Wikipedia

Pogrom

For the racehorse, see Pogrom (horse). For the volcano in the Aleutian Islands, see Pogromni Volcano.

A pogrom[a] is a violent riot incited with the aim of massacring or expelling an ethnic or religious group, particularly Jews.[1] The term entered the English language from Russian to describe 19th- and 20th-century attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire (mostly within the Pale of Settlement). Retrospectively, similar attacks against Jews which occurred in other times and places also became known as pogroms.[2] Sometimes the word is used to describe publicly sanctioned purgative attacks against non-Jewish groups. The characteristics of a pogrom vary widely, depending on the specific incident, at times leading to, or culminating in, massacres.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9]

Pogrom
Plundering the Judengasse, a Jewish ghetto in Frankfurt, on 22 August 1614
TargetPredominantly Jews
Additionally other ethnic groups

Significant pogroms in the Russian Empire included the Odessa pogroms, Warsaw pogrom (1881), Kishinev pogrom (1903), Kiev pogrom (1905), and Białystok pogrom (1906). After the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917, several pogroms occurred amidst the power struggles in Eastern Europe, including the Lwów pogrom (1918) and Kiev pogroms (1919). The most significant pogrom which occurred in Nazi Germany was the 1938 Kristallnacht. At least 91 Jews were killed, a further thirty thousand arrested and subsequently incarcerated in concentration camps,[10] a thousand synagogues burned, and over seven thousand Jewish businesses destroyed or damaged.[11][12] Notorious pogroms of World War II included the 1941 Farhud in Iraq, the July 1941 Iași pogrom in Romania – in which over 13,200 Jews were killed – as well as the Jedwabne pogrom in German-occupied Poland. Post-World War II pogroms included the 1945 Tripoli pogrom, the 1946 Kielce pogrom, the 1947 Aleppo pogrom, and the 1955 Istanbul pogrom.

This type of violence has also occurred to other ethnic and religious minorities. Examples include the 1984 Sikh massacre in which 3,000 Sikhs were killed[13] and the 2002 Gujarat pogrom against Indian Muslims.[14]

In 2008, two attacks in the Occupied West Bank by Israeli Jewish settlers on Palestinian Arabs were labeled as pogroms by then-Prime Minister Ehud Olmert.[15] The Huwara pogrom was a common name[clarification needed] for the 2023 Israeli settler attack on the Palestinian town of Huwara in February 2023.[undue weight? – discuss] In 2023, a Wall Street Journal editorial referred to the 2023 Hamas attack on Israel as a pogrom.[16]

The word pogrom

An early reference to a "pogrom" in The Times of London, December 1903. Together with The New York Times and the Hearst press, they took the lead in highlighting the pogrom in Kishinev (now Chişinău, Moldova) and other cities in Russia.[17] In May of the same year, The Times' Russian correspondent Dudley Disraeli Braham had been expelled from Russia.[18]
Main article: Definitions of pogrom

Etymology

First recorded in English in 1882, the Russian word pogróm (погро́м, pronounced [pɐˈɡrom]) is derived from the common prefix po- (по-) and the verb gromít' (громи́ть, [ɡrɐˈmʲitʲ]) meaning 'to destroy, wreak havoc, demolish violently'. The noun pogrom, which has a relatively short history, is used in English and many other languages as a loanword, possibly borrowed from Yiddish (where the word takes the form פאָגראָם).[19] Its modern widespread circulation began with the antisemitic violence in the Russian Empire in 1881–1883.[20]

Usage of the word

 
The 1921 Tulsa race massacre, which destroyed the wealthiest black community in the United States, has been described as a pogrom.[21]

According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "the term is usually applied to attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, [and] the first extensive pogroms followed the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881".[1] The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789 states that pogroms "were antisemitic disturbances that periodically occurred within the tsarist empire."[3] However, the term is widely used to refer to many events which occurred prior to the Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire. Historian of Russian Jewry John Klier writes in Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882: "By the twentieth century, the word 'pogrom' had become a generic term in English for all forms of collective violence directed against Jews."[4] Abramson points out that "in mainstream usage the word has come to imply an act of antisemitism", since while "Jews have not been the only group to suffer under this phenomenon ... historically Jews have been frequent victims of such violence."[22]

The term is also used in reference to attacks on non-Jewish ethnic minorities, and accordingly, some scholars do not include antisemitism as the defining characteristic of pogroms. Reviewing the word's uses in scholarly literature, historian Werner Bergmann proposes that a pogrom should be "defined as a unilateral, nongovernmental form of collective violence that is initiated by the majority population against a largely defenseless minority ethnic group, and occurring when the majority expect the state to provide them [sic] with no assistance in overcoming a (perceived) threat from the minority".[5] However, Bergmann adds that in Western usage, the word's "anti-Semitic overtones" have been retained.[20] Historian David Engel supports this view, writing that while "there can be no logically or empirically compelling grounds for declaring that some particular episode does or does not merit the label [pogrom]," the majority of the incidents which are "habitually" described as pogroms took place in societies that were significantly divided by ethnicity and/or religion where the violence was committed by members of the higher-ranking group against members of a stereotyped lower-ranking group with which they expressed some complaint, and where the members of the higher-ranking group justified their acts of violence by claiming that the law of the land would not be used to prevent the alleged complaint.[6]

There is no universally accepted set of characteristics which define the term pogrom.[6][23] Klier writes that "when applied indiscriminately to events in Eastern Europe, the term can be misleading, the more so when it implies that 'pogroms' were regular events in the region and that they always shared common features."[4] Use of the term pogrom to refer to events in 1918–19 in Polish cities (including the Kielce pogrom, the Pinsk massacre and the Lwów pogrom) was specifically avoided in the 1919 Morgenthau Report; the word "excesses" was employed instead because the authors argued that the use of the term "pogrom" required a situation to be antisemitic rather than political in nature, which meant that it was inapplicable to the conditions which exist in a war zone.[6][24][25] Media use of the term pogrom to refer to the 1991 Crown Heights riot caused public controversy.[26][27][28] In 2008, two separate attacks in the West Bank by Israeli Jewish settlers on Palestinian Arabs were characterized as pogroms by then Prime Minister of Israel Ehud Olmert.[15][29]

Werner Bergmann suggests that all such incidents have a particularly unifying characteristic: "By the collective attribution of a threat, the pogrom differs from other forms of violence, such as lynchings, which are directed at individual members of a minority group, while the imbalance of power in favor of the rioters distinguishes pogroms from other forms of riots (food riots, race riots or 'communal riots' between evenly matched groups); and again, the low level of organization separates them from vigilantism, terrorism, massacre and genocide".[5]

History of anti-Jewish pogroms

 
The Hep-Hep riots in Würzburg, 1819. On the left, two peasant women are assaulting a Jewish man with a pitchfork and a broom. On the right, a man wearing spectacles, tails and a six-button waistcoat, "perhaps a pharmacist or a schoolteacher,"[30] holds a Jewish man by the throat and is about to club him with a truncheon. The houses are being looted. A contemporary engraving by Johann Michael Voltz.

The first recorded anti-Jewish riots took place in Alexandria in the year 38 CE, followed by the more known riot of 66 CE. Other notable events took place in Europe during the Middle Ages. Jewish communities were targeted in 1189 and 1190 in England and throughout Europe during the Crusades and the Black Death of 1348–1350, including in Toulon, Erfurt, Basel, Aragon, Flanders[31][32] and Strasbourg.[33] Some 510 Jewish communities were destroyed during this period,[34] extending further to the Brussels massacre of 1370. On Holy Saturday of 1389, a pogrom began in Prague that led to the burning of the Jewish quarter, the killing of many Jews, and the suicide of many Jews trapped in the main synagogue; the number of dead was estimated at 400–500 men, women and children.[35] Attacks against Jews also took place in Barcelona and other Spanish cities during the massacre of 1391.

