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'''Pyrrhotite''' (''[[Pyrrhus of Epirus|pyrrhos]]'' in [[Greek language|Greek]] meaning "flame-coloured"'')'' is an [[iron sulfide]] [[mineral]] with the formula Fe<sub>(1-x)</sub>S (x = 0 to 0.125). It is a [[nonstoichiometric compound|nonstoichiometric]] variant of FeS, the mineral known as [[troilite]].
'''Pyrrhotite''' (''[[Pyrrhus of Epirus|pyrrhos]]'' in [[Greek language|Greek]] meaning "flame-coloured"'')'' is an [[iron sulfide]] [[mineral]] with the formula Fe<sub>(1-x)</sub>S (x = 0 to 0.125). It is a [[nonstoichiometric compound|nonstoichiometric]] variant of FeS, the mineral known as [[troilite]].
Pyrrhotite is also called magnetic [[pyrite]], because the color is similar to pyrite and it is weakly magnetic. The [[magnetism]] decreases as the iron content decreases, and troilite is non-magnetic.<ref name="Vaughan">Haldar, S. K. (2017). ''Platinum-nickel-chromium deposits : geology, exploration and reserve base''. Elsevier. p.12 ISBN 978-0-12-802041-8.</ref> Pyrrhotite is generally tabular and brassy/bronze in color with a [[Lustre (mineralogy)|metallic luster]]. The mineral occurs with [[Mafic|mafic igneous rocks]] like [[Norite|norites]], and may form from pyrite during [[Metamorphism|metamorphic processes]].<ref name=":5" /> Pyrrhotite is associated and mined with other sulfide minerals like [[pentlandite]], [[pyrite]], [[chalcopyrite]], and [[magnetite]], and has been found globally.
Pyrrhotite is also called magnetic [[pyrite]], because the color is similar to pyrite and it is weakly magnetic. The [[magnetism]] decreases as the iron content decreases, and troilite is non-magnetic.<ref name="Vaughan">Haldar, S. K. (2017). ''Platinum-nickel-chromium deposits : geology, exploration and reserve base''. Elsevier. p.12 ISBN 978-0-12-802041-8.</ref> Pyrrhotite is generally tabular and brassy/bronze in color with a [[Lustre (mineralogy)|metallic luster]]. The mineral occurs with [[Mafic|mafic igneous rocks]] like [[Norite|norites]], and may form from pyrite during [[Metamorphism|metamorphic processes]].<ref name="Mauk" /> Pyrrhotite is associated and mined with other sulfide minerals like [[pentlandite]], [[pyrite]], [[chalcopyrite]], and [[magnetite]], and has been found globally.
[[File:Iron(II)-sulfide-unit-cell-3D-balls.png|thumb|[[Nickel arsenide#Crystal structure|NiAs structure]] of basic pyrrhotite-1C.]]
[[File:Iron(II)-sulfide-unit-cell-3D-balls.png|thumb|[[Nickel arsenide#Crystal structure|NiAs structure]] of basic pyrrhotite-1C.]]
[[File:Pyrrhotite with pentlandite (late Paleoproterozoic, 1.85 Ga; 800 Orebody, South Mine, Sudbury Impact Crater, southeastern Ontario, Canada) 2 (18275905364).jpg|thumb|<nowiki>Pyrrhotite with pentlandite (late Paleoproterozoic, 1.85 G… | Flickr</nowiki>]]
[[File:Pyrrhotite with pentlandite (late Paleoproterozoic, 1.85 Ga; 800 Orebody, South Mine, Sudbury Impact Crater, southeastern Ontario, Canada) 2 (18275905364).jpg|thumb|<nowiki>Pyrrhotite with pentlandite (late Paleoproterozoic, 1.85 G… | Flickr</nowiki>]]
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=== Physical Properties ===
=== Physical Properties ===
Pyrrhotite is brassy, bronze, or dark brown in color with a metallic [[Lustre (mineralogy)|luster]] and uneven or subconchoidal fracture.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Pyrrhotite: Physical properties, uses, composition |url=https://geology.com/minerals/pyrrhotite.shtml#:~:text=Pyrrhotite%20is%20relatively%20easy%20to,are%20at%20least%20slightly%20magnetic. |access-date=2023-02-20 |website=geology.com}}</ref> Pyrrhotite may be confused with other brassy sulfide minerals like [[pyrite]], [[chalcopyrite]], or [[pentlandite]]. Certain diagnostic characteristics can be used for identification in hand samples. Unlike other common brassy-colored [[Sulfide mineral|sulfide minerals]], pyrrhotite is typically magnetic (varies inversely with iron content).<ref name=":0" /> On the [[Mohs scale|Mohs hardness scale]], pyrrhotite ranges from 3.5 to 4,<ref name="mindat2">{{cite web |title=Pyrrhotite |url=http://www.mindat.org/min-3328.html |access-date=2009-07-07 |publisher=Mindat.org}}</ref> compared to 6 to 6.5 for pyrite.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Pyrite |url=https://rruff.info/doclib/hom/pyrite.pdf |access-date=2023-02-20 |website=rruff.info}}</ref> [[Streak (mineralogy)|Streak]] can be used when properties between pyrrhotite and other sulfide minerals are similar. Pyrrhotite displays a dark grey to black streak.<ref name="mindat2" /> Pyrite will display a greenish black to brownish black streak,<ref name=":1" /> chalcopyrite will display a greenish black streak,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chalcopyrite |url=https://www.handbookofmineralogy.org/pdfs/chalcopyrite.pdf |access-date=2023-02-20 |website=handbookofmineralogy}}</ref> and pentlandite leaves a pale bronze-brown streak.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pentlandite |url=https://www.handbookofmineralogy.org/pdfs/pentlandite.pdf |access-date=2023-02-20 |website=handbookofmineralogy}}</ref> Pyrrhotite generally displays massive to granular [[crystal habit]], and may show tabular/prismatic or hexagonal crystals which are sometimes [[Iridescence|iridescent]].<ref name=":0" />
Pyrrhotite is brassy, bronze, or dark brown in color with a metallic [[Lustre (mineralogy)|luster]] and uneven or subconchoidal fracture.<ref name="geology.com">{{Cite web |title=Pyrrhotite: Physical properties, uses, composition |url=https://geology.com/minerals/pyrrhotite.shtml#:~:text=Pyrrhotite%20is%20relatively%20easy%20to,are%20at%20least%20slightly%20magnetic. |access-date=2023-02-20 |website=geology.com}}</ref> Pyrrhotite may be confused with other brassy sulfide minerals like [[pyrite]], [[chalcopyrite]], or [[pentlandite]]. Certain diagnostic characteristics can be used for identification in hand samples. Unlike other common brassy-colored [[Sulfide mineral|sulfide minerals]], pyrrhotite is typically magnetic (varies inversely with iron content).<ref name="geology.com" /> On the [[Mohs scale|Mohs hardness scale]], pyrrhotite ranges from 3.5 to 4,<ref name="mindat2">{{cite web |title=Pyrrhotite |url=http://www.mindat.org/min-3328.html |access-date=2009-07-07 |publisher=Mindat.org}}</ref> compared to 6 to 6.5 for pyrite.<ref name="rruff.info">{{Cite web |title=Pyrite |url=https://rruff.info/doclib/hom/pyrite.pdf |access-date=2023-02-20 |website=rruff.info}}</ref> [[Streak (mineralogy)|Streak]] can be used when properties between pyrrhotite and other sulfide minerals are similar. Pyrrhotite displays a dark grey to black streak.<ref name="mindat2" /> Pyrite will display a greenish black to brownish black streak,<ref name="rruff.info" /> chalcopyrite will display a greenish black streak,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chalcopyrite |url=https://www.handbookofmineralogy.org/pdfs/chalcopyrite.pdf |access-date=2023-02-20 |website=handbookofmineralogy}}</ref> and pentlandite leaves a pale bronze-brown streak.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pentlandite |url=https://www.handbookofmineralogy.org/pdfs/pentlandite.pdf |access-date=2023-02-20 |website=handbookofmineralogy}}</ref> Pyrrhotite generally displays massive to granular [[crystal habit]], and may show tabular/prismatic or hexagonal crystals which are sometimes [[Iridescence|iridescent]].<ref name="geology.com" />


