This is an incomplete list that refers to those who were part of the Young Turk movement in the Ottoman Empire. This revolutionary and progressive[1][2] movement consisted of several factions, with the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) at its forefront. Despite the name Young Turks, followers were diverse in their religious and ethnic origins,[3][4][5] and some were not from the Ottoman Empire. Aside from Turks, members and supporters were mostly Albanians, Circassians, Kurds, Armenians, Greeks, Jews, and Arabs.[6][7][8][9]
Jewish and Arab members of Ottoman society were among the most active and radical in late Ottoman politics, which could be an explanation for their disproportionally large presence in the movement.[10] British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire Sir Gerard Lowther referred to the CUP as an 'Albanian business' and the 'Jew Committee of Union and Progress' to highlight the ethnic diversity of the Young Turks and the political activeness of ethnic minorities within the movement.[11][12]
Other majority non-Muslim ethnicities that had a considerable presence in, or a support base for, the Young Turk movement included, but were not limited to: Aromanians,[13] Germans,[14] Hungarians,[15] Poles,[16] and Serbs.[17]
List of notable members
editThis is a list of 86 noteworthy members of the Young Turks movement. It is not an exhaustive list, and is therefore subject to additions.
| Portrait | Name | Birth date and place | Death date and place | Occupation(s) | Ethnic origin(s) | Other name(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Abdülhalik Renda | November 29, 1881 Yanya, Janina vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
October 1, 1957 (aged 75) Erenköy, Kadıköy, Istanbul, Turkey |
Acting President of Turkey Speaker of the Grand National Assembly Minister of Finance Minister of Defense |
Tosk Albanian | |
|
Abdullah Cevdet | September 9, 1869 Arapgir, Malatya, Ottoman Empire |
November 29, 1932 (aged 63) Istanbul, Turkey |
One of the founders of the CUP Ophthalmologist |
Kurdish | |
|
Abdyl Ypi | 1876 Kolonjë, Janina vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
January 15, 1920 (aged 43–44) Durrës, Albania |
One of the initiators of the Congress of Lushnjë Politician |
Albanian | |
|
Agop Babikyan | 1856 Edirne, Adrianople vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
August 1, 1909 (aged 52–53) Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
Jurist Politician |
Armenian | |
| Agop Boyacıyan | 1854 Tekirdağ, Adrianople eyalet, Ottoman Empire |
Jurist Politician |
Armenian | |||
|
Ahmed Niyazi Bey | 1873 Resne, Ottoman Empire |
1913 (aged 39–40) Vlorë, Albania |
Bey Adjutant Major (kolağası) |
Tosk Albanian | |
|
Ahmet Emin Yalman | 1888 Selanik, Salonica vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
December 19, 1972 (aged 83–84) Istanbul, Turkey |
Journalist Writer Academic |
Jewish | |
|
Ahmet Rüstem Bey | April 18, 1862 Lesbos, Eyalet of the Archipelago, Ottoman Empire |
September 24, 1934 (aged 72) Istanbul, Turkey |
Last Ottoman ambassador to the United States | Polish–British | Alfred Bilinski |
|
Ahmet Rıza | 1858 Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
February 26, 1930 (aged 71–72) Istanbul, Turkey |
Key early leader of the CUP Politician Educator |
Hungarian–Turk | |
|
Alexander Parvus | September 8, 1867 Byerazino, Russian Empire |
December 12, 1924 (aged 57) Berlin, Weimar Republic |
Political and financial advisor of the Young Turks Marxist theoretician Publicist Activist |
Lithuanian Jew | Israel Lazarevich Gelfand, Helphand |
|
Ali bey Huseynzade | February 24, 1864 Salyan, Russian Empire |
March 17, 1940 (aged 76) Istanbul, Turkey |
One of the founders of the CUP Creator of the modern flag of Azerbaijan Philosopher Doctor Writer Artist |
Azerbaijani | |
|
