Pitjantjatjara (/pɪtʃəntʃəˈtʃɑːrə/;[3] Pitjantjatjara: [ˈpɪɟanɟaɟaɾa] or [ˈpɪɟanɟaɾa])[4] is a dialect of the Western Desert language traditionally spoken by the Pitjantjatjara people of Central Australia. It is mutually intelligible with other varieties of the Western Desert language, and is particularly closely related to the Yankunytjatjara dialect. The names for the two groups are based on their respective words for 'come/go.'[5]
| Pitjantjatjara | |
|---|---|
| Pronunciation | [ˈpɪɟanɟaɟaɾa] [ˈpɪɟanɟaɾa] |
| Native to | Australia |
| Region | Northwest South Australia, Pitjantjatjara freehold lands, Yalata; southwest corner, Northern Territory; also in Western Australia |
| Ethnicity | Pitjantjatjara |
Native speakers | 3,458 (2021 census)[1] |
Pama–Nyungan
| |
| Latin | |
| Official status | |
Official language in |  Aṉangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | pjt |
| Glottolog | pitj1243 |
| AIATSIS[2] | C6 |
| ELP | Pitjantjatjara |
Pitjantjatjara is a relatively healthy Aboriginal language, with children learning it. It is taught in some Aboriginal schools. The literacy rate for first language speakers is 50–70%; and is 10–15% for second-language learners. There is a Pitjantjatjara dictionary, and the New Testament of the Bible has been translated into the language, a project started at the Ernabella Mission in the early 1940s and completed in 2002. Work continues on the Old Testament.
History since European settlement
editThe Ernabella Mission was established by Charles Duguid and the Presbyterian Church of Australia in 1937 at the location now known as Pukatja, supported by the South Australian government. The Mission aimed to keep the language and culture alive, with the missionaries learning the language themselves and teaching it in the school as well as delivering sermons in it. This meant that the language became a written language for the first time, and the people became literate in their own language before English.[6][7]
Bible translations
editThe first draft of the New Testament's Gospel of Mark, Tjukurpa Palja Markaku, was completed in 1945 by Reverend Bob Love and Ronald Trudinger at the Mission, and was published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1949.[8] Work continued over the next 20 years, with publication of a shorter New Testament in 1969 by the Bible Society Australia. Pitjantjatjara Bible Translation Project, incorporated in 1981, completed a new translation of the New Testament and about 15% of the Old Testament, first published in 2002. In 2011 a new project to translate the rest of the OT was initiated, as of 2019[update] working on various OT books.[9] 21st-century Bible Society missionary and local teacher since 1973, Paul Eckert, has worked with elders on the project for many years.[8] The Book of Daniel was published in 2015, and the Pitjantjatjara version of the New Testament is available online.[9]
In 2017 members of the Pitjantjatjara Bible Translation Project and partners began a multi-voice recording of the Pitjantjatjara New Testament, with 50% completed by 2017.[9]
Government policies
editAPY lands schools taught a bilingual curriculum until the late 1980s, when the programs were defunded, and teaching reverted to English only. In December 2018 it was announced that the South Australian Government would commit to teaching in the Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara languages, with English as an additional language, by 2029.[10]
Loan words
editPitjantjatjara includes several loan words from other languages, predominantly from English.[11]
Some older loan words are derived from other Indigenous languages and from English, while newer loan words are almost entirely borrowed from English.
Like other Indigenous languages, some older loan words that are still commonly used in Pitjantjatjara derive from English terms that are now uncommon or obsolete. For example, while the English word motorcar has now almost entirely been replaced by the shortened form of the word, car, the Pitjantjatjara word mutuka (derived from "motorcar") is still used as the Pitjantjatjara word for "car".[12] Similarly, the words for "car" in most other Aboriginal languages (as well as in some other languages, such as Fijian and Māori) are borrowed from "motorcar".