The brutal murders of Jews and Poles occurred during the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648–1657 in present-day Ukraine.[36] Modern historians give estimates of the scale of the murders by Khmelnytsky's Cossacks ranging between 40,000 and 100,000 men, women and children,[b][c] or perhaps many more.[d]

The outbreak of violence against Jews (Hep-Hep riots) occurred at the beginning of the 19th century in reaction to Jewish emancipation in the German Confederation.[37]

Pogroms in the Russian Empire

 
Victims of a pogrom in Kishinev, Bessarabia, 1903
Further information: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

The Russian Empire, which previously had very few Jews, acquired territories in the Russian Partition that contained large Jewish populations, during the military partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795.[38] In conquered territories, a new political entity called the Pale of Settlement was formed in 1791 by Catherine the Great. Most Jews from the former Commonwealth were allowed to reside only within the Pale, including families expelled by royal decree from St. Petersburg, Moscow and other large Russian cities.[39] The 1821 Odessa pogroms marked the beginning of the 19th century pogroms in Tsarist Russia; there were four more such pogroms in Odessa before the end of the century.[40] Following the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 by Narodnaya Volya, anti-Jewish events turned into a wave of over 200 pogroms by their modern definition, which lasted for several years.[41] Jewish self-governing Kehillah were abolished by Tsar Nicholas I in 1844.[42]

There is some disagreement about the level of planning from the Tsarist authorities and the motives for the attacks.[43]

The first in 20th-century Russia was the Kishinev pogrom of 1903 in which 49 Jews were killed, hundreds wounded, 700 homes destroyed and 600 businesses pillaged.[44] In the same year, pogroms took place in Gomel (Belarus), Smela, Feodosiya and Melitopol (Ukraine). Extreme savagery was typified by mutilations of the wounded.[45] They were followed by the Zhitomir pogrom (with 29 killed),[46] and the Kiev pogrom of October 1905 resulting in a massacre of approximately 100 Jews.[47] In three years between 1903 and 1906, about 660 pogroms were recorded in Ukraine and Bessarabia; half a dozen more in Belorussia, carried out with the Russian government's complicity, but no anti-Jewish pogroms were recorded in Poland.[45] At about that time, the Jewish Labor Bund began organizing armed self-defense units ready to shoot back, and the pogroms subsided for a number of years.[47] According to professor Colin Tatz, between 1881 and 1920 there were 1,326 pogroms in Ukraine (see: Southwestern Krai parts of the Pale) which took the lives of 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews, leaving half a million homeless.[48][49] This violence across Eastern Europe prompted a wave of Jewish migration westward that totaled about 2.5 million people.[50]

Eastern Europe after World War I

 
Map of pogroms in Ukraine between 1918 and 1920 per casualties
Further information: Pogroms of the Russian Civil War

Large-scale pogroms, which began in the Russian Empire several decades earlier, intensified during the period of the Russian Civil War in the aftermath of World War I. Professor Zvi Gitelman (A Century of Ambivalence) estimated that only in 1918–1919 over 1,200 pogroms took place in Ukraine, thus amounting to the greatest slaughter of Jews in Eastern Europe since 1648.[51]

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn in his book Two Hundred Years Together provided additional statistics from research conducted by Nahum Gergel (1887–1931). Gergel counted 1,236 incidents of anti-Jewish violence and estimated that 887 mass pogroms occurred, the remainder being classified as "excesses" not assuming mass proportions.[49][52] The Kiev pogroms of 1919, according to Gitelman, were the first of a subsequent wave of pogroms in which between 30,000 and 70,000 Jews were massacred across Ukraine; although more recent assessments put the Jewish death toll at more than 100,000.[53][54] Of all the pogroms accounted for in Gergel's research:

  • About 40 percent were perpetrated by the Ukrainian People's Republic forces led by Symon Petliura. The Republic issued orders condemning pogroms,[55] but lacked authority to intervene.[55] After May 1919 the Directory lost its role as a credible governing body; almost 75 percent of pogroms occurred between May and September of that year.[56] Thousands of Jews were killed only for being Jewish, without any political affiliations.[49]
  • 25 percent by the Ukrainian Green Army and various Ukrainian nationalist gangs,
  • 17 percent by the White Army, especially the forces of Anton Denikin,
  • 8.5 percent of Gergel's total was attributed to pogroms carried out by men of the Red Army (more specifically Semyon Budenny's First Cavalry, most of whose soldiers had previously served under Denikin).[52] These pogroms were not, however, sanctioned by the Bolshevik leadership; the high command "vigorously condemned these pogroms and disarmed the guilty regiments", and the pogroms would soon be condemned by Mikhail Kalinin in a speech made at a military parade in Ukraine.[52][57][58]

Gergel's overall figures, which are generally considered conservative, are based on the testimony of witnesses and newspaper reports collected by the Mizrakh-Yidish Historiche Arkhiv which was first based in Kiev, then Berlin and later New York. The English version of Gergel's article was published in 1951 in the YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science titled "The Pogroms in the Ukraine in 1918–1921".[59]

On 8 August 1919, during the Polish–Soviet War, Polish troops took over Minsk in Operation Minsk. They killed 31 Jews suspected of supporting the Bolshevist movement, beat and attacked many more, looted 377 Jewish-owned shops (aided by the local civilians) and ransacked many private homes.[60][61] The "Morgenthau's report of October 1919 stated that there is no question that some of the Jewish leaders exaggerated these evils."[62][63] According to Elissa Bemporad, the "violence endured by the Jewish population under the Poles encouraged popular support for the Red Army, as Jewish public opinion welcomed the establishment of the Belorussian SSR."[64]

After the First World War, during the localized armed conflicts of independence, 72 Jews were killed and 443 injured in the 1918 Lwów pogrom.[65][66][67][68][69] The following year, pogroms were reported by the New York Tribune in several cities in the newly established Second Polish Republic.[70]

Pogroms in Europe and the Americas before World War II

Argentina 1919

In 1919, a pogrom occurred in Argentina, during the Tragic Week.[71] It had an added element, as it was called to attack Jews and Catalans indiscriminately. The reasons are not clear, especially considering that, in the case of Buenos Aires, the Catalan colony, established mainly in the neighborhood of Montserrat, came from the foundation of the city, but could have been the result of the influence of Spanish nationalism, which at the time described Catalans as a Semitic ethnicity.[72]

Britain and Ireland

 
A massacre of Armenians and Assyrians in the city of Adana, Ottoman Empire, April 1909

In the early 20th century, pogroms broke out elsewhere in the world as well. In 1904 in Ireland, the Limerick boycott caused several Jewish families to leave the town. During the 1911 Tredegar riot in Wales, Jewish homes and businesses were looted and burned over a period of a week, before the British Army was called in by the then-Home Secretary Winston Churchill, who described the riot as a "pogrom".[73]

In the north of Ireland during the early 1920s, violent riots which were aimed at the expulsion of a religious group took place. In 1920, Lisburn and Belfast saw violence related to the Irish War of Independence and partition of Ireland. On 21 July 1920 in Belfast, Protestant Loyalists marched on the Harland and Wolff shipyards and forced over 11,000 Catholic and left-wing Protestant workers from their jobs.[74] The sectarian rioting that followed resulted in about 20 deaths in just three days.[75] These sectarian actions are often referred to as the Belfast Pogrom. In Lisburn, County Antrim, on 23–25 August 1920 Protestant loyalist crowds looted and burned practically every Catholic business in the town and attacked Catholic homes. About 1,000 people, a third of the town's Catholics, fled Lisburn.[76] By the end of the first six months of 1922, hundreds of people had been killed in sectarian violence in newly formed Northern Ireland. On a per capita basis, four Roman Catholics were killed for every Protestant.[77]