Ali Münif Yeğenağa | 1874 Adana, Adana vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
January 4, 1951 (aged 76–77) Adana, Turkey |
Minister of Education | Turkish | |
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|
Artin Boşgezenyan | 1861 Gaziantep, Aintab Sanjak, Ottoman Empire |
1923 (aged 61–62) Aleppo, State of Aleppo |
Politician | Armenian | Artin Boshgezenian |
|
Atıf Kamçıl | 1880 Çanakkale, Adrianople vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
January 21, 1947 (aged 66–67) Istanbul, Turkey |
Politician | Turkish | |
|
Avram Galanti | January 4, 1873 Bodrum, Aidin vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
August 8, 1961 (aged 88) Istanbul, Turkey |
Politician Scholar Historian |
Jewish | Abraham Galante |
|
Ayetullah Bey | 1888 Kadıköy, Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
March 16, 1918 (aged 29–30) Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
Founder and second president of the major Turkish multi-sport club Fenerbahçe SK | Circassian | Anzawurıqo Şəwqiqo Ayetulah-biy |
|
Aziz Feyzi Pirinççizâde | 1878 Diyarbakır, Diyarbekir vilayet Ottoman Empire |
February 17, 1933 (aged 54–55) Turkey |
Politician | Kurdish | |
| Babanzade Ahmed Naim | 1872 Baghdad, Baghdad vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
August 13, 1934 (aged 61–62) Istanbul, Turkey |
Politician Philosopher |
Kurdish | ||
|
Bahaeddin Şakir | 1874 Sliven, Adrianople vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
April 17, 1922 (aged 47–48) Berlin, Weimar Republic |
Politician Writer |
Turkish | |
|
Bedros Hallaçyan | 1871 Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
Paris, France | Politician | Armenian | |
|
Bekir Fikri | 1882 Çorhlu, Ottoman Empire |
December 21, 1914 (aged 31–32) Sarıkamış, Kars, Ottoman Empire |
Lieutenant colonel (Binbaşı) | Albanian–Turk | Beqir Grebeneja |
|
Black Musa | 1880 Crete, Ottoman Empire |
1919 (aged 38–39) Üsküdar, Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
Secret police in the Special Organization of the Ottoman Empire Volunteer soldier |
Sudanese | Zenci Musa |
|
Celal Nuri İleri | August 15, 1881 Gelibolu, Sanjak of Gelibolu, Ottoman Empire |
November 1, 1938 (aged 57) Istanbul, Turkey |
Important figure in the transition from a constitutional monarchy to a Republic Politician Writer |
Albanian | |
|
Chaim Nahum | 1872 Manisa, Aidin vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
1960 (aged 87–88) Cairo, Egypt |
Last Grand Rabbi of the Ottoman Empire Scholar Jurist Linguist |
Jewish | Haim Nahum |
| Cherkes Ahmet | Serres, Salonica vilayet, Ottoman Empire | September 6, 1915 Damascus, Syria vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
Paramilitary leader | Circassian | Çerkes Ahmet | |
|
Çerkes Ethem | 1886 Bandırma, Hüdavendigâr vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
September 21, 1948 (aged 61–62) Amman, Jordan |
Founder of the Kuva-yi Seyyare Social bandit Efe Soldier |
Circassian | Ethem the Circassian |
|
Çerkes Reşit | 1887 Karacabey, Hüdavendigâr vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
September 10, 1951 (aged 63–64) Bursa, Turkey |
Member of Parliament | Circassian | |
| Çerkes Tevfik | Soldier | Circassian | ||||
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|
David Yellin | March 19, 1864 Jerusalem, Jerusalem Sanjak, Damascus Eyalet, Ottoman Empire |
December 12, 1941 (aged 77) Jerusalem, Mandatory Palestine |
Central in the process of the revival of the Hebrew language Researcher of the Hebrew language and literature One of the leaders of the Yishuv Founder of the first Hebrew College for Teachers One of the founders of the Hebrew Language Committee and the Israel Teachers Union Founder of the Zikhron Moshe neighborhood of Jerusalem Politician |
Jewish | |
.jpg)
|
Dervish Hima | 1872 Struga, Manastir vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
April 13, 1928 (aged 55–56) Tirana, Albania |
