 10.7 | 10.9 | 9.3 | 8.5 | 10.5 | 10.9 | 9.9 | 6.4 | 6.7 | 8.2 | 10.8 | 113.2 |
| Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in) | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.2 |
| Source: NOAA[14][15] | |||||||||||||
Demographics
edit| Census | Pop. | Note | %± |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1890 | 4,544 | — | |
| 1900 | 6,358 | 39.9% | |
| 1910 | 10,864 | 70.9% | |
| 1920 | 18,674 | 71.9% | |
| 1930 | 20,721 | 11.0% | |
| 1940 | 22,826 | 10.2% | |
| 1950 | 28,445 | 24.6% | |
| 1960 | 33,054 | 16.2% | |
| 1970 | 33,663 | 1.8% | |
| 1980 | 31,729 | −5.7% | |
| 1990 | 33,497 | 5.6% | |
| 2000 | 29,672 | −11.4% | |
| 2010 | 27,456 | −7.5% | |
| 2020 | 26,019 | −5.2% | |
| 2022 (est.) | 25,264 | [5] | −2.9% |
| U.S. Decennial Census[16] 2020 Census[4] | |||
2020 census
edit| Race | Number | Percent |
|---|---|---|
| White (non-Hispanic) | 4,877 | 18.74% |
| Black or African American (non-Hispanic) | 18,107 | 69.59% |
| Native American | 48 | 0.18% |
| Asian | 68 | 0.26% |
| Pacific Islander | 5 | 0.02% |
| Other/Mixed | 609 | 2.34% |
| Hispanic or Latino | 2,305 | 8.86% |
As of the 2020 census, there were 26,019 people, 10,492 households, and 6,378 families residing in the city.
2013 ACS
editIn the 2013 American Community Survey, there were 27,336 people living in the city. 72.0% were African American, 24.0% White, 0.1% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.1% from some other race and 0.4% from two or more races. 3.2% were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
2000 census
editAs of the 2000 census, there were 29,672 people, 11,537 households, and 7,868 families living in the city. The population density was 729.0 inhabitants per square mile (281.5/km2). There were 12,790 housing units, with an average density of 314.2 per square mile (121.3/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 69.6% Black or African American, 28.9% White, 0.3% Native American, 0.2% Asian, <0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.3% from other races, and 0.7% from two or more races. 1.1% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 11,537 households, out of which 30.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.6% were married couples living together, 29.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.8% were non-families. 29.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.12.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.8% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 26.1% from 25 to 44, 21.1% from 45 to 64, and 16.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 82.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75.8 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $23,066, and the median income for a family was $28,230. Males had a median income of $29,413 versus $21,552 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,232. About 24.2% of families and 27.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 37.8% of those under age 18 and 24.7% of those age 65 or over.
Economy
edit
In 1900, Bessemer ranked eighth in the population in Alabama, second in the amount of capital invested in manufacturing, and fourth in the value of its manufactured product for the year. By 1911, ore mining, iron smelting, and the manufacture of iron and coke were the chief industries of Bessemer. Truck farming was an important industry, dating from the area's agricultural past.[citation needed]
Both blacks and whites from rural areas were attracted to the city for its new work opportunities. Gradually African Americans moved into industrial jobs and became part of integrated unions. Such jobs enabled many working-class families to enjoy middle-class incomes.[citation needed]
Today, ore mining has ended, as supplies were exhausted. Manufacturing remains a factor, with the U.S. Pipe and Foundry ductile pipe plant on the city's north side. In May 2007, U.S. Pipe announced that it would be building a new $45-million foundry near the current plant. The site was selected, among other reasons, for having available space for potential future expansions. U.S. Pipe is the largest domestic producer of Ductile Iron pipe in sizes 4 inch through 64 inch.[19]
Bessemer was once home to a large railroad car manufacturing factory, operated by Pullman Standard for many decades and later by Trinity Industries. With railroad restructuring in the late 20th century and other manufacturing moving offshore, this plant ceased most production in the 1990s. In 2012, BLOX LLC (bloxbuilt.com) a manufacturer of modular components for healthcare facilities moved into this facility.[citation needed]
The decline of mining and exodus of the steelmaking and railcar manufacturing industries resulted in extensive loss of jobs. Bessemer has lost population since a peak population in 1970. It faced an economic crisis in the early to mid-1980s, as unemployed workers constituted more than one-third of the workforce. Since that time the city has been successful in diversifying its economy, through the efforts of the Bessemer Area Chamber of Commerce and the Bessemer Industrial Development Board. It is recognized for its business growth. In June 2018, Amazon announced that it would build a new 800,000 square feet (74,000 m2), $325 million fulfillment center in Bessemer, which will initially create 1,500 new jobs.[20]
Crime
edit| Bessemer | |
|---|---|
| Crime rates* (2022) | |
| Violent crimes | |
| Homicide | 10 |
| Rape | 17 |
| Robbery | 76 |
| Aggravated assault | 366 |
| Total violent crime | 469 |
| Property crimes | |
| Burglary | 221 |
| Larceny-theft | 1,542 |
| Motor vehicle theft | 286 |
| Arson | 8 |
| Total property crime | 2,057 |
Notes *Number of reported crimes per 100,000 population. 2022 population: 25,264 Source: 2022 FBI UCR Data | |
According to the Uniform Crime Report statistics compiled by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 2022, there were 469 violent crimes and 2,057 property crimes per 100,000 residents. Of these, the violent crimes consisted of 10 murders, 17 forcible rapes, 76 robberies and 366 aggravated assaults, while 221 burglaries, 1,542 larceny-thefts, 286 motor vehicle thefts and 8 acts of arson defined the property offenses.