Diagnostic characteristics in hand sample include: brassy/bronze color with a grey/black streak, tabular or hexagonal crystals which show iridescence, [[Fracture (mineralogy)|subconchoidal fracture]], metallic luster, and magnetic.
Diagnostic characteristics in hand sample include: brassy/bronze color with a grey/black streak, tabular or hexagonal crystals which show iridescence, [[Fracture (mineralogy)|subconchoidal fracture]], metallic luster, and magnetic.


=== Optical Properties ===
=== Optical Properties ===
Pyrrhotite is an opaque mineral and will therefore not transmit light. As a result, pyrrhotite will display [[Extinction (optical mineralogy)|extinction]] when viewed under plane polarized light and cross polarized light, making identification with [[Petrographic microscope|petrographic polarizing light microscopes]] difficult. Pyrrhotite, and other opaque minerals can be identified optically using a [https://www.wikilectures.eu/w/Reflected_light_microscopy reflected light ore microscope]. The following optical properties<ref name=":2">Spry, P. G., & Gedlinske, B. (1987). ''Tables for the determination of common opaque minerals''. Economic Geology Pub.</ref> are representative of polished/puck sections using ore microscopy:
Pyrrhotite is an opaque mineral and will therefore not transmit light. As a result, pyrrhotite will display [[Extinction (optical mineralogy)|extinction]] when viewed under plane polarized light and cross polarized light, making identification with [[Petrographic microscope|petrographic polarizing light microscopes]] difficult. Pyrrhotite, and other opaque minerals can be identified optically using a [https://www.wikilectures.eu/w/Reflected_light_microscopy reflected light ore microscope]. The following optical properties<ref name="Spry">Spry, P. G., & Gedlinske, B. (1987). ''Tables for the determination of common opaque minerals''. Economic Geology Pub.</ref> are representative of polished/puck sections using ore microscopy:
[[File:Pyrrhotite Mineral.jpg|thumb|Photomicrograph of pyrrhotite under reflected light appearing as cream-pink to beige irregular anhedral masses (5x/0.12 POL). ]]
[[File:Pyrrhotite Mineral.jpg|thumb|Photomicrograph of pyrrhotite under reflected light appearing as cream-pink to beige irregular anhedral masses (5x/0.12 POL). ]]
Pyrrhotite typically appears as anhedral, granular aggregates and is cream-pink to brownish in color.<ref name=":2" /> Weak to strong reflection [[pleochroism]] which may be seen along grain boundaries.<ref name=":2" /> Pyrrhotite has similar polishing hardness to pentlandite (medium), is softer than pyrite, and harder than chalcopyrite.<ref name=":2" /> Pyrrhotite will not display [[Crystal twinning|twinning]] or internal reflections, and its strong [[anisotropy]] from yellow to greenish-gray or grayish-blue is characteristic.<ref name=":2" />
Pyrrhotite typically appears as anhedral, granular aggregates and is cream-pink to brownish in color.<ref name="Spry" /> Weak to strong reflection [[pleochroism]] which may be seen along grain boundaries.<ref name="Spry" /> Pyrrhotite has similar polishing hardness to pentlandite (medium), is softer than pyrite, and harder than chalcopyrite.<ref name="Spry" /> Pyrrhotite will not display [[Crystal twinning|twinning]] or internal reflections, and its strong [[anisotropy]] from yellow to greenish-gray or grayish-blue is characteristic.<ref name="Spry" />