In the worst incident of anti-Jewish violence in Britain during the interwar period, the "Pogrom of Mile End", that occurred in 1936, 200 Blackshirt youths ran amok in Stepney in the East End of London, smashing the windows of Jewish shops and homes and throwing an elderly man and young girl through a window. Though less serious, attacks on Jews were also reported in Manchester and Leeds in the north of England.[78]

Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe

Main article: The Holocaust
 
Iași pogrom in Romania, June 1941

The first pogrom in Nazi Germany was the Kristallnacht, often called Pogromnacht, in which at least 91 Jews were killed, a further 30,000 arrested and incarcerated in Nazi concentration camps,[10] over 1,000 synagogues burned, and over 7,000 Jewish businesses destroyed or damaged.[11][12]

During World War II, Nazi German death squads encouraged local populations in German-occupied Europe to commit pogroms against Jews. Brand new battalions of Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz (trained by SD agents) were mobilized from among the German minorities.[79][80]

A large number of pogroms occurred during the Holocaust at the hands of non-Germans.[81] Perhaps the deadliest of these Holocaust-era pogroms was the Iași pogrom in Romania, perpetrated by Ion Antonescu, in which as many as 13,266 Jews were killed by Romanian citizens, police and military officials.[82]

On 1–2 June 1941, in the two-day Farhud pogrom in Iraq, perpetrated by Rashid Ali, Yunis al-Sabawi, and the al-Futuwa youth, "rioters murdered between 150 and 180 Jews, injured 600 others, and raped an undetermined number of women. They also looted some 1,500 stores and homes".[83][84] Also, 300–400 non-Jewish rioters were killed in the attempt to quell the violence.[85]

 
Jewish woman chased by men and youth armed with clubs during the Lviv pogroms, July 1941

In June–July 1941, encouraged by the Einsatzgruppen in the city of Lviv the Ukrainian People's Militia perpetrated two citywide pogroms in which around 6,000 Polish Jews were murdered,[86] in retribution for alleged collaboration with the Soviet NKVD. In Lithuania, some local police led by Algirdas Klimaitis and Lithuanian partisans – consisting of LAF units reinforced by 3,600 deserters from the 29th Lithuanian Territorial Corps of the Red Army[87] promulgated anti-Jewish pogroms in Kaunas along with occupying Nazis. On 25–26 June 1941, about 3,800 Jews were killed and synagogues and Jewish settlements burned.[88]

During the Jedwabne pogrom of July 1941, ethnic Poles burned at least 340 Jews in a barn (Institute of National Remembrance) in the presence of Nazi German Ordnungspolizei. The role of the German Einsatzgruppe B remains the subject of debate.[89][90][91][92][93][94]

Europe after World War II

After the end of World War II, a series of violent antisemitic incidents occurred against returning Jews throughout Europe, particularly in the Soviet-occupied East where Nazi propagandists had extensively promoted the notion of a Jewish-Communist conspiracy (see Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946 and Anti-Jewish violence in Eastern Europe, 1944–1946). Anti-Jewish riots also took place in Britain in 1947.[citation needed]

Pogroms in Asia and North Africa

1834 pogroms in Ottoman Syria

See also: List of massacres in Ottoman Syria, 1834 Hebron pogrom, and 1834 Safed pogrom

There were two pogroms in Ottoman Syria in 1834.[citation needed]

1929 in Mandatory Palestine

See also: 1929 Palestine riots and 1929 Hebron massacre

In Mandatory Palestine under British administration, Jews were targeted by Arabs in the 1929 Hebron massacre during the 1929 Palestine riots. They followed other violent incidents such as the 1920 Nebi Musa riots.[95]

Thrace pogroms in Turkey in 1934

See also: 1934 Thrace pogroms and History of the Jews in Turkey

Constantine Pogrom in French Algeria in 1934

See also: 1934 Constantine Pogrom and History of the Jews in Algeria

British North Africa in 1945

Main article: 1945 Anti-Jewish Riots in Tripolitania

Anti-Jewish rioters killed over 140 Jews in the 1945 Anti-Jewish Riots in Tripolitania. The 1945 Anti-Jewish riots in Tripolitania was the most violent rioting against Jews in North Africa in modern times. From 5 November to 7 November 1945, more than 140 Jews were killed and many more injured in a pogrom in British-military-controlled Tripolitania. 38 Jews were killed in Tripoli from where the riots spread. 40 were killed in Amrus, 34 in Zanzur, 7 in Tajura, 13 in Zawia and 3 in Qusabat.[96]

In Syria in 1947 and Morocco 1948

See also: 1947 Anti-Jewish riots in Aleppo, 1947 Aden riots, 1948 Anti-Jewish Riots in Oujda and Jerada, and History of Moroccan Jews

Following the start of the 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine, a number of anti-Jewish events occurred throughout the Arab world, some of which have been described as pogroms. In 1947, half of Aleppo's 10,000 Jews left the city in the wake of the Aleppo riots, while other anti-Jewish riots took place in British Aden and then in 1948 in the French Moroccan cities of Oujda and Jerada.[97]

Pogroms against Alevis in Turkey (1978 and 1980)

See also: Alevism, Malatya massacre, Maraş massacre, and Çorum pogrom

Sabra and Shatila massacre in 1982

Main article: Sabra and Shatila massacre

The Sabra and Shatila massacre is occasionally referred to as a pogrom.[98][99]

1984 anti-Sikh riots

Main article: 1984 anti-Sikh riots

Sikhs were targeted in Delhi and other parts of India during a pogrom in October 1984.[100][101][102]

Pogroms and race riots in the 21st century

2002 Gujarat pogrom

See also: 2002 Gujarat riots, Narendra Modi § 2002 Gujarat riots, and Hindutva

The 2002 Gujarat riots, also known as the Gujarat pogrom,[14] were a three-day period of inter-communal violence in the Indian state of Gujarat.

The violence was connected to the Ayodhya dispute and the demolition of the Babri Masjid. The burning of a train in Godhra on 27 February 2002, which caused the deaths of 58 Hindu pilgrims and karsevaks returning from Ayodhya, is cited as having instigated the violence.[103][104][105][106]

Following the initial riot incidents, there were further outbreaks of violence in Ahmedabad for three months; statewide, there were further outbreaks of violence against the minority Muslim population of Gujarat for the next year.[107][108]

2005 Cronulla riots

See also: Cronulla Race Riots, Islamophobia in Australia, and Racism in Australia

The 2005 Cronulla riots (also known as the "Cronulla Race Riots" or the "Cronulla pogrom")[109] were a series of race riots in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.