One of the delegates who participated at the Albanian Declaration of Independence Politician |
Albanian | Ibrahim Mehmet Naxhi |
|
Despina Storch | 1894 or 1895 Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
March 30, 1918 (aged 23–24) Ellis Island, Jersey City and New York City, United States |
Spy | Greek | Despina Davidovitch, Baroness de Bellville, Madame Hesketh, Madame Nezie |
|
Djemal Pasha | May 6, 1872 Midilli, Vilayet of the Archipelago, Ottoman Empire |
July 21, 1922 (aged 50) Tbilisi, Georgian SSR, Soviet Union |
One of the Three Pashas Military leader |
Turkish | Cemal Paşa, Ahmed Djemal |
| Djevdet Bey | 1878 İşkodra, Scutari vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
January 15, 1955 (aged 76–77) Istanbul, Turkey |
One of the leaders of the CUP Governor of the Van vilayet during World War I |
Albanian | Tahir Cevdet Belbez, Djevdet Tahir Belbez, Jevdet Bey | |
|
Doctor Nazım | 1872 Selanik, Salonica vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
July 26, 1926 (aged 53–54) Ankara, Turkey |
Founding member of the CUP Physician Politician |
Jewish–Turk | Selanikli Mehmed Nâzım Bey |
|
Emmanouil Emmanouilidis | 1867 Tavlusun, Melikgazi, Angora vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
1943 (aged 75–76) Athens, Greece |
Jurist Politician |
Greek | |
|
Emmanuel Carasso | 1862 Selanik, Sanjak of Salonica, Salonica Eyalet, Ottoman Empire |
1934 (aged 71–72) Trieste, Kingdom of Italy |
Lawyer | Jewish | Emanuel Karasu |
|
Enver Pasha | November 22, 1881 Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
August 4, 1922 (aged 40) Bukharan People's Soviet Republic, Soviet Union |
One of the Three Pashas Military officer |
Albanian–Tatar | İsmail Enver |
.jpg)
|
Ernst Jackh | February 22, 1875 Bad Urach, Kingdom of Württemberg |
August 17, 1959 (aged 84) New York City, United States |
Diplomat Author Journalist Professor |
German | Ernst Friedrich Wilhelm Jäckh |
.jpg)
|
Essad Pasha Toptani | 1863/1864 or 1875 Tirana, Scutari vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
June 13, 1920 (aged 44–57) Paris, France |
Prime Minister of Albania Albanian deputy in the Ottoman Parliament |
Albanian | Esad Pashë Toptani |
|
Eyüp Sabri Akgöl | 1876 Ohrid, Manastir vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
August 16, 1950 (aged 87–88) Istanbul, Turkey |
One of the leaders of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution Soldier Politician |
Albanian | Ohrili Eyüp Sabri, Ejup Sabriu |
|
Ferhat Bey Draga | 1880 Mitroviça, Ottoman Empire |
December 2, 1944 (aged 63–64) Kralan, Gjakova, Yugoslavia |
Politician | Albanian | |
|
Filip Mișea | 1873 Chroupista, Ottoman Empire |
May 16, 1944 (aged 70–71) | Activist Physician Politician |
Aromanian | Filip Mişa, Filip Mise Efendi |
.jpg)
|
Friedrich Naumann | March 25, 1860 Störmthal, German Confederation |
August 24, 1919 (aged 59) Leipzig, Weimar Republic |
Theologian Politician |
German | Joseph Friedrich Naumann |
|
Gregorios Anagnostu | 1881 Grevena, Ottoman Empire |
Lawyer Politician |
Greek | ||
.jpg)
|
Gyula Germanus | November 6, 1884 Budapest, Austria-Hungary |
November 7, 1979 (aged 95) Budapest, Hungary |
Islamologist Professor Writer Soldier Politician |
German–Jew | Julius Abdulkerim Germanus |
| Hacı Sait Efendi | 1859 Süleymaniye, Baghdad vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
Politician | Iraqi | |||
|
Halil Menteşe | 1874 Milas, Aidin Eyalet, Ottoman Empire |
April 2, 1948 (aged 73–74) Milas, Turkey |
Official in the CUP | Turkish | |
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|
Hasan Prishtina | September 27, 1873 Vıçıtırın, Kosovo vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
August 13, 1933 (aged 59) Thessaloniki, Greece |
Prime Minister of Albania | Albanian | Hasan Berisha |
|
Hasan Tahsin | 1888 Selanik, Salonica vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