Diagnostic characteristics in polished section include: anhedral aggregates, cream-pink to brown in color and strong anisotropy.
Diagnostic characteristics in polished section include: anhedral aggregates, cream-pink to brown in color and strong anisotropy.
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== Formation of Pyrrhotite in Rocks ==
== Formation of Pyrrhotite in Rocks ==
Pyrrhotite requires both iron and sulfur to form.<ref name=":5" /> Iron is the fourth most [[Abundance of elements in Earth's crust|abundant element]] in the Earth's [[continental crust]] (average abundance of 5.63 % or 56,300 mg/kg in the crust),<ref name=":6">"Abundance of Elements in the Earth’s Crust and in the Sea," in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 103rd Edition (Internet Version 2022), John R. Rumble, ed., CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL.</ref> and so the majority of rocks have sufficient iron abundance to form pyrrhotite.<ref name=":5" /> However, because sulfur is less abundant (average abundance of 0.035 % or 350 mg/kg in the crust),<ref name=":6" /> the formation of pyrrhotite is generally controlled by sulfur abundance.<ref name=":5" /> Also, the mineral [[pyrite]] is both the most common and most abundant sulfide mineral in the Earth's crust.<ref name=":5" /> If rocks containing pyrite undergo [[metamorphism]], there is a gradual release of [[Volatile (astrogeology)|volatile]] components like water and sulfur from pyrite.<ref name=":5" /> The loss of sulfur causes pyrite to [[Recrystallization (geology)|recrystallize]] into pyrrhotite.<ref name=":5" />
Pyrrhotite requires both iron and sulfur to form.<ref name="Mauk" /> Iron is the fourth most [[Abundance of elements in Earth's crust|abundant element]] in the Earth's [[continental crust]] (average abundance of 5.63 % or 56,300 mg/kg in the crust),<ref name="Abundance of Elements in the Earth">"Abundance of Elements in the Earth’s Crust and in the Sea," in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 103rd Edition (Internet Version 2022), John R. Rumble, ed., CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL.</ref> and so the majority of rocks have sufficient iron abundance to form pyrrhotite.<ref name="Mauk" /> However, because sulfur is less abundant (average abundance of 0.035 % or 350 mg/kg in the crust),<ref name="Abundance of Elements in the Earth" /> the formation of pyrrhotite is generally controlled by sulfur abundance.<ref name="Mauk" /> Also, the mineral [[pyrite]] is both the most common and most abundant sulfide mineral in the Earth's crust.<ref name="Mauk" /> If rocks containing pyrite undergo [[metamorphism]], there is a gradual release of [[Volatile (astrogeology)|volatile]] components like water and sulfur from pyrite.<ref name="Mauk" /> The loss of sulfur causes pyrite to [[Recrystallization (geology)|recrystallize]] into pyrrhotite.<ref name="Mauk" />


Pyrrhotite can also form near [[Hydrothermal vent|black smoker hydrothermal vents]].<ref name=":5" /> Black smokers release high sulfur concentrations onto the sea floor, and when the surrounding rocks are metamorphosed, pyrrhotite can crystallize.<ref name=":5" /> Later [[Ophiolite#Formation and emplacement|tectonic processes]] [[Obduction|uplift]] the metamorphic rocks and expose pyrrhotite to the Earth's surface.<ref name=":5" />
Pyrrhotite can also form near [[Hydrothermal vent|black smoker hydrothermal vents]].<ref name="Mauk" /> Black smokers release high sulfur concentrations onto the sea floor, and when the surrounding rocks are metamorphosed, pyrrhotite can crystallize.<ref name="Mauk" /> Later [[Ophiolite#Formation and emplacement|tectonic processes]] [[Obduction|uplift]] the metamorphic rocks and expose pyrrhotite to the Earth's surface.<ref name="Mauk" />