Attacks in the occupied West Bank in 2008

See also: Occupied West Bank

In 2008, two attacks in the Occupied West Bank by Jewish Israeli settlers on Palestinian Arabs were labeled as pogroms by then-Prime Minister Ehud Olmert.[15]

2017 anti-Rohingya pogroms

See also: Rohingya genocide

The 2017 Rohingya genocide, was a series of pogroms and other violence committed against the Rohingya minority of Myanmar,[110][111] particularly in Rakhine State.[111] Facebook was accused of inciting mob violence via social media.[112]

West Bank settler pogroms in the early 2020s

See also: Israeli settler violence

There were many attacks by Israeli settlers against Palestinians in the occupied West Bank leading up to and during the full scale war in the Gaza Strip in 2023 and 2024.[113]

The Huwara rampage in February 2023

Main article: Huwara pogrom

Israel's military was accused of 'deliberately turning blind eye' to violent riots and legal experts said the state could face war crime charges.[114] The rioters killed one Palestinian, 37-year-old Sameh Aqtash, and wounded dozens, while torching houses and cars.[115]

Top Israeli general in the West Bank, Yehuda Fuchs, referred to the Israeli settlers' actions as a "pogrom":[116] "The incident in Hawara was a pogrom carried out by outlaws".[117]

Jewish American documentary maker Simone Zimmerman also used the term pogrom to describe the attacks on Palestinians by Israeli settlers in Hawara in February 2023.[118] Zimmerman described these attacks as being committed by settlers while the Israeli army stood by and let it happen.[118]

Hamas-initiated attacks on 7 October 2023

Main article: 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel

On 7 October 2023, Hamas' Al Qassam Brigades militant wing (based in the Gaza Strip), and other groups and individuals incited to join them,[119] initiated an attack on Israel. In addition to the military, the attack also targeted civilian communities and resulted in the deaths of over 695 Israeli civilians, most of whom were Israeli Jews and some of whom were Arab Israelis.[120][121] In the attacks Al Qassam and other armed groups from Gaza also took approximately 250 people, many of which were non-Israelis hostage, including infants, elderly, and people who had already been severely injured.[122]

The 7 October attacks were described as a "pogrom" by Suzanne Rutland, who defined a pogrom as a government-approved attack on Jews and pointed out that the attacks were initiated by the Hamas, the governing authority of Gaza.[123] Others who have described the 7 October attacks as a pogrom include then-UK Foreign Secretary David Cameron and think tanks such as the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs.[124][125] An editorial in the Wall Street Journal referred to 7 October attacks as a pogrom as well, while rejecting that label for the Huwara rampage in that same year.[16][115]

Survivors of October 7 have also described the attack on their kibbutzim as pogroms.[126]

Some sources from in Israel and in the Jewish diaspora have specifically objected to the characterisation of 7 October as a pogrom, saying the events on 7 October do not resemble the original historical pogroms in Russia.[127] The Jerusalem Post described the 7 October attacks as "historically unique", as well as "foreseeable" and "expected".[128] Judith Butler, controversially described the attacks as an "act of armed resistance".[129]

West Bank pogroms in 2023

See also: Gaza genocide and Israeli incursions in the West Bank during the Israel–Hamas war § Settler violence and depopulation of villages

Khirbet Zanuta is a Palestinian Bedouin village in the Hebron Governorate in the southern West Bank, 20 km (12 mi) south of Hebron, which was ethnically cleansed during the Israel–Hamas war.[130] Some farmers remained or returned and the attacks continued.[131] The location has previously been attacked in 2022.[132]

In the Palestinian village of Al-Qanoub Israeli settlers descended from the nearby settlement of Asfar and the adjacent outpost of Pnei Kedem, burned houses, set their dogs on the farm animals, and, at gunpoint, ordered the residents to leave or else they would be killed.[133]

2024 riots against Syrian refugees in Turkey

See also: Syrians in Turkey

In 2024 there were pogroms against Syrian refugees in Turkey.[134]

List of events named pogroms

This table is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

Scope: This is a partial list of events for which one of the commonly accepted names includes the word pogrom. Inclusion in this list is based solely on evidence in multiple reliable sources that a name including the word pogrom is one of the accepted names for that event. A reliable source that merely describes the event as being a pogrom does not qualify the event for inclusion in this list. The word pogrom must appear in the source as part of a name for the event.