Code-switching
editLike in many Indigenous languages, code-switching is common in Pitjantjatjara, especially among younger people. For example, among schoolchildren, the predominant language used in the classroom and on the playground is English, though Pitjantjatjara is occasionally used in both settings (more so the latter than the former). Furthermore, swearing and abuse is almost entirely done in English, while storytelling is virtually always in Pitjantjatjara.[12]
Outside school and business, Pitjantjatjara speakers use both Pitjantjatjara and English interchangeably, and the two languages are sometimes mixed together. This includes both in their local communities and whilst they are on holidays.[12]
Below is an example of code-switching in Pitjantjatjara, taken from a conversation among a group of teenagers playing a game of Monopoly:[12]
- "$500 uwa tjiintjimila ntjaku."
- ("A $500 note please, to change.")
- "Change?!" "You're rich!"
- "Riintaṉa paimila-ṉi tiṯutjarangku."
- ("I'm always the one that has to pay the rent.")
Teenage Pitjantjatjara
editTeenage Pitjantjatjara is a distinct variety of Pitjantjatjara spoken by younger Pitjantjatjara people.[12]
The main differences between Standard Pitjantjatjara and Teenage Pitjantjatjara are in vocabulary and pronunciation. A much greater proportion of Teenage Pitjantjatjara vocabulary is derived from English, with some English loan words being used instead of some traditional terms. A common example of this is the usage of "and" in Teenage Pitjantjatjara.[12]
Furthermore, Teenage Pitjantjatjara loan words are often pronounced more like the original English word, even if this involves using the sound from a letter that does not traditionally exist in Pitjantjatjara, such as B, D, O, S and V. However, the letter C is never used.[12]
Phonology and orthography
editThere are slightly different standardised spellings used in the Northern Territory and Western Australia compared to South Australia, for example with the first two writing ⟨w⟩ between ⟨a⟩ and ⟨u⟩ combinations and a ⟨y⟩ between ⟨a⟩ and ⟨i⟩, which SA does not use.
Pitjantjatjara has the following consonant inventory, orthography shown in brackets:[13]
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | p~b ⟨p⟩ | t~d ⟨t⟩ | ʈ~ɖ ⟨ṯ⟩ | c~ɟ ⟨tj⟩ | k~ɡ ⟨k⟩ |
| Nasal | m ⟨m⟩ | n ⟨n⟩ | ɳ ⟨ṉ⟩ | ɲ ⟨ny⟩ | ŋ ⟨ng⟩ |
| Lateral | l ⟨l⟩ | ɭ ⟨ḻ⟩ | ʎ ⟨ly⟩ | ||
| Rhotic | r~ɾ ⟨r⟩ | ɻ ⟨ṟ⟩[14] | |||
| Approximant | j ⟨y⟩ | w ⟨w⟩ |
Pitjantjatjara has three vowels:[15]
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | ɪ ⟨i⟩ ɪː ⟨ii⟩ | ʊ ⟨u⟩ ʊː ⟨uu⟩ | |
| Open | ɐ ⟨a⟩ ɐː ⟨aa⟩ |
Pitjantjatjara vowels have a length contrast, indicated by writing them doubled. A colon ⟨:⟩ used to be sometimes used to indicate long vowels: ⟨a:⟩, ⟨i:⟩, ⟨u:⟩.
Pitjantjatjara orthography includes the following underlined letters, which can be either ordinary letters with underline formatting, or Unicode characters which include a line below:
| Uppercase | Lowercase |
|---|---|
| U+1E3A Ḻ LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L WITH LINE BELOW | U+1E3B ḻ LATIN SMALL LETTER L WITH LINE BELOW |
| U+1E48 Ṉ LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N WITH LINE BELOW | U+1E49 ṉ LATIN SMALL LETTER N WITH LINE BELOW |
| U+1E5E Ṟ LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R WITH LINE BELOW | U+1E5F ṟ LATIN SMALL LETTER R WITH LINE BELOW |
| U+1E6E Ṯ LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T WITH LINE BELOW | U+1E6F ṯ LATIN SMALL LETTER T WITH LINE BELOW |
The underline represents that the consonant in question is retroflex, rather than alveolar.