== Distribution ==
== Distribution ==
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=== The United States ===
=== The United States ===
[[File:Pyrrhotite Potential Occurrences Map.png|thumb|Map of Pyrrhotite Potential Occurrences in the United States (Mauk and Horton, 2020; U.S. Geological Survey, 2019; Mindat.org, 2019).]]
[[File:Pyrrhotite Potential Occurrences Map.png|thumb|Map of Pyrrhotite Potential Occurrences in the United States (Mauk and Horton, 2020; U.S. Geological Survey, 2019; Mindat.org, 2019).]]
Pyrrhotite occurs in a variety of locations in the [[United States]].<ref name=":5" /><ref>Mauk, J. L., & Horton, J. D. (2020). ''Data to accompany U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2020-3017: Pyrrhotite distribution in the conterminous United States'' [Data set]. U.S. Geological Survey. https://doi.org/10.5066/P9QSWBU6. </ref><ref>U.S. Geological Survey, 2019, Mineral Resource Data System: accessed April 11, 2023, at http://mrdata.usgs.gov/mrds/. </ref><ref>Mindat.org, 2019, Mines, minerals and more: accessed April 11, 2023, at https://mindat.org/. </ref> In the [[eastern United States]], pyrrhotite occurs in highly [[Metamorphic rock|metamorphosed]] rock that forms a belt along the [[Appalachian Mountains]].<ref name=":5" /> Pyrrhotite-bearing rocks are generally unseen in the [[central United States]] as the area is unmetamorphosed and underlain by [[Sedimentary rock|sedimentary rocks]] which do not contain pyrrhotite.<ref name=":5" /> Discontinuous [[Orogenic belt|belts]] that contain pyrrhotite are present in the [[western United States]] along the [[Sierra Nevada|Sierra Nevada mountain range]] and [[Cascade Range]] extending into the [[northwestern United States]].<ref name=":5" /> Pyrrhotite may also be found west and south of [[Lake Superior]].<ref name=":5" />
Pyrrhotite occurs in a variety of locations in the [[United States]].<ref name="Mauk" /><ref>Mauk, J. L., & Horton, J. D. (2020). ''Data to accompany U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2020-3017: Pyrrhotite distribution in the conterminous United States'' [Data set]. U.S. Geological Survey. https://doi.org/10.5066/P9QSWBU6. </ref><ref>U.S. Geological Survey, 2019, Mineral Resource Data System: accessed April 11, 2023, at http://mrdata.usgs.gov/mrds/. </ref><ref>Mindat.org, 2019, Mines, minerals and more: accessed April 11, 2023, at https://mindat.org/. </ref> In the [[eastern United States]], pyrrhotite occurs in highly [[Metamorphic rock|metamorphosed]] rock that forms a belt along the [[Appalachian Mountains]].<ref name="Mauk" /> Pyrrhotite-bearing rocks are generally unseen in the [[central United States]] as the area is unmetamorphosed and underlain by [[Sedimentary rock|sedimentary rocks]] which do not contain pyrrhotite.<ref name="Mauk" /> Discontinuous [[Orogenic belt|belts]] that contain pyrrhotite are present in the [[western United States]] along the [[Sierra Nevada|Sierra Nevada mountain range]] and [[Cascade Range]] extending into the [[northwestern United States]].<ref name="Mauk" /> Pyrrhotite may also be found west and south of [[Lake Superior]].<ref name="Mauk" />


== Mining Locations Worldwide ==
== Mining Locations Worldwide ==
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==Issues==
==Issues==


If pyrrhotite-containing rocks are crushed and added to concrete filler, pyrrhotite creates a problem in the production of [[concrete]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |first= |date=April 29, 2020 |title=USGS Publishes Map of Potential Pyrrhotite Occurrences |url=https://www.usgs.gov/news/national-news-release/new-usgs-map-helps-identify-where-pyrrhotite-mineral-can-cause-concrete |access-date=April 11, 2023 |website=USGS.gov}}</ref> Pyrrhotite has been linked to [[Concrete degradation|crumbling concrete basements]] in [[Quebec]], [[Massachusetts]] and [[Connecticut]] when local [[Quarry|quarries]] included it in their concrete mixtures.<ref name="nytimes" /><ref name="nbcconnecticut" /><ref name="GAO" /> Many houses in Ireland have also been affected by inclusion of rocks containing pyrrhotite in concrete blocks. <ref>Prof. Paul Dunlop https://pure.ulster.ac.uk/en/clippings/mica-not-the-primary-cause-of-defective-blocks-study</ref> The [[iron sulfide]] it contains can naturally react with [[oxygen]] and [[water]], and over time pyrrhotite breaks down into [[sulfuric acid]] and [[Secondary mineral|secondary minerals]] like [[gypsum]].<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5">Mauk, J.L., Crafford, T.C., Horton, J.D., San Juan, C.A., and Robinson, G.R., Jr., 2020, Pyrrhotite distribution in the conterminous United States, 2020: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2020-3017, 4 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20203017. </ref> These secondary products occupy a larger volume than pyrrhotite, which expands and cracks the concrete leading to home foundation failure.<ref name=nytimes>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/08/nyregion/with-connecticut-foundations-crumbling-your-home-is-now-worthless.html |work=[[The New York Times]]| title=With Connecticut Foundations Crumbling, Your Home Is Now Worthless|date=7 June 2016|access-date=2016-06-08|last1=Hussey|first1=Kristin|last2=Foderaro|first2=Lisa W.}}</ref><ref name=nbcconnecticut>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcconnecticut.com/troubleshooters/Troubleshooters-Investigation-Crumbling-Foundations-Home-Basement-Concrete-318061181.html |publisher=nbcconnecticut.com| title=Crumbling Foundations|date=22 July 2015 |access-date=2016-06-08}}</ref><ref name=GAO>{{cite web|url=https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-20-649|publisher=gao.gov|title=U.S. GAO - Crumbling Foundations: Extent of Homes with Defective Concrete Is Not Fully Known and Federal Options to Aid Homeowners Are Limited|access-date=2021-02-22}}</ref><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" />
If pyrrhotite-containing rocks are crushed and added to concrete filler, pyrrhotite creates a problem in the production of [[concrete]].<ref name="USGS.gov-2020">{{Cite web |first= |date=April 29, 2020 |title=USGS Publishes Map of Potential Pyrrhotite Occurrences |url=https://www.usgs.gov/news/national-news-release/new-usgs-map-helps-identify-where-pyrrhotite-mineral-can-cause-concrete |access-date=April 11, 2023 |website=USGS.gov}}</ref> Pyrrhotite has been linked to [[Concrete degradation|crumbling concrete basements]] in [[Quebec]], [[Massachusetts]] and [[Connecticut]] when local [[Quarry|quarries]] included it in their concrete mixtures.<ref name="nytimes" /><ref name="nbcconnecticut" /><ref name="GAO" /> Many houses in Ireland have also been affected by inclusion of rocks containing pyrrhotite in concrete blocks. <ref>Prof. Paul Dunlop https://pure.ulster.ac.uk/en/clippings/mica-not-the-primary-cause-of-defective-blocks-study</ref> The [[iron sulfide]] it contains can naturally react with [[oxygen]] and [[water]], and over time pyrrhotite breaks down into [[sulfuric acid]] and [[Secondary mineral|secondary minerals]] like [[gypsum]].<ref name="USGS.gov-2020" /><ref name="Mauk">Mauk, J.L., Crafford, T.C., Horton, J.D., San Juan, C.A., and Robinson, G.R., Jr., 2020, Pyrrhotite distribution in the conterminous United States, 2020: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2020-3017, 4 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20203017. </ref> These secondary products occupy a larger volume than pyrrhotite, which expands and cracks the concrete leading to home foundation failure.<ref name=nytimes>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/08/nyregion/with-connecticut-foundations-crumbling-your-home-is-now-worthless.html |work=[[The New York Times]]| title=With Connecticut Foundations Crumbling, Your Home Is Now Worthless|date=7 June 2016|access-date=2016-06-08|last1=Hussey|first1=Kristin|last2=Foderaro|first2=Lisa W.}}</ref><ref name=nbcconnecticut>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcconnecticut.com/troubleshooters/Troubleshooters-Investigation-Crumbling-Foundations-Home-Basement-Concrete-318061181.html |publisher=nbcconnecticut.com| title=Crumbling Foundations|date=22 July 2015 |access-date=2016-06-08}}</ref><ref name=GAO>{{cite web|url=https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-20-649|publisher=gao.gov|title=U.S. GAO - Crumbling Foundations: Extent of Homes with Defective Concrete Is Not Fully Known and Federal Options to Aid Homeowners Are Limited|access-date=2021-02-22}}</ref><ref name="USGS.gov-2020" /><ref name="Mauk" />