Date Pogrom Name Alternative name(s) Deaths Targeted Group Physical destruction Location and region[A] Notes Name needs verification
38 Alexandrian pogrom
(name disputed)[B] 		Alexandrian riots Jews in Egypt MENA:
Roman Egypt 		[note 1] [citation needed]
1066 Granada pogrom 1066 Granada massacre 4,000 Jews Jews Europe: Iberian Peninsula [note 2]
1096 1096 pogroms Rhineland massacres 2,000 Jews Jews Europe: Germany [note 3]
1113 Kiev pogrom
(name disputed)[C] 		Kiev revolt Jews and others.[C] Europe: Ukraine in the 12th century [note 4] [citation needed]
1349 Strasbourg pogrom Strasbourg massacre persecution of Jews during the Black Death Jews Europe: Strasbourg [note 5]
1391 1391 pogroms Massacre of 1391 Jews Europe: Iberian Peninsula [note 6]
1506 Lisbon pogrom Lisbon massacre 1,000+ New Christians Jewish converts to Christianity Europe: Iberian Peninsula [note 7]
1563 Polotsk pogrom
(name disputed)[D] 		Polotsk drownings Jews who refused to convert Europe: Polotsk [note 8]
1648–1657 Khmelnytsky pogrom
(name disputed) 		Khmelnytsky massacres, or Cossack riots. 100,000[citation needed] Jews Europe: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth [note 9] [citation needed]
1821–1871 First Odessa pogroms Jews Europe: Russian Empire [note 10]
1834 1834 Hebron pogrom Battle of Hebron 500 Palestinians and 12 Jews (and 260 Ottoman troops) Palestinians and Jews
1834 Safed pogrom 1834 looting of Safed Jews
1840 [citation needed] Damascus affair Jews MENA: Syria [note 11] [citation needed]
1881–1884 First Russian Tsarist pogroms Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire Jews Europe: Russian Empire [note 12]
1881 Warsaw pogrom 2 Jews killed, 24 injured Jews Europe: Poland [note 13]
1902 Częstochowa pogrom
(name disputed) 		14 Jews Jews Europe: Russian Partition [note 14] [citation needed]
1903–1906 Second Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire 2,000+ Jews Jews
Antisemitism in the Russian Empire 		Europe: Russian Empire [note 15]
1903 First Kishinev pogrom 47 (Included above) Europe: Kishinev, Russian Empire [note 16]
1905 Second Kishinev pogrom 19 (Included above) Europe: Kishinev, Russian Empire [note 17]
1905 Kiev pogrom (1905) 100 (Included above) Europe: Ukraine, [note 18]
1906 Siedlce pogrom 26 (Included above) Europe: Siedlce Russian Empire [note 19]
1904 Limerick pogrom
(name disputed)[E] 		Limerick boycott None Jews Europe: Ireland [note 20]
1909 Adana pogrom Adana massacre 30,000 Armenians [citation needed] Armenians MENA / Europe: Caucasus [note 21]
1910 Slocum pogrom[141][142] Slocum massacre 6 Blacks confirmed; 100 Blacks estimated African Americans Americas: USA [note 22] [citation needed]
1914 Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo Sarajevo frenzy of hate 2 Serbs Serbs Europe: Balkans [note 23] [citation needed]
1918 Lwów pogrom Lemberg massacre 52–150 Jews
270 Ukrainians 		Jews Europe: Jews in Poland [note 24]
1919 Proskurov pogrom 1500–1700 Jews Jews Europe: Proskurov [note 25]
1919 Kiev pogroms (1919) 60+ Jews Europe: Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic [note 26]
1919 Pinsk pogrom
(name disputed)[F] 		Pinsk massacre 36 Jews Jews Europe: Pinsk, Belarus / Poland. [note 27] [citation needed]
1919–20 Vilna pogrom[citation needed] Vilna offensive 65+ Jews and non-Jews Jews and others Europe: Vilna [note 28] [citation needed]
1921 Tulsa Massacre Tulsa race massacre 39 Blacks confirmed (100-300 Blacks estimated); 26 whites confirmed African Americans Americas: USA [note 29] [citation needed]
1929 Hebron pogrom Hebron massacre 67 Jews Jews MENA: Mandatory Palestine [note 30]
1934 1934 Thrace pogroms None[147] Jews MENA / Europe: Turkey [note 31]
1936 Przytyk pogrom Przytyk riot 2 Jews and 1 Polish Jews Europe: Poland [note 32]
1938 November pogrom Kristallnacht 91+ Jews Jews Europe: Nazi Germany [note 33]
1940 Dorohoi pogrom 53 Jews Jews Europe: Romania [note 34]
1941 Iași pogrom 13,266 Jews Jews Europe: Romania [note 35]
1941 Antwerp Pogrom part of the Holocaust in Belgium 0 Jews Europe: Belgium [note 36]
1941 Bucharest pogrom Legionnaires' rebellion 125 Jews and 30 soldiers Jews Europe: Bucharest, Hungary [note 37]
1941 Tykocin pogrom 1,400–1,700 Jews Jews Europe: Poland [note 38]
1941 Jedwabne pogrom 380 to 1,600 Jews Jews Europe: Poland [note 39]
1941 Farhud 180 Jewish Iraqis Jews MENA: Iraq [note 40]
1941 Lviv pogroms Thousands of Jews Jews Europe: Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic [note 41]
1945 Kraków pogrom 1 Jew Jews Europe: Poland [note 42]
1946 Kunmadaras pogrom 4 Jews Jews Europe: Hungary [note 43]
1946 Miskolc pogrom 2 Jews Jews Europe: Hungary [note 44]
1946 Kielce pogrom 38–42 Jews Jews Europe: Poland [note 45]
1955 Istanbul pogrom Istanbul riots 13–30 Greeks Greeks in Turkey (Ottoman Greeks) MENA / Europe: Turkey [note 46]
1956 1956 anti-Tamil pogrom 150 Primarily Tamils Tamils South Asia: Sri Lanka [note 47] [citation needed]
1958 1958 anti-Tamil pogrom 58 riots 300 Primarily Tamils Tamils South Asia: Sri Lanka [note 48] [citation needed]
1959 [citation needed] Kirkuk massacre 79 Iraqi Turkmen MENA: Iraq [note 49] [citation needed]
1966 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom[citation needed] 30,000-50,000 Primarily Igbo People Igbo Sub-Saharan Africa: Nigeria [note 50] [citation needed]
14–15 August 1969 1969 Northern Ireland Anti-Catholic pogroms 1969 Northern Ireland riots 6 Catholics.[G] Catholics Europe: Northern Ireland [note 51] [citation needed]
1977 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom 300-1500 Primarily Tamils Tamils South Asia: Sri Lanka [note 52]
1978 Malatya pogrom[152] Malatya massacre 8 Alevis Alevis businesses and houses MENA / Europe: Turkey
1978 Maraş pogrom[153] Maraş massacre 111 to 500+ Alevis Alevis businesses, houses, printing works, pharmaiescy MENA / Europe: Turkey
1980 Çorum pogrom Çorum massacre 57 Alevis Alevis businesses and houses MENA / Europe: Turkey
1983 Black July 1983 anti-Tamil pogrom 400–3,000 Tamils Tamils South Asia: Sri Lanka [note 53] [citation needed]