According to NeighborhoodScout, Bessemer ranks first in terms of violent crimes for U.S. cities with 25,000 or more people as of 2019.[21]
Arts and culture
editThe performance center Bessemer Civic Center provides multiple performance spaces for music and theatre.[22]
Government
editBessemer uses the mayor–city council form of government. The council has seven members, elected from single-member districts. As of 2016, Kenneth Gulley is mayor, a position elected at-large.[23] He was first elected in 2010 and reelected to a second term in 2014.[24]
A satellite Jefferson County Courthouse is located in downtown Bessemer. There is a special county government district, known as the "Bessemer Cutoff", which was established in the middle of the 20th century when Bessemer was a major city in its own right. A separate county government was considered a possibility, but there was not sufficient land area to meet legislative requirements for a county. The "Cutoff" had a separate series of Alabama license plates, with a different numeric prefix than the rest of the county.
Bessemer has since been surpassed in size by Birmingham suburbs such as Hoover, Vestavia Hills, and Homewood. But Bessemer retains the branch county courthouse to this day. The term "Bessemer Cutoff" continues to be used regularly by area residents.
The United States Postal Service operates the Bessemer Post Office.[25]
The state Alabama Department of Corrections operates the William E. Donaldson Correctional Facility, a prison for men, in unincorporated Jefferson County, Alabama, near Bessemer. The prison includes one of the two Alabama death rows for men.[26]
Education
editPublic schools
editBessemer has its own school system independent of Jefferson County schools, Bessemer City School District.[27] The system includes:
- Hard Elementary
- Jonesboro Elementary
- Greenwood Elementary
- Abrams Elementary
- Westhills Elementary
- Bessemer City Middle
- Bessemer City High School (formally Jess Lanier)
The Board of Education also operates the Quitman Mitchell Opportunity Center, which includes an adult learning center, Even Start child care center, and New Horizon Alternative School.
Private schools
editK–12 private schools in the Bessemer include Rock Christian School and Bessemer Academy, which was founded as a segregation academy.[28]
Community college
editLawson State Community College operates the former Bessemer Technical College campus. The two schools merged in 2005 as a cost-saving measure.
Media
editThe Western Star is a weekly newspaper which covers Bessemer and nearby communities.