== Uses of Pyrrhotite ==
== Uses of Pyrrhotite ==
Other than a source of [[sulfur]], pyrrhotite does not have specific applications.<ref name=":3">Haldar, S. K. (2017). ''Platinum-nickel-chromium deposits : geology, exploration and reserve base''. Elsevier. p.24. ISBN 978-0-12-802041-8.</ref> It is generally not a valuable mineral unless significant [[nickel]], [[copper]], or other metals are present.<ref name=":3" /><ref>Kolahdoozan, M. & Yen, W.T.. (2002). Pyrrhotite - An Important Gangue and a Source for Environmental Pollution. Green Processing 2002 - Proceedings: International Conference on the Sustainable Proceesing of Minerals. 245-249.</ref> [[Iron]] is seldom extracted from pyrrhotite due to a complicated [[Metallurgy|metallurgical process]]<ref name=":3" /> It is mined primarily because it is associated with [[pentlandite]], a sulfide mineral that can contain significant amounts of [[nickel]] and [[cobalt]].<ref name="mindat" /> When found in [[mafic]] and [[Ultramafic rock|ultramafic]] rocks, pyrrhotite can be a good indicator of economic [[Nickel|nickel deposits]].<ref name=":3" />
Other than a source of [[sulfur]], pyrrhotite does not have specific applications.<ref name="Haldar">Haldar, S. K. (2017). ''Platinum-nickel-chromium deposits : geology, exploration and reserve base''. Elsevier. p.24. ISBN 978-0-12-802041-8.</ref> It is generally not a valuable mineral unless significant [[nickel]], [[copper]], or other metals are present.<ref name="Haldar" /><ref>Kolahdoozan, M. & Yen, W.T.. (2002). Pyrrhotite - An Important Gangue and a Source for Environmental Pollution. Green Processing 2002 - Proceedings: International Conference on the Sustainable Proceesing of Minerals. 245-249.</ref> [[Iron]] is seldom extracted from pyrrhotite due to a complicated [[Metallurgy|metallurgical process]]<ref name="Haldar" /> It is mined primarily because it is associated with [[pentlandite]], a sulfide mineral that can contain significant amounts of [[nickel]] and [[cobalt]].<ref name="mindat" /> When found in [[mafic]] and [[Ultramafic rock|ultramafic]] rocks, pyrrhotite can be a good indicator of economic [[Nickel|nickel deposits]].<ref name="Haldar" />


== Mineral Abbreviations ==
== Mineral Abbreviations ==

Revision as of 01:35, 7 December 2023

Pyrrhotite
Brassy, tabular crystals of pyrrhotite, with sphalerite and quartz, from Nikolaevskiy Mine, Primorskiy Kray, Russia. Specimen size: 5.3 x 4.1 x 3.8 cm
General
CategoryMineral
Formula
(repeating unit)		Fe1−xS (x = 0 to 0.125)
IMA symbolPyh[1]
Strunz classification2.CC.10
Crystal systemMonoclinic, with hexagonal polytypes
Crystal classPrismatic (2/m)
(same H-M symbol)
Space groupA2/a
Unit cella = 11.88 Å, b = 6.87 Å,
c = 22.79 Å; β = 90.47°; Z = 26
Identification
ColorBronze, dark brown
Crystal habitTabular or prismatic in hexagonal prisms; massive to granular
CleavageAbsent
FractureUneven
Mohs scale hardness3.5 – 4.5
LusterMetallic
StreakDark grey – black
Specific gravity4.58 – 4.65, average = 4.61
Refractive indexOpaque
Fusibility3
SolubilitySoluble in hydrochloric acid
Other characteristicsWeakly magnetic, strongly magnetic on heating; non-luminescent, non-radioactive
References[2][3][4]