1984 1984 anti-Sikh riots 8,000 Sikhs Sikhs South Asia: India [note 54] [101]
1988 Sumgait pogrom 26 to 300 Armenians
and 6 or more Azeris [citation needed] 		Armenians MENA / Europe: Caucasus [note 55] [citation needed]
1988 Kirovabad pogrom 3+ Soviet soldiers
3+ Azeris
and 1+ Armenian 		Armenians MENA / Europe: Caucasus [note 56]
1990 Baku pogrom 90 Armenians
20 Russian soldiers 		Armenians MENA / Europe: Caucasus [note 57]
1991 Crown Heights pogrom (disputed)[H] Crown Heights riot 2 (1 Jew and 1 non-Jew) Jews in the USA Americas: USA [note 58] [citation needed]
1994 [citation needed] Srebrenica massacre] 8000 Muslims Muslims (Bosniaks) Europe: Balkans [note 59] [citation needed]
2002 Gujarat pogrom[14] 2002 Gujarat riots 790 to 2000[I] Muslims in India South Asia: Gujarat, India
2004 March pogrom 2004 unrest in Kosovo 16 ethnic Serbs Serbs Europe: Balkans [note 60] [citation needed]
2005 Cronulla pogrom[162] Cronulla Race Riots Muslims and Arab Australians[J] Pacific: Cronulla in Sydney, Australia.
2013 Muzaffarnagar Pogrom[163][164][165] Muslims in India South Asia: Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
2017 Rohingya pogrom[110][111] Rohingya genocide Muslims in Myanmar (Rohingya) housing South Asia: Rakhine State, Myanmar [note 61]
2023 Settler pogroms[166] Israeli settler violence Palestinians MENA: West Bank, Palestine. [note 62]
2023 Huwara pogrom[167][166][168] Huwara rampage 1 Sameh Aqtash[167][169] Palestinians cars and businesses MENA: West Bank, Palestine.
Date Pogrom Name Alternative name(s) Deaths Targeted Group Physical Destruction Region Notes Name needs verification

See also

Main article: Outline of genocide studies

Antisemitism

Other groups

General

References and notes

Table Footnotes

  1. ^ Regions:
  2. ^ Prof. Sandra Gambetti: "A final note on the use of terminology related to anti-Semitism. Scholars have frequently labeled the Alexandrian events of 38 C.E. as the first pogrom[citation needed] in history and have often explained them in terms of an ante litteram explosion of anti-Semitism. This work [The Alexandrian Riots] deliberately avoids any words or expressions that in any way connect, explicitly or implicitly, the Alexandrian events of 38 C.E. to later events in modern or contemporary Jewish experience, for which that terminology was created. ... To decide whether a word like pogrom, for example, is an appropriate term to describe the events that are studied here, requires a comparative re-discussion of two historical frames—the Alexandria of 38 C.E. and the Russia of the end of the nineteenth century."[135]
  3. ^ a b John Klier: "upon the death of the Grand Prince of Kiev Sviatopolk, rioting broke out in Kiev against his agents and the town administration. The disorders were not specifically directed against Jews and they are best characterized as a social revolution. This fact has not prevented historians of medieval Russia from describing them as a pogrom."[137]
    Klier also writes that Alexander Pereswetoff-Morath has advanced a strong argument against considering the Kiev riots of 1113 an anti-Jewish pogrom. Pereswetoff-Morath writes in "A Grin without a Cat" (2002) that "I feel that Birnbaum's use of the term "anti-Semitism' as well as, for example, his use of 'pogrom' in references to medieval Rus are not warranted by the evidence he presents. He is, of course, aware that it may be controversial."[137]
    George Vernadsky: "Incidentally, one should not suppose that the movement was anti-Semitic. There was no general Jewish pogrom. Wealthy Jewish merchants suffered because of their association with Sviatopolk's speculations, especially his hated monopoly on salt."[138]
  4. ^ John Klier: "Russian armies led by Tsar Ivan IV captured the Polish city of Polotsk. The Tsar ordered drowned in the river Dvina all Jews who refused to convert to Orthodox Christianity. This episode certainly demonstrates the overt religious hostility towards the Jews which was very much a part of Muscovite culture, but its conversionary aspects were entirely absent from modern pogroms. Nor were the Jews the only heterodox religious group singled out for the tender mercies of Muscovite religious fanaticism."[137]
  5. ^ Israeli ambassador to Ireland, Boaz Moda'i: "I think it is a bit over-portrayed, meaning that, usually if you look up the word pogrom it is used in relation to slaughter and being killed. This is what happened in many other places in Europe, but that is not what happened here. There was a kind of boycott against Jewish merchandise for a while but that's not a pogrom."[140]
  6. ^ Carole Fink: "What happened in Pinsk on April 5, 1919 was not a literal "pogrom" – an organized, officially tolerated or inspired massacre of a minority such as the massacre which occurred in Lemberg – instead, it was a military execution of a small, suspect group of civilians. ... The misnamed "Pinsk pogrom", a plain, powerful, alliterative phrase, entered history in April 1919. Its importance lay not only in its timing, during the tensest moments of the Paris Peace Conference and the most crucial deliberations over Poland's political future: The reports of Pinsk once more demonstrated the swift transmission of local violence to world notice and the disfiguring process of rumor and prejudice on every level."[146]
  7. ^ 6 Catholics were killed, 4 by state force & 2 by anti-Catholic mob.
  8. ^ Media use of the term pogrom to refer to the 1991 Crown Heights riot caused public controversy.[28][26] For example, Joyce Purnick of The New York Times wrote in 1993 that the use of the word pogrom was "inflammatory"; she accused politicians of "trying to enlarge and twist the word" in order to "pander to Jewish voters".[154]
  9. ^ 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus (official)
    1,926 to 2,000+ total (other sources)[159][160][161]
  10. ^ Muslims in Australia and Arab Australians and people misidentified as belonging to those groups.