May 15, 1919 (aged 30–31) İzmir, Aidin vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
Turkish war hero Member of the Ottoman Special Organization Journalist |
Jewish | Osman Nevres |
|
Hristo Chernopeev | July 16, 1868 Dermantsi, Danube vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
November 6, 1915 (aged 47) Krivolak, Kingdom of Serbia |
Among the leaders of the Bulgarian People's Macedonian-Adrianople Revolutionary Organization Army officer |
Macedonian–Bulgarian | |
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|
Ibrahim Temo | March 22, 1865 Struga, Manastir vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
August 5, 1945 (aged 80) Medgidia, Kingdom of Romania |
Main founder of the CUP Politician Intellectual Doctor |
Albanian | Ibrahim Ethem Sojliu, Ibrahim Bërzeshta, Ibrahim Starova |
|
İshak Sükuti | 1868 Diyarbakır, Diyarbekir vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
February 9, 1902 (aged 33–34) Sanremo, Kingdom of Italy |
Writer Doctor |
Kurdish | |
|
Kâmil Bey el-Esad | 1870 Marjayoun, Ottoman Lebanon, Ottoman Empire |
1924 (aged 53–54) Marjayoun, Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, France |
Politician | Lebanese | |
|
Kirkor Sinapyan | Ottoman Empire | 1951 Turkey |
Politician | Armenian | |
|
Mahmud Shevket Pasha | 1856 Baghdad, Baghdad Eyalet, Ottoman Empire |
June 11, 1913 (aged 56–57) Ankara, Turkey |
Instrumental figure in the rise of the Young Turks Generalissimo |
Georgian | |
|
Mehmed Cavid | 1875 Selanik, Salonica vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
August 26, 1926 (aged 50–51) Ankara, Turkey |
Founding member of the CUP Economist Newspaper editor |
Jewish | |
| Mehmed Fevzi Paşa | 1859 Damascus, Damascus eyalet, Ottoman Empire |
Politician | Lebanese | |||
|
Mehmed Reshid | February 8, 1873 Russian Empire |
February 6, 1919 (aged 45) Istanbul, Turkey |
Official in the CUP Economist Governor of Diyarbekir vilayet during World War I Physician |
Circassian | Mehmed Raşid Şahingiray |
|
Mehmet Akif Ersoy | December 20, 1873 Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
December 27, 1936 (aged 63) Istanbul, Turkey |
Author of the Turkish National Anthem Poet Writer Academic Politician |
Albanian–Uzbek | Mehmed Ragîf |
| Mişon Ventura | 1881 Hasköy, Pera, Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
April 12, 1961 (aged 79–80) Istanbul, Turkey |
Jurist Journalist |
Jewish | ||
|
Munis Tekinalp | 1883 Serres, Salonica vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
1961 (aged 77–78) Nice, France |
Writer Philosopher Journalist |
Jewish | Moiz Cohen |
| Nesim Mazliyah | 1878 Manisa, Aidin vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
September 16, 1931 (aged 52–53) Beirut, Lebanon |
Politician | Jewish | ||
|
Nexhip Draga | 1867 Mitroviça, Ottoman Empire |
1920 (aged 52–53) Vienna, Austria |
Important figure of the Albanian National Awakening Politician |
Albanian | Mehmet Nexhip bey Draga, Mehmed Necib Draga |
|
Nicolae Constantin Batzaria | November 20, 1874 Kruševo, Manastir vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
January 28, 1952 (aged 77) Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania |
Statesman Cultural activist Writer |
Aromanian | Nikola Konstantin Basarya |
| Nuri Killigil | 1889 Manastır, Manastir vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
March 2, 1949 (aged 59–60) Sütlüce, Istanbul, Turkey |
General | Albanian | ||
|
Osman Hamdi Bey | December 30, 1842 Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
February 24, 1910 (aged 67) Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
Founding father of both archaeology and the museum curator's professions in Turkey Administrator Intellectual Painter Writer |
Greek | |
|
Pavlos Karolidis | 1849 Kayseri, Angora eyalet, Ottoman Empire |
July 26, 1930 (aged 80–81) Athens, Greece |
Historian Politician |
Greek | Pavli Karolidi |