Pyrrhotite (pyrrhos in Greek meaning "flame-coloured") is an iron sulfide mineral with the formula Fe(1-x)S (x = 0 to 0.125). It is a nonstoichiometric variant of FeS, the mineral known as troilite. Pyrrhotite is also called magnetic pyrite, because the color is similar to pyrite and it is weakly magnetic. The magnetism decreases as the iron content decreases, and troilite is non-magnetic.[5] Pyrrhotite is generally tabular and brassy/bronze in color with a metallic luster. The mineral occurs with mafic igneous rocks like norites, and may form from pyrite during metamorphic processes.[6] Pyrrhotite is associated and mined with other sulfide minerals like pentlandite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and magnetite, and has been found globally.

NiAs structure of basic pyrrhotite-1C.
Pyrrhotite with pentlandite (late Paleoproterozoic, 1.85 G… | Flickr
Microscopic image of Pyrrhotite under reflected light

Structure

Pyrrhotite exists as a number of polytypes of hexagonal or monoclinic crystal symmetry; several polytypes often occur within the same specimen. Their structure is based on the NiAs unit cell. As such, Fe occupies an octahedral site and the sulfide centers occupy trigonal prismatic sites.[7][page needed]

Materials with the NiAs structure often are non-stoichiometric because they lack up to 1/8th fraction of the metal ions, creating vacancies. One of such structures is pyrrhotite-4C (Fe7S8). Here "4" indicates that iron vacancies define a superlattice that is 4 times larger than the unit cell in the "C" direction. The C direction is conventionally chosen parallel to the main symmetry axis of the crystal; this direction usually corresponds to the largest lattice spacing. Other polytypes include: pyrrhotite-5C (Fe9S10), 6C (Fe11S12), 7C (Fe9S10) and 11C (Fe10S11). Every polytype can have monoclinic (M) or hexagonal (H) symmetry, and therefore some sources label them, for example, not as 6C, but 6H or 6M depending on the symmetry.[2][8] The monoclinic forms are stable at temperatures below 254 °C, whereas the hexagonal forms are stable above that temperature. The exception is for those with high iron content, close to the troilite composition (47 to 50% atomic percent iron) which exhibit hexagonal symmetry.[9]

Magnetic properties

The ideal FeS lattice, such as that of troilite, is non-magnetic. Magnetic properties vary with Fe content. More Fe-rich, hexagonal pyrrhotites are antiferromagnetic. However, the Fe-deficient, monoclinic Fe7S8 is ferrimagnetic.[10] The ferromagnetism which is widely observed in pyrrhotite is therefore attributed to the presence of relatively large concentrations of iron vacancies (up to 20%) in the crystal structure. Vacancies lower the crystal symmetry. Therefore, monoclinic forms of pyrrhotite are in general more defect-rich than the more symmetrical hexagonal forms, and thus are more magnetic.[11] Monoclinic pyrrhotite undergoes a magnetic transition known as the Besnus transition at 30 K that leads to a loss of magnetic remanence.[12] The saturation magnetization of pyrrhotite is 0.12 tesla.[13]

Identification

Physical Properties

Pyrrhotite is brassy, bronze, or dark brown in color with a metallic luster and uneven or subconchoidal fracture.[14] Pyrrhotite may be confused with other brassy sulfide minerals like pyrite, chalcopyrite, or pentlandite. Certain diagnostic characteristics can be used for identification in hand samples. Unlike other common brassy-colored sulfide minerals, pyrrhotite is typically magnetic (varies inversely with iron content).[14] On the Mohs hardness scale, pyrrhotite ranges from 3.5 to 4,[15] compared to 6 to 6.5 for pyrite.[16] Streak can be used when properties between pyrrhotite and other sulfide minerals are similar. Pyrrhotite displays a dark grey to black streak.[15] Pyrite will display a greenish black to brownish black streak,[16] chalcopyrite will display a greenish black streak,[17] and pentlandite leaves a pale bronze-brown streak.[18] Pyrrhotite generally displays massive to granular crystal habit, and may show tabular/prismatic or hexagonal crystals which are sometimes iridescent.[14]

Diagnostic characteristics in hand sample include: brassy/bronze color with a grey/black streak, tabular or hexagonal crystals which show iridescence, subconchoidal fracture, metallic luster, and magnetic.

Optical Properties

Pyrrhotite is an opaque mineral and will therefore not transmit light. As a result, pyrrhotite will display extinction when viewed under plane polarized light and cross polarized light, making identification with petrographic polarizing light microscopes difficult. Pyrrhotite, and other opaque minerals can be identified optically using a reflected light ore microscope. The following optical properties[19] are representative of polished/puck sections using ore microscopy:

Photomicrograph of pyrrhotite under reflected light appearing as cream-pink to beige irregular anhedral masses (5x/0.12 POL).

Pyrrhotite typically appears as anhedral, granular aggregates and is cream-pink to brownish in color.[19] Weak to strong reflection pleochroism which may be seen along grain boundaries.[19] Pyrrhotite has similar polishing hardness to pentlandite (medium), is softer than pyrite, and harder than chalcopyrite.[19] Pyrrhotite will not display twinning or internal reflections, and its strong anisotropy from yellow to greenish-gray or grayish-blue is characteristic.[19]

Diagnostic characteristics in polished section include: anhedral aggregates, cream-pink to brown in color and strong anisotropy.