Descriptions of the events in the table

  1. ^ Aulus Avilius Flaccus, the Egyptian prefect of Alexandria appointed by Tiberius in 32 CE, may have encouraged the outbreak of violence in which Jews were pushed out of the city of Alexandria and blockaded into a Jewish "ghetto". Those trying to escape the ghetto were killed, dismembered, and some burnt alive.[136] Philo wrote that Flaccus was later arrested and eventually executed for his part in this event. Scholarly research around the subject has been divided on certain points, including whether the Alexandrian Jews fought to keep their citizenship or to acquire it, whether they evaded the payment of the poll-tax or prevented any attempts to impose it on them, and whether they were safeguarding their identity against the Greeks or against the Egyptians.
  2. ^ A mob stormed the royal palace in Granada, which was at that time in Muslim-ruled al-Andalus, assassinated the Jewish vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela and massacred much of the Jewish population of the city.
  3. ^ Peasant crusaders from France and Germany during the People's Crusade, led by Peter the Hermit (and not sanctioned by the hierarchy of the Catholic Church, attacked Jewish communities in the three towns of Speyer, Worms and Mainz.
  4. ^ A rebellion which was sparked by the death of the Grand Prince of Kiev, in which Jews who participated in the prince's economic affairs were some of the victims.[citation needed]
  5. ^ this massacre coincided with the persecution of Jews during the Black Death.
  6. ^ A series of massacres and forced conversions beginning on 4 June 1391 in the city of Seville before they extend to the rest of Castile and the Crown of Aragon. It is considered one of the Middle Ages' largest attacks on the Jews, and were ultimately expelled from the Iberian Peninsula in 1492.
  7. ^ After an episode of famine and bad harvests, a pogrom happened in Lisbon, Portugal,[139] in which more than 1,000 "New Christian" (forcibly converted Jews) people were slaughtered and/or burnt by an angry Christian mob, in the first night of what became known as the "Lisbon Massacre". The killing occurred from 19 to 21 April, almost eliminating the entire Jewish or Jewish-descended community in that city. Even the Portuguese military and the king himself had difficulty stopping it. Today the event is remembered with a monument in S. Domingos' church.
  8. ^ Following the fall of Polotsk to the army of Ivan IV, all those who refused to convert to Orthodox Christianity were ordered drowned in the Western Dvina river.
  9. ^ Eastern Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Cossack riots, aka pogroms, aka uprisings included massive atrocities committed against Jews in what is today Ukraine, in numbers (conservatively estimated here by Veidlinger, Ataskevitch & Bemporad). They resulted in the creation of a new Hetmantate.
  10. ^ The Greeks of Odessa attacked the local Jewish community, in what began as economic disputes.
  11. ^ Following accusations of Jews having conspired to murder a Christian monk for culinary purposes, the local population attacked Jewish businesses and committed acts of violence against the Jewish population.
  12. ^ A large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots swept through south-western Imperial Russia (present-day Ukraine and Poland from 1881 to 1884 (in that period over 200 anti-Jewish events occurred in the Russian Empire, notably the Kiev, Warsaw and Odessa pogroms)
  13. ^ Three days of rioting against Jews, Jewish stores, businesses, and residences in the streets adjoining the Holy Cross Church.
  14. ^ A mob attacked the Jewish shops, killing fourteen Jews and one gendarme. The Russian military brought to restore order were stoned by mob.
  15. ^ A much bloodier wave of pogroms broke out from 1903 to 1906, leaving an estimated 2,000 Jews dead and many more wounded, as many Jewish residents took arms to defend their families and property from the attackers. The 1905 pogrom against the Jewish population in Odessa was the most serious pogrom of the period, with reports of up to 2,500 Jews killed.
  16. ^ Three days of anti-Jewish rioting sparked by antisemitic articles in local newspapers.
  17. ^ Two days of anti-Jewish rioting beginning as political protests against the Tsar.
  18. ^ Following a city hall meeting, a mob was drawn into the streets, proclaiming that "all Russia's troubles stemmed from the machinations of the Jews and socialists."
  19. ^ An attack organized by the Russian secret police
    Okhrana . Antisemitic pamphlets had been distributed for over a week and before any unrest begun, a curfew was declared.
  20. ^ An economic boycott waged against the small Jewish community in Limerick, Ireland, for over two years.
  21. ^ A massacre of Armenians in the city of Adana amidst the government upheaval resulted in a series of anti-Armenian pogroms throughout the district.
  22. ^ A massacre of African Americans living in Slocum, Texas, organized by white mobs after rumors of a Black uprising began to spread. White people throughout Anderson County gathered guns, ammunition, and alcohol to prepare. District Judge Benjamin Howard Gardner attempted to stop the massacre by closing all saloons, gun stores, and hardware stores, but it was too late. The massacre lasted 16 hours, with white mobs killing any Black people they saw. As a result of the massacre, half of Slocum's Black population had left or been killed by the next census.
  23. ^ Occurred shortly after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.[143]
  24. ^ During the Polish-Ukrainian War over three days of unrest in the city, an estimated 52–150 Jewish residents were killed and hundreds more were injured by Polish soldiers and civilians. Two hundred and seventy Ukrainians were also killed during this incident. The Poles did not stop the pogrom until two days after it began.
  25. ^ The pogrom was initiated by Ivan Samosenko following a failed Bolshevik uprising against the Ukrainian People's Republic in the city.[144] The massacre was carried out by Ukrainian People's Republic soldiers of Samosenko. According to historians Yonah Alexander and Kenneth Myers the soldiers marched into the centre of town accompanied by a military band and engaged in atrocities under the slogan: "Kill the Jews, and save the Ukraine." They were ordered to save the ammunition in the process and use only lances and bayonets.[145]
  26. ^ A series of anti-Jewish pogroms in various places around Kiev carried out by White Army troops
  27. ^ Mass execution of 35 Jewish residents of Pinsk in April 1919 by the Polish Army, during the opening stages of the Polish–Soviet War
  28. ^ As Polish troops entered the city, dozens of people connected with the Lit-Bel were arrested, and some were executed.
  29. ^ Economic and social tension against Black community in Greenwood.
  30. ^ During the 1929 Palestine riots, sixty-seven Jews were killed as the violence spread to Hebron, then part of Mandatory Palestine, by Arabs incited to violence by rumors that Jews were massacring Arabs in Jerusalem and seizing control of Muslim holy places.
  31. ^ It was followed by the vandalizing of Jewish houses and shops. The tensions started in June 1934 and spread to a few other villages in Eastern Thrace region and to some small cities in Western Aegean region. At the height of the violent events, it was rumoured that a rabbi was stripped naked and was dragged through the streets shamefully while his daughter was raped. Over 15,000 Jews had to flee from the region.[148][149]
  32. ^ Some of the Jewish residents gathered in the town square in anticipation of the attack by the peasants, but nothing happened on that day. Two days later, however, on a market day, as historians Martin Gilbert and David Vital state, peasants attacked their Jewish neighbors.
  33. ^ Coordinated attacks against Jews throughout Nazi Germany and parts of Austria, carried out by SA paramilitary forces and non-Jewish civilians. Accounts from the foreign journalists working in Germany sent shock waves around the world.
  34. ^ Romanian military units carried out a pogrom against the local Jews, during which, according to an official Romanian report, 53 Jews were murdered, and dozens injured.
  35. ^ One of the most violent pogroms in Jewish history, launched by governmental forces in the Romanian city of Iași (Jassy) against its Jewish population.
  36. ^ One of the few pogroms of Belgian history. Flemish collaborators attacked and burned synagogues and attacked a rabbi in the city of Antwerp
  37. ^ As the privileges of the paramilitary organisation Iron Guard were being cut off by Conducător Ion Antonescu, members of the Iron Guard, also known as the Legionnaires, revolted. During the rebellion and pogrom, the Iron Guard killed 125 Jews and 30 soldiers died in the confrontation with the rebels.
  38. ^ Mass murder of Jewish residents of Tykocin in occupied Poland during World War II, soon after Nazi German attack on the Soviet Union.
  39. ^ The local rabbi was forced to lead a procession of about 40 people to a pre-emptied barn, killed and buried along with fragments of a destroyed monument of Lenin. A further 250–300 Jews were led to the same barn later that day, locked inside and burned alive using kerosene.
  40. ^ 180 Jews were killed and over 1,000 injured in attacks on Shavuot following British victory in the Anglo-Iraqi War.
  41. ^ Massacres of Jews by the Ukrainian People's Militia and a German Einsatzgruppe.
  42. ^ Violence amid rumors of kidnappings of children by Jews.
  43. ^ A frenzy instigated by the crowd's libelous belief that some Jews had made sausage out of Christian children.
  44. ^ Riots started as demonstrations against economic hardships and later became antisemitic.
  45. ^ Violence against the Jewish community centre, initiated by Polish Communist armed forces
    LWP, KBW, GZI WP and continued by a mob of local townsfolk.
  46. ^ Organized mob attacks directed primarily at Istanbul's Greek minority. Accelerated the emigration of ethnic Greeks from Turkey (Jews were also targeted in this event).[150][151]
  47. ^ 1956 anti-Tamil pogrom or Gal Oya massacre/riots were the first ethnic riots that targeted the minority Tamils in independent Sri Lanka.
  48. ^ 1958 anti-Tamil pogrom also known as 58 riots, refer to the first island wide ethnic riots and pogrom in Sri Lanka.
  49. ^ Ethnic tension between Kurds and Turkmen.
  50. ^ A series of massacres directed at Igbo and other southern Nigerian residents throughout Nigeria before and after the overthrow (and assassination) of the Aguiyi-Ironsi junta by Murtala Mohammed.
  51. ^ Along with the 6 murders, 500 Irish Catholics were injured by the state forces and anti-Catholic mob, 72 of those injured were injured from gun shot wounds, also 150+ Catholic homes and 275+ businesses had been destroyed – 83% of all buildings destroyed were owned by Catholics. Catholics generally fled across the border into the Republic of Ireland as refugees. After Belfast the other areas that saw violence were Newry, Armagh, Crossmaglen, Dungannon, Coalisland and Dungiven.
    The bloodiest clashes were in Belfast, where seven people were killed and hundreds wounded, in what some viewed as an attempted pogrom against the Catholic minority. Protesters clashed with both the police and with loyalists, who attacked Catholic districts. Scores of homes and businesses were burnt out, most of them owned by Catholics, and thousands of mostly Catholic families were driven from their homes. In some cases, RUC officers helped the loyalists and failed to protect Catholic areas.
  52. ^ The 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom followed the 1977 general elections in Sri Lanka where the Sri Lankan Tamil nationalistic Tamil United Liberation Front won a plurality of minority Sri Lankan Tamil votes in which it stood for secession.
  53. ^ Over seven days mobs of mainly Sinhalese attacked Tamil targets, burning, looting and killing.
  54. ^ Sikhs were targeted in Delhi and other parts of India during a pogrom in October 1984.[100][101][102]
  55. ^ Mobs made up largely of ethnic Azeris formed into groups that went on to attack and kill Armenians both on the streets and in their apartments; widespread looting and a general lack of concern from police officers allowed the situation to worsen.
  56. ^ Ethnic Azeris attacked Armenians throughout the city.
  57. ^ Seven-day attack during which Armenians were beaten, tortured, murdered and expelled from the city. There were also many raids on apartments, robberies and Parsons.
  58. ^ A three-day riot that occurred in the Crown Heights section of Brooklyn, New York. The riots incited by the death of the seven-year-old Gavin Cato, unleashed simmering tensions within Crown Heights' black community against the Orthodox Jewish community. In its wake, several Jews were seriously injured; one Orthodox Jewish man, Yankel Rosenbaum, was killed; and a non-Jewish man, allegedly mistaken by rioters for a Jew, was killed by a group of African-American men.[155][156]
  59. ^ The Srebrenica massacre, also known as the Srebrenica genocide, was the July 1995 killing of more than 8,000 Bosniak Muslim men and boys in and around the town of Srebrenica, during the Bosnian War. The killings were perpetrated by units of the Bosnian Serb Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) under the command of Ratko Mladić. The Scorpions, a paramilitary unit from Serbia, who had been part of the Serbian Interior Ministry until 1991, also participated in the massacre.[157][158]
  60. ^ Over 4,000 Serbs were forced to leave their homes, 935 Serb houses, 10 public facilities and 35 Serbian Orthodox church-buildings were desecrated, damaged or destroyed, and six towns and nine villages were ethnically cleansed.
  61. ^ Facebook was accused of inciting mob violence.[112]
  62. ^ homes demolished and communities depopoulated by intimidation[113]