The Birmingham News is published three days per week, and also publishes a weekly section devoted to news from Bessemer and nearby communities.[citation needed]
One radio station, WZGX (1450 AM), operates within the city; it broadcasts some Spanish-language programming and music to appeal to the growing Mexican-American population of Jefferson County. It also continues a tradition of broadcasting high school football games on Friday nights. All of metro Birmingham's stations are heard in Bessemer, as well as several stations broadcasting from Tuscaloosa.[citation needed]
Television station WDBB (channel 17) is licensed to Bessemer, but broadcasts from studios in Birmingham, simulcasting with WTTO (channel 21). All of Birmingham's television stations may be viewed in Bessemer, and some have established news bureaus there.[citation needed]
Infrastructure
edit.jpg)
Transportation
editIn 1911, the town was served by five railroad lines: Alabama Great Southern (Queen & Crescent route), the Louisville & Nashville Railroad, the Kansas City, Memphis & Birmingham (St. Louis & San Francisco Railroad system), the Birmingham Southern Railroad, and the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic railways. Passenger service decreased after people started choosing to travel by automobiles, increasingly so after World War II. In addition, there was widespread restructuring in the railroad industry that also applied to freight lines.[citation needed]
By 2006, the companies listed above had consolidated into CSX Transportation, which has lines to Birmingham and Brookwood, and the Norfolk Southern Railway, with lines to Birmingham, Mobile and New Orleans. Birmingham Southern continues in service. A major railroad feature is the "High Line", constructed by Tennessee Coal & Iron (predecessor to U.S. Steel) to ship iron ore from the mines on the city's south side to the steel works in nearby Fairfield. This elevated line traverses the eastern side of the city. Though tracks were removed over much of the High Line when the mines closed, part of the line is still used by the Birmingham Southern. All of the roadbed and bridges remain in place.[citation needed]
Transit service in Bessemer is provided by Birmingham-Jefferson County Transit Authority, which operates Max Transit bus service.[29]
Bessemer is served by the small Bessemer Airport to the southeast of the city. Commercial service in the region is provided by the much larger Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport, located 5 miles (8.0 km) north of downtown Birmingham, about 21 miles away in total.[citation needed]
Major highways in Bessemer include I-20/59, I-459, U.S. Route 11, and State Route 150, which connects Bessemer with Hoover.[citation needed]
Notable people
edit- David Bonnett, NASCAR driver
- Neil Bonnett, NASCAR driver[30]
- McKinley Boykin, professional football player[31]
- Alex Bradford, composer, singer, arranger, and choir director[32]
- Mildred Brown, journalist[33]
- David L. DeJarnette, archaeologist, generally considered the "Father of Alabama Archaeology"
- Thornton Dial, African-American folk artist[34]
- Nelsan Ellis, actor and playwright[35]
- Anthony Henton, former NFL linebacker
- Mike Hill, Broadcaster, ESPN/Fox Sports and other national outlets
- Virginia Hill, actress, mob courier and girlfriend of Bugsy Siegel[citation needed]
- Andre Holland, actor
- Frank House, born in Bessemer, major league baseball player[36]
- Bo Jackson, Heisman Trophy winner, NFL and MLB player[37]
- Lamar Johnson, former MLB first baseman
- Eddie LeVert, singer
- Gucci Mane, rapper
- Reese McCall, former NFL tight end[38]
- David McCampbell, naval aviator, Medal of Honor recipient, and the US Navy's all-time leading ace with 34 aerial victories during World War II.
- Edward McClain, Alabama state legislator
- Deborah E. McDowell, English professor and author of a 1997 memoir of life in Bessemer, Leaving Pipe Shop[39]
- Elijah Nevett, NFL player[40]
- Kerry Rhodes, NFL player[41]
- Curtis Rowe, professional basketball player
- DeMeco Ryans, NFL player and head coach[42]
- Glenn Shadix, born in Bessemer, actor
- John Paul Thomas, artist, educator and scholar; born in Bessemer
- Ontario Tillman, member of the Alabama House of Representatives born in Bessemer and resident
- Olanda Truitt, NFL player[43]
- Larry Watkins, former NFL running back
- Jack Whitten, abstract painter[44]
- Andre Williams, singer and producer[45]
- Gran Wilson, opera singer
- Rod Windsor, NFL player[46]
- Jameis Winston, Heisman Trophy winner, quarterback for the Cleveland Browns
Notable animal
edit- Matilda (chicken), Guinness World Record holder
See also
edit
- SS Bessemer Victory – World War II cargo ship named for Bessemer
- Bessemer union drive - unionization movement of workers at Amazon
References
edit- ^ "Municipalities of Alabama Incorporation Dates" (PDF). Alabama League of Municipalities. Retrieved January 25, 2024.
- ^ a b "2023 U.S. Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved July 24, 2022.
- ^ a b U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Bessemer, Alabama
- ^ a b c "Explore Census Data". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 25, 2024.
- ^ a b "City and Town Population Totals: 2020-2022". United States Census Bureau. January 25, 2024. Retrieved January 25, 2024.
- ^ "Bessemer (AL) sales tax rate". Retrieved January 25, 2024.
- ^ "The City of Bessemer – The Marvel City". Retrieved August 27, 2020.