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|
Prenk Bib Doda | 1860 Orosh, Mirditë, Ottoman Empire |
March 22, 1919 (aged 58–59) Bregu i Matit, Lezhë, Principality of Albania |
Prince of Mirdita Politician in the Principality of Albania |
Albanian | Prênk Pasha |
|
Rafael de Nogales | October 14, 1877 San Cristóbal, Venezuela |
July 10, 1937 (aged 59) Panama City, Panama |
Soldier Adventurer Writer |
Venezuelan | Rafael Inchauspe Méndez |
|
Rexhep Pasha Mati | 1842 Mat, Ottoman Empire |
August 14, 1908 (aged 65–66) Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
Marshal Governor War minister |
Albanian | Matlı Recep Paşa |
|
Ruhi Khalidi | 1864 Jerusalem, Jerusalem sanjak, Damascus eyalet, Ottoman Empire |
1913 (aged 48–49) Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
Politician Writer Teacher |
Palestinian | Ruhi el-Halidi Bey |
|
Said Halim Pasha | January 18 or 28, 1865 or February 19, 1864 Cairo, Egypt Eyalet, Ottoman Empire |
December 6, 1921 (aged 56) Rome, Kingdom of Italy |
Grand Vizier General Secretary of the CUP |
Albanian | |
|
Selma Rıza | February 5, 1872 Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
October 5, 1931 (aged 59) Istanbul, Turkey |
Journalist Novelist |
Hungarian–Turk | |
|
Sassoon Eskell | March 17, 1860 Baghdad, Baghdad vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
August 31, 1932 (aged 72) Paris, France |
Father of the Parliament of Iraq Statesman |
Baghdadi Jew | Ezekiyel Sason |
| Shlomo Yellin | 1854 Ottoman Empire |
1912 (aged 57–58) Ottoman Empire |
Lawyer | Jewish | ||
|
Simon Deutsch | 1822 Vienna, Austrian Empire |
March 24, 1877 (aged 54–55) Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
Businessman Bibliographer |
Czech Jew | |
|
Spiro Ristiç | 1879 Kalkandelen, Ottoman Empire |
November 11, 1938 (aged 58–59) Skopje, Kingdom of Yugoslavia |
Mayor of Skopje Politician |
Serbian | Spiro Hadzi Ristić |
|
Süleyman Askerî | 1884 Prizren, Kosovo Vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
April 14, 1915 (aged 30–31) Berjisiya, Basra Vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
Co founder of the Teşkilât-ı Mahsusa Soldier |
Circassian | |
|
Talaat Pasha | September 1, 1874 Kardzhali, Adrianople vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
March 15, 1921 (aged 46) Berlin, Weimar Republic |
One of the Three Pashas | Romani–Pomak | Mehmed Talaat |
| Tevfik Nazif Arıcan | 1883 Prizren, Kosovo vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
February 20, 1951 (aged 67–68) | Politician | Albanian | ||
|
Thadée Gasztowtt | June 8, 1881 Paris, France |
January 22, 1936 (aged 54) Istanbul, Turkey |
Unofficial representative of Polish émigrés Diplomat Historian Journalist |
Polish–Lithuanian | Tadeusz Seyfeddin Gasztowtt |
|
Ubeydullah Bey | 1858 İzmir, Aidin eyalet, Ottoman Empire |
1937 (aged 78–79) Istanbul, Turkey |
Politician | Turkish | Mehmet Ubeydullah Hatipoğlu |
| Vitali Hayim Faraci | May 13, 1854 Serres, Salonica vilayet, Ottoman Empire |
December 5, 1918 (aged 64) Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
Politician | Italian Jew | ||
|
Yane Sandanski | May 18, 1872 Vlahi, Ottoman Empire |
April 22, 1915 (aged 42) Blatata, near Pirin, Tsardom of Bulgaria |
National hero in Bulgaria and North Macedonia | Macedonian–Bulgarian | |
|
Yusuf Akçura | December 2, 1876 Ulyanovsk, Russian Empire |
March 11, 1935 (aged 58) Istanbul, Turkey |
One of the leading university professors in Istanbul Politician Writer |
Tatar | Yosıf Xəsən uğlı Aqçurin, Yusuf Hasanovich Akchurin |
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|
Yusuf Şetvan | 1868 Istanbul, Ottoman Empire |
April 14, 1949 (aged 80–81) Istanbul, Turkey |
Politician | Arab |
Citations
edit- ^ Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (2008). A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 186. ISBN 9780691146171. JSTOR j.ctt7t314.