Occurrence

Pyrrhotite is a rather common trace constituent of mafic igneous rocks especially norites. It occurs as segregation deposits in layered intrusions associated with pentlandite, chalcopyrite and other sulfides. It is an important constituent of the Sudbury intrusion (1.85 Ga old meteorite impact crater in Ontario, Canada) where it occurs in masses associated with copper and nickel mineralisation.[9] It also occurs in pegmatites and in contact metamorphic zones. Pyrrhotite is often accompanied by pyrite, marcasite and magnetite.

Formation of Pyrrhotite in Rocks

Pyrrhotite requires both iron and sulfur to form.[6] Iron is the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's continental crust (average abundance of 5.63 % or 56,300 mg/kg in the crust),[20] and so the majority of rocks have sufficient iron abundance to form pyrrhotite.[6] However, because sulfur is less abundant (average abundance of 0.035 % or 350 mg/kg in the crust),[20] the formation of pyrrhotite is generally controlled by sulfur abundance.[6] Also, the mineral pyrite is both the most common and most abundant sulfide mineral in the Earth's crust.[6] If rocks containing pyrite undergo metamorphism, there is a gradual release of volatile components like water and sulfur from pyrite.[6] The loss of sulfur causes pyrite to recrystallize into pyrrhotite.[6]

Pyrrhotite can also form near black smoker hydrothermal vents.[6] Black smokers release high sulfur concentrations onto the sea floor, and when the surrounding rocks are metamorphosed, pyrrhotite can crystallize.[6] Later tectonic processes uplift the metamorphic rocks and expose pyrrhotite to the Earth's surface.[6]

Distribution

The United States

Map of Pyrrhotite Potential Occurrences in the United States (Mauk and Horton, 2020; U.S. Geological Survey, 2019; Mindat.org, 2019).

Pyrrhotite occurs in a variety of locations in the United States.[6][21][22][23] In the eastern United States, pyrrhotite occurs in highly metamorphosed rock that forms a belt along the Appalachian Mountains.[6] Pyrrhotite-bearing rocks are generally unseen in the central United States as the area is unmetamorphosed and underlain by sedimentary rocks which do not contain pyrrhotite.[6] Discontinuous belts that contain pyrrhotite are present in the western United States along the Sierra Nevada mountain range and Cascade Range extending into the northwestern United States.[6] Pyrrhotite may also be found west and south of Lake Superior.[6]

Mining Locations Worldwide

The following are some of the locations worldwide where pyrrhotite has been reported during mining:[15]

Canada

Location Mine Main Target Commodities
British Columbia, Riondel Bluebell Mine[24] Cd, Cu, Au, Pb, Ag, Zn
Québec Henderson No. 2 mine (Copper Rand mine)[25] Cu, Au
Québec B&B Quarry, Sharwinigan Crushed rock (Gabbro) for construction
Québec Maskimo Quarry, Sharwinigan Crushed rock (Gabbro) for construction

The United States

Location Mine Main Target Commodities
Connecticut Becker Quarry (Becker's Quarry)[26] Not given, but abundant quartz, kyanite, and garnet are worthy of mentioning.

Note: This was a quarry producing crushed rock aggregate for use in construction

Australia

Location Mine Main Target Commodities
Tasmania Renison Bell Mine (Renison Mine)[27] Sn

Brazil

Location Mine Main Target Commodities
Minas Gerais Morro Velho mine[28][29] Au, iron-ore[30]

Italy

Location Mine Main Target Commodities
Tuscany Bottino Mine[31] Ag, sulfides[32]

Kosovo

Location Mine Main Target Commodities
Mitrovica District Trepça Mine[33] Pb, Ag, Zn

Etymology and history

Named in 1847 by Ours-Pierre-Armand Petit-Dufrénoy.[34] "Pyrrhotite" is derived from the Greek word πνρρό, "pyrrhos", meaning flame-colored.[2]

Issues

If pyrrhotite-containing rocks are crushed and added to concrete filler, pyrrhotite creates a problem in the production of concrete.[35] Pyrrhotite has been linked to crumbling concrete basements in Quebec, Massachusetts and Connecticut when local quarries included it in their concrete mixtures.[36][37][38] Many houses in Ireland have also been affected by inclusion of rocks containing pyrrhotite in concrete blocks. [39] The iron sulfide it contains can naturally react with oxygen and water, and over time pyrrhotite breaks down into sulfuric acid and secondary minerals like gypsum.[35][6] These secondary products occupy a larger volume than pyrrhotite, which expands and cracks the concrete leading to home foundation failure.[36][37][38][35][6]

Uses of Pyrrhotite

Other than a source of sulfur, pyrrhotite does not have specific applications.[40] It is generally not a valuable mineral unless significant nickel, copper, or other metals are present.[40][41] Iron is seldom extracted from pyrrhotite due to a complicated metallurgical process[40] It is mined primarily because it is associated with pentlandite, a sulfide mineral that can contain significant amounts of nickel and cobalt.[2] When found in mafic and ultramafic rocks, pyrrhotite can be a good indicator of economic nickel deposits.[40]

Mineral Abbreviations

Table of pyrrhotite mineral abbreviations. Note: only use official IMA-CNMNC symbol listed in bold text.
Abbreviation Source
Pyh IMA-CNMNC[42]
Po Whitney and Evans, 2010;[43] The Canadian Mineralogist, 2019.[44]

Pyrrhotite Synonyms

Synonyms of the mineral pyrrhotite.[2]
Magnetic Pyrite Magnetopyrite Magnetic Pyrites
Pyrrhotine Pyrrohotite Magnetic Iron Pyrites
Dipyrite Kroeberite Vattenkies