- ^ Alabama Men's Hall of Fame: Henry Fairchild DeBardeleben Archived July 22, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, Samford University
- ^ "Bessemer", Encyclopedia of Alabama
- ^ S. Jonathan Bass, He Calls Me By Lightning: The Life of Caliph Washington and the Forgotten Saga of Jim Crow, Southern Justice, and the Death Penalty, Liveright Publishing, 2017
- ^ Stebbins, Samuel. "Worst City to Live in Every State". 24/7 Wall Street. Retrieved July 24, 2019.
- ^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bessemer". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 823.
- ^ Climate Summary for Bessemer, Alabama
- ^ "NowData – NOAA Online Weather Data". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved June 7, 2021.
- ^ "Station: Bessemer 3 WSW, AL". U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991-2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved June 7, 2021.
- ^ United States Census Bureau. "Census of Population and Housing". Retrieved August 8, 2013.
- ^ "Explore Census Data". data.census.gov. Retrieved December 11, 2021.
- ^ Swagler, Susan (October 11, 2017). "The Bright Star, Alabama's oldest restaurant, still shines". Alabama Newscenter.
- ^ "Restrained Joint Ductile Iron Pipe and Fittings" (PDF). U.S. Pipe. Retrieved March 29, 2024.
- ^ Edgemon, Erin (June 22, 2018). "'The deal is done:' Amazon to bring 1,500 jobs to Bessemer". al.com. Advance Local Media LLC. Retrieved June 23, 2018.
- ^ Schiller, Andrew. "Top 100 Most Dangerous Cities in the U.S." Neighborhood Scout. Location Inc. Archived from the original on February 15, 2019. Retrieved February 27, 2019.
- ^ "Civic Center – The City of Bessemer". Retrieved June 24, 2022.
- ^ Jesse Chambers, "Bessemer Mayor Kenneth Gulley talks about the state of his city", Al.com, February 8, 2013, updated February 15, 2013
- ^ "Mayor's Office" Archived February 6, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, Bessemer, Alabama
- ^ "Post Office Location – Bessemer Archived December 1, 2010, at the Wayback Machine." United States Postal Service. Retrieved on October 8, 2010.
- ^ "Donaldson Correctional Facility Archived March 18, 2010, at the Wayback Machine." Alabama Department of Corrections. Retrieved on October 8, 2010.
- ^ "2020 CENSUS - SCHOOL DISTRICT REFERENCE MAP: Jefferson County, AL" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. Retrieved July 31, 2022. - Text list
- ^ Smith, Patrick. "The Rebel Made Me Do It: Mascots, Race, and the Lost Cause". Retrieved May 5, 2021.
- ^ "Max Transit". Retrieved November 10, 2024.
- ^ "Neil Bonnett". Racing Reference.info. Retrieved March 27, 2013.
- ^ "McKinley Boykin". NFL.com. Retrieved November 26, 2013.
- ^ "Alex Bradford". Rovi Corp. Retrieved March 27, 2013.
- ^ "Mildred Brown". M.D.B.M. Study Cente. Archived from the original on February 1, 2011. Retrieved March 27, 2013.
- ^ "Thornton Dial". Public Radio International. Retrieved March 27, 2013.
- ^ "Nelsan Ellis". A+E Television Networks, LLC. Archived from the original on August 8, 2013. Retrieved March 27, 2013.
- ^ Reichler, Joseph L., ed. (1979) [1969]. The Baseball Encyclopedia (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishing. ISBN 0-02-578970-8.
- ^ "Bo Jackson". databaseFootball.com. Archived from the original on March 14, 2013. Retrieved March 25, 2013.
- ^ "Reese McCall Stats, News and Video - TE". NFL.com.
- ^ "Deborah E. McDowell". University of Virginia. Archived from the original on February 9, 1999. Retrieved March 27, 2013.
- ^ "Elijah Nevett". Pro-Football Reference. Retrieved March 27, 2013.
- ^ "Kerry Rhodes". Learnboost.com. Archived from the original on March 26, 2013. Retrieved March 27, 2013.
- ^ "DeMeco Ryans". Philadelphia Eagles. Archived from the original on January 24, 2013. Retrieved March 27, 2013.
- ^ "Olanda Truitt". NFL Enterprises LLC. Retrieved March 27, 2013.
- ^ "Jack Whitten". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved March 27, 2013.
- ^ "Andre Williams". Michigan Rock and Roll Legends. Retrieved October 2, 2021.
- ^ "Rod Windsor". Cleveland Browns. Archived from the original on March 13, 2013. Retrieved March 27, 2013.
External links
edit