The only word in Pitjantjatjara that uses at least one letter absent from the Pitjantjatjara alphabet is the word Jesu ("Jesus"),[16] which uses the letter ⟨s⟩ which is not present in the Pitjantjatjara alphabet. Furthermore, the letter ⟨j⟩ is only present in the digraph ⟨tj⟩.
Grammar
editSome features distinctive to the Pitjantjatjara dialect, as opposed to other Western Desert Language dialects, include -pa endings to words that simply end in a consonant in other dialects (this is reflective of a general aversion in Pitjantjatjara to words ending with a consonant), and a reluctance to have y at the beginning of words.
Nouns and noun phrases
editPitjantjatjara uses case marking to show the role of nouns within the clause as subject, object, location, etc. Pitjantjatjara is a language with split ergativity, since its nouns and pronouns show different case marking patterns.[17]
Consider the following example, where the subject of a transitive verb is marked with the ergative case and the object with the absolutive case:[18]
Minyma-ngku
woman.ERG
tjitji
child.ABS
nya-ngu.
see.PAST
'The woman saw the child.'
It can be contrasted with the following sentence with an intransitive verb, where the subject takes the absolutive case:
Tjitji
child.ABS
a-nu.
go.PAST
'The child went.'
In contrast to the ergative-absolutive pattern that applies to nouns, pronouns show a nominative-accusative pattern. Consider the following examples, with pronoun subjects:[19]
Ngayu-lu
I.NOM
tjitji
child.ABS
nya-ngu.
see.PAST
'I saw the child.'
Ngayu-lu
I.NOM
a-nu.
go.PAST
'I went.'
Verbs and verb phrases
editPitjantjatjara verbs inflect for tense. Pitjantjatjara has four different classes of verbs, each of which takes slightly different endings (the classes are named according to their imperative suffixes): ∅-class verbs, la-class verbs, wa-class verbs, and ra-class verbs. See page on grammatical conjugation for examples.
Derivational morphology
editIt also has systematic ways of changing words from one part of speech to another: making nouns from verbs, and vice versa. However, words formed may have slightly different meanings that cannot be guessed from the pattern alone.
Vocabulary
editBelow is a basic vocabulary list from Blake (1981).[20]
English Pitjantjatjara man wati woman minyma mother nguntyu father mama head kata eye kuru nose mulya ear pina mouth tyaa tongue tyarliny tooth kartirti hand mara breast ipi, mimi stomach tyuni urine kumpu faeces kuna thigh tyunta foot tyina bone tarka blood yirrami dog papa snake nyinngi kangaroo marlu possum wayurta fish antipina spider impu mosquito kiwinyi emu tyakipirri eaglehawk warlawurru crow kaarnka sun tyirntu moon kityirli star pirntirri stone yapu water kapi camp ngurra fire waru smoke puyu food mirka meat kuka stand ngarra- sit nyina- see nya- go pitya- get mantyi- hit, kill pu- I ngayulu you nyuntulu one kutyu two kutyarra
Word of the Year 2019 short-listing
editThe Pitjantjatjara word ngangkari, added to the Macquarie Dictionary in 2019 and defined as an Indigenous practitioner of bush medicine, was short-listed for the 2019 Word of the Year.[21]
Technical support
editLibreOffice provides locale data and a spellchecker for Pitjantjatjara.[22]
Notes
edit- ^ "SBS Australian Census Explorer". Retrieved 9 January 2023.
- ^ C6 Pitjantjatjara at the Australian Indigenous Languages Database, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
- ^ Bauer (2007).
- ^ Through a process of haplology, the name Pitjantjatjara is usually pronounced (in normal, fast speech) with one of the repeated syllables -tja- deleted, thus: pitjantjara. In slow, careful speech all syllables will be pronounced (Goddard 1985:?).
- ^ Goddard (1996), p. ?.
- ^ Pybus, Carol (2015). ""We Grew up this Place": Ernabella Mission 1937-1974" (PDF). The Journal of the European Association for Studies of Australia. 6 (1). Retrieved 11 July 2019.