Notes from the text

  1. ^ UK: /ˈpɒɡrəm/ POG-rəm, US: /ˈpoʊɡrəm, ˈpoʊɡrɒm, pəˈɡrɒm/ POH-grəm, POH-grom, pə-GROM; Russian: погро́м, pronounced [pɐˈɡrom].
  2. ^ Historians, who put the number of killed Jewish civilians at between 40,000 and 100,000 during the Khmelnytsky Pogroms in 1648–1657, include:
    • Naomi E. Pasachoff, Robert J. Littman (2005). A Concise History Of The Jewish People, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 0-7425-4366-8, p. 182.
    • David Theo Goldberg, John Solomos (2002). A Companion to Racial and Ethnic Studies, Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-20616-7, p. 68.
    • Micheal Clodfelter (2002). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999, McFarland, p. 56: estimated at 56,000 dead.
  3. ^ Historians estimating that around 100,000 Jews were killed include:
    • Cara Camcastle. The More Moderate Side of Joseph de Maistre: Views on Political Liberty And Political Economy, McGill-Queen's Press, 2005, ISBN 0-7735-2976-4, p. 26.
    • Martin Gilbert (1999). Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past, Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-10965-2, p. 219.
    • Manus I. Midlarsky. The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-521-81545-2, p. 352.
    • Oscar Reiss (2004). The Jews in Colonial America, McFarland, ISBN 0-7864-1730-7, pp. 98–99.
    • Colin Martin Tatz (2003). With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide, Verso, ISBN 1-85984-550-9, p. 146.
    • Samuel Totten (2004). Teaching about Genocide: Issues, Approaches and Resources, Information Age Publishing, ISBN 1-59311-074-X, p. 25.
    • Mosheh Weiss (2004). A Brief History of the Jewish People, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 0-7425-4402-8, p. 193.
  4. ^ Historians who estimate that more than 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine in 1648–1657 include:
    • Meyer Waxman (2003). History of Jewish Literature Part 3, Kessinger, ISBN 0-7661-4370-8, p. 20: estimated at two hundred thousand Jews killed.
    • Micheal Clodfelter (2002). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999, McFarland, p. 56: estimated at between 150,000 and 200,000 Jewish victims.
    • Zev Garber, Bruce Zuckerman (2004). Double Takes: Thinking and Rethinking Issues of Modern Judaism in Ancient Contexts, University Press of America, ISBN 0-7618-2894-X, p. 77, footnote 17: estimated at 100,000–500,000 Jews.
    • The Columbia Encyclopedia (2001–2005), "Chmielnicki Bohdan", 6th ed.: estimated at over 100,000 Jews.
    • Robert Melvin Spector (2005). World without Civilization: Mass Murder and the Holocaust, History and Analysis, University Press of America, ISBN 0-7618-2963-6, p. 77: estimated at more than 100,000.
    • Sol Scharfstein (2004). Jewish History and You, KTAV, ISBN 0-88125-806-7, p. 42: estimated at more than 100,000 Jews killed.

Citations

  1. ^ a b Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica; et al. (2017). "Pogrom". Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica.com. (Russian: "devastation" or "riot"), a mob attack, either approved or condoned by authorities, against the persons and property of a religious, racial, or national minority. The term is usually applied to attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
  2. ^ Brass, Paul R. (1996). Riots and Pogroms. New York University Press. p. 3. Introduction. ISBN 978-0-8147-1282-5.
  3. ^ a b Atkin, Nicholas; Biddiss, Michael; Tallett, Frank (23 May 2011). The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-9072-8. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  4. ^ a b c Klier, John (2011). Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882. Cambridge University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-521-89548-4. By the twentieth century, the word "pogrom" had become a generic term in English for all forms of collective violence directed against Jews. The term was especially associated with Eastern Europe and the Russian Empire, the scene of the most serious outbreaks of anti-Jewish violence before the Holocaust. Yet when applied indiscriminately to events in Eastern Europe, the term can be misleading, the more so when it implies that "pogroms" were regular events in the region and that they always shared common features. In fact, outbreaks of mass violence against Jews were extraordinary events, not a regular feature of East European life.
  5. ^ a b c Bergmann, Werner (2003). "Pogroms". International Handbook of Violence Research. pp. 352–55. doi:10.1007/978-0-306-48039-3_19. ISBN 978-1-4020-3980-5.
  6. ^ a b c d Dekel-Chen, Jonathan; Gaunt, David; Meir, Natan M.; Bartal, Israel, eds. (26 November 2010). Anti-Jewish Violence. Rethinking the Pogrom in East European History. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-00478-9. Engel states that although there are no "essential defining characteristics of a pogrom", the majority of the incidents "habitually" described as pogroms "took place in divided societies in which ethnicity or religion (or both) served as significant definers of both social boundaries and social rank.
  7. ^ Weinberg, Sonja (2010). Pogroms and Riots: German Press Responses to Anti-Jewish Violence in Germany and Russia (1881–1882). Peter Lang. p. 193. ISBN 978-3-631-60214-0. Most contemporaries claimed that the pogroms were directed against Jewish property, not against Jews, a claim so far not contradicted by research.
  8. ^ Klier, John D.; Abulafia, Anna Sapir (2001). Religious Violence Between Christians and Jews: Medieval Roots, Modern Perspectives. Springer. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-4039-1382-1. The pogroms themselves seem to have largely followed a set of unwritten rules. They were directed against Jewish property only.
  9. ^ Klier, John (2010). "Pogroms.". The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe. YIVO Institute for Jewish Research. The common usage of the term pogrom to describe any attack against Jews throughout history disguises the great variation in the scale, nature, motivation and intent of such violence at different times.
  10. ^ a b "World War II: Before the War". The Atlantic. 19 June 2011. Windows of shops owned by Jews which were broken during a coordinated anti-Jewish demonstration in Berlin, known as Kristallnacht, on November 10, 1938. Nazi authorities turned a blind eye as SA stormtroopers and civilians destroyed storefronts with hammers, leaving the streets covered in pieces of smashed windows. Ninety-one Jews were killed, and 30,000 Jewish men were taken to concentration camps.
  11. ^ a b Berenbaum, Michael; Kramer, Arnold (2005). The World Must Know. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. p. 49.
  12. ^ a b Gilbert, Martin (1986). The Holocaust: the Jewish tragedy. Collins. pp. 30–33. ISBN 978-0-00-216305-7.
  13. ^ Bedi, Rahul (1 November 2009). "Indira Gandhi's death remembered". BBC. Archived from the original on 2 November 2009. Retrieved 2 November 2009. The 25th anniversary of Indira Gandhi's assassination revives stark memories of some 3,000 Sikhs killed brutally in the orderly pogrom that followed her killing
  14. ^ a b c "The Soul-Wounds of Massacre, or Why We Should Not Forget the 2002 Gujarat Pogrom". The Wire (India). 27 February 2022. Retrieved 26 May 2024. This article is extracted and adapted from the author's book Between Memory and Forgetting: Massacre and the Modi Years in Gujarat, Yoda Press, 2019.
  15. ^ a b c Koutsoukis, Jason (15 September 2008). "Settlers attack Palestinian village". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2023. 'As a Jew, I was ashamed at the scenes of Jews opening fire at innocent Arabs in Hebron. There is no other definition than the term "pogrom" to describe what I have seen.'
  16. ^ a b "Opinion | Hamas Puts Its Pogrom on Video". The Wall Street Journal. 27 October 2023.
  17. ^ Feinstein, Sara (2005). Sunshine, Blossoms and Blood. University Press of America. ISBN 978-0-7618-3142-6. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  18. ^ Judge, Edward H. (February 1995). Easter in Kishinev. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4223-5. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
  19. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, December 2007 revision. See also: Pogrom at Online Etymology Dictionary.
  20. ^ a b International handbook of violence research. Vol. 1. Springer. 2005. ISBN 978-1-4020-3980-5. The word "pogrom" (from the Russian, meaning storm or devastation) has a relatively short history. Its international currency dates back to the anti-Semitic excesses in Tsarist Russia during the years 1881–1883, but the phenomenon existed in the same form at a much earlier date and was by no means confined to Russia. As John D. Klier points out in his seminal article "The pogrom paradigm in Russian history", the anti-Semitic pogroms in Russia were described by contemporaries as demonstrations, persecution, or struggle, and the government made use of the term besporiadok (unrest, riot) to emphasize the breach of public order. Then, during the twentieth century, the term began to develop along two separate lines. In the Soviet Union, the word lost its anti-Semitic connotation and came to be used for reactionary forms of political unrest and, from 1989, for outbreaks of interethnic violence; while in the West, the anti-Semitic overtones were retained and government orchestration or acquiescence was emphasized.
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Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of genocide studies
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