- ^ Demonian, Hripsimé (1996). The Sick Men of Europe. Gyumri: Shirak State University. p. 11.
- ^ Worringer, Renée (May 2004). ""Sick Man of Europe" or "Japan of the near East"?: Constructing Ottoman Modernity in the Hamidian and Young Turk Eras". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 36 (2). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 210. JSTOR 3880032.
- ^ Bein, Amit (30 October 2007). "A "Young Turk" Islamic Intellectual: Filibeli Ahmed Hilmi and the Diverse Intellectual Legacies of the Late Ottoman Empire". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 39 (4). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 608. JSTOR 30069490.
- ^ Ergil, Doğu [in Turkish] (30 October 2007). "A Reassessment: The Young Turks, Their Politics and Anti-Colonial Struggle". Balkan Studies. 16 (2). Thessaloniki: University of Macedonia: 26.
- ^ Zürcher, Erik J. (2010). The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atatürk's Turkey. London: I.B. Tauris. pp. 110–111.
- ^ Shaw, Stanford J. (27 July 2016). The Jews of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic. Springer Publishing. p. 238.
- ^ Kechriotis, Vangelis (August 2004). "From Trauma to Self-Reflection: Greek Historiography Meets the Young Turks 'Bizarre' Revolution". Turkology Update Leiden Project. Leiden: Leiden University: 1. doi:10.25673/103715.
- ^ Braude & Lewis 2014, pp. 200, 403.
- ^ Hanssen, Jens (February 2011). ""Malhamé—Malfamé": Levantine Elites and Transimperial Networks on the Eve of the Young Turk Revolution". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 43 (1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 32–33. doi:10.1017/S0020743810001182.
- ^ Kedourie, Elie (1971). "Young Turks, Freemasons and Jews". Middle Eastern Studies. 7 (1). Taylor & Francis: 90–91. JSTOR 4282360.
- ^ Braude & Lewis 2014, p. 425.
- ^ Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (2001). Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks, 1902-1908. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 259. ISBN 9780199771110.
- ^ Tamari, Salim (2011). "Shifting Ottoman Conceptions of Palestine: Part 1: Filistin Risalesi and the two Jamals". Jerusalem Quarterly (47). Institute for Palestine Studies: 32.
- ^ Tiryaki, Rüştü Murat (14 September 2022). "Freemasonry's political and diplomatic entanglements in the last phase of Ottoman history: the peculiar case of the Committee of Union and Progress". Middle Eastern Studies. 59 (3). Taylor & Francis: 427–428. doi:10.1080/00263206.2022.2109147. hdl:11693/111641.
- ^ Dominik, Paulina D. (2017). Pour la réforme de la justice ottomane: Count Leon Walerian Ostroróg (1867–1932) and His Activities in the Final Decades of the Ottoman Empire (PDF). Slavia Meridionalis (PhD). Vol. 17. Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences. pp. 2, 15. doi:10.11649/sm.1441.
- ^ Zürcher, Erik J. (October 1999). "Kosovo Revisited: Sultan Reşad's Macedonian Journey of June 1911". Middle Eastern Studies. 35 (4). Taylor & Francis: 34. JSTOR 4284038.
References
edit- Braude, Benjamin; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (2014). Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire. Lynne Rienner Publishers.