- ^ Edwards, W. H. "Duguid, Charles (1884 - 1986)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. Originally published in Volume 17 of the ADB (Melbourne University Press, 2007, pp. 338-340). Canberra: National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. ISBN 978-0-522-84459-7. ISSN 1833-7538. OCLC 70677943. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
- ^ a b Guilliatt, Richard (7 September 2013). "How a Bible translation is preserving the Pitjantjatjara language". The Australian. Retrieved 12 July 2019.
- ^ a b c Tjukurpa Palya (PITJ). Retrieved 12 July 2019.
- ^ Richards, Stephanie (11 December 2018). "State Govt commits to bilingual education in APY Lands". InDaily. Retrieved 12 July 2019.
- ^ "Working at the interface between Aboriginal languages, Aboriginal Englishes, and Standard Australian English" (PDF). dlb.sa.edu.au. 2019. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 November 2023.
- ^ a b c d e f g https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/160609389.pdf [bare URL PDF]
- ^ Tabain & Butcher (2014), pp. 190–191.
- ^ ⟨ṟ⟩ is written as ⟨r⟩ at the start of words since words may not begin with /r/. In some versions of the orthography, /r/ is written ⟨rr⟩, and /ɻ/ is written ⟨r⟩.
- ^ Tabain & Butcher (2014), pp. 194–195.
- ^ Tjukurpa Palya (Pitjantjatjara Bible)
- ^ Bowe (1990), pp. 9–12.
- ^ Bowe (1990), pp. 10.
- ^ Bowe (1990), p. 11.
- ^ Blake, Barry J. (1981). Australian Aboriginal languages: a general introduction. London: Angus & Robertson Publishers. ISBN 0-207-14044-8.
- ^ Petelin, Roslyn (2 December 2019). "Cancel culture, cleanskin, hedonometer … I'm not sure I like any of Macquarie Dictionary's words of the year". Retrieved 3 December 2019.
- ^ "Software-update: LibreOffice 3.6.0 bèta 1". Tweakers.net. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
References
edit- Bauer, Laurie (2007), The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 978-0748631605
- Bowe, Heather (1990), Categories, Constituents, and Constituent Order in Pitjantjatjara, An Aboriginal Language of Australia, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-05694-2
- Goddard, Cliff (1985), A Grammar of Yankunytjatjara, Institute for Aboriginal Development Press, ISBN 0-949659-32-0
- Goddard, Cliff (1996), Pitjantjatjara/Yankunytjatjara to English Dictionary, Alice Springs: IAD Press, ISBN 0-949659-91-6
- Issacs, Jennifer (1980), Australian Dreaming: 40,000 Years of Aboriginal History, Sydney: Lansdowne Press, ISBN 0-7018-1330-X, OCLC 6578832
- Rose, David (2001), The Western Desert Code: an Australian cryptogrammar, Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, ISBN 085883-437-5
- Tabain, Marija; Butcher, Andrew (2014), "Pitjantjatjara", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 44 (2): 189–200, doi:10.1017/s0025100314000073
Further reading
edit- "Anangu Language" (PDF). Fact Sheet: Ulur u-Kata Tjuta National Park. Parks Australia.
- Langlois, Annie (2004). Alive and Kicking: Areyonga Teenage Pitjantjatjara, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. ISBN 0-85883-546-0
- "Pitjantjatjara". Omniglot: The online encyclopaedia of writing systems and languages.
- Pybus, Carol (2015). ""We Grew up this Place": Ernabella Mission 1937-1974" (PDF). The Journal of the European Association for Studies of Australia. 6 (1). Retrieved 11 July 2019.
- Tabain, Marija; Butcher, Andrew (2015), "Stop Bursts in Pitjantjatjara", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (2): 149–176, doi:10.1017/s0025100315000110, S2CID 152007671
- Trudinger, David (2007). "The language(s) of love: JRB love and contesting tongues at Ernabella Mission Station, 1940-46" (PDF). Aboriginal History. 31: 27–44.
- "Western Desert Special Speech Styles Project". Endangered Languages Archive, SOAS.