References

  1. ^ Warr, L.N. (2021). "IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols". Mineralogical Magazine. 85 (3): 291–320. Bibcode:2021MinM...85..291W. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43. S2CID 235729616.
  2. ^ a b c d e "Pyrrhotite". Mindat.org. Retrieved 2009-07-07.
  3. ^ "Pyrrhotite" (PDF). Rruff.geo.arizona.edu. Retrieved 2015-07-10.
  4. ^ "Pyrrhotite Mineral Data". Webmineral.com. Retrieved 2015-07-10.
  5. ^ Haldar, S. K. (2017). Platinum-nickel-chromium deposits : geology, exploration and reserve base. Elsevier. p.12 ISBN 978-0-12-802041-8.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Mauk, J.L., Crafford, T.C., Horton, J.D., San Juan, C.A., and Robinson, G.R., Jr., 2020, Pyrrhotite distribution in the conterminous United States, 2020: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2020-3017, 4 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20203017.
  7. ^ Shriver, D. F.; Atkins, P. W.; Overton, T. L.; Rourke, J. P.; Weller, M. T.; Armstrong, F. A. "Inorganic Chemistry" W. H. Freeman, New York, 2006. ISBN 0-7167-4878-9.[page needed]
  8. ^ Barnes, Hubert Lloyd (1997). Geochemistry of hydrothermal ore deposits. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 382–390. ISBN 0-471-57144-X.
  9. ^ a b Klein, Cornelis and Cornelius S. Hurlbut, Jr., Manual of Mineralogy, Wiley, 20th ed, 1985, pp. 278-9 ISBN 0-471-80580-7
  10. ^ Sagnotti, L., 2007, Iron Sulfides; in: Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism; (Editors David Gubbins and Emilio Herrero-Bervera), Springer, 1054 pp., p. 454-459.
  11. ^ Atak, Suna; Önal, Güven; Çelik, Mehmet Sabri (1998). Innovations in Mineral and Coal Processing. Taylor & Francis. p. 131. ISBN 90-5809-013-2.
  12. ^ Volk, Michael W.R.; Gilder, Stuart A.; Feinberg, Joshua M. (1 December 2016). "Low-temperature magnetic properties of monoclinic pyrrhotite with particular relevance to the Besnus transition". Geophysical Journal International. 207 (3): 1783–1795. doi:10.1093/gji/ggw376.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  13. ^ Svoboda, Jan (2004). Magnetic techniques for the treatment of materials. Springer. p. 33. ISBN 1-4020-2038-4.
  14. ^ a b c "Pyrrhotite: Physical properties, uses, composition". geology.com. Retrieved 2023-02-20.
  15. ^ a b c "Pyrrhotite". Mindat.org. Retrieved 2009-07-07.
  16. ^ a b "Pyrite" (PDF). rruff.info. Retrieved 2023-02-20.
  17. ^ "Chalcopyrite" (PDF). handbookofmineralogy. Retrieved 2023-02-20.
  18. ^ "Pentlandite" (PDF). handbookofmineralogy. Retrieved 2023-02-20.
  19. ^ a b c d e Spry, P. G., & Gedlinske, B. (1987). Tables for the determination of common opaque minerals. Economic Geology Pub.
  20. ^ a b "Abundance of Elements in the Earth’s Crust and in the Sea," in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 103rd Edition (Internet Version 2022), John R. Rumble, ed., CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL.
  21. ^ Mauk, J. L., & Horton, J. D. (2020). Data to accompany U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2020-3017: Pyrrhotite distribution in the conterminous United States [Data set]. U.S. Geological Survey. https://doi.org/10.5066/P9QSWBU6.
  22. ^ U.S. Geological Survey, 2019, Mineral Resource Data System: accessed April 11, 2023, at http://mrdata.usgs.gov/mrds/.
  23. ^ Mindat.org, 2019, Mines, minerals and more: accessed April 11, 2023, at https://mindat.org/.
  24. ^ Grice, J.D., Gault, R.A. (1977) The Bluebell Mine, Riondel, British Columbia, Canada. The Mineralogical Record 8:1, 33-36. Moynihan, D.P., Pattison, D.R. (2011) The origin of mineralized fractures at the Bluebell mine site, Riondel, British Columbia. Economic Geology, 106:6, 1043-1058.
  25. ^ Tavchandjian, O. (1992). Analyse quantitative de la distribution spatiale de la fracturation et de la minéralisation dans les zones de cisaillement: applications aux gisements du complexe du lac Dore (Chicougamau-Québec). Université du Québec à Chicoutimi.
  26. ^ Ague, J. J. (1995): Deep Crustal Growth of Quartz, Kyanite and Garnet into Large-Aperature, fluid-filled fractures, northeastern Connecticut, USA. Journal of Metamorphic Geology: 13: 299-314.
  27. ^ Haynes, Simon John, Hill, Patrick Arthur (1970) Pyrrhotite phases and pyrrhotite-pyrite relationships; Renison Bell, Tasmania. Economic Geology, 65 (7), 838-848.
  28. ^ Henwood, W.J. (1871): Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall 8(1), 168-370.
  29. ^ Scipioni Vial, D., Ed DeWitt, E., Lobato, L.M., and Thorman, C.H. (2007) The geology of the Morro Velho gold deposit in the Archean Rio dasVelhas greenstone belt, Quadrilátero Ferrífero, Brazil. Ore Geology Reviews, 32, 511–542.
  30. ^ "Major Mines & Projects | Minas-Rio Mine". miningdataonline.com. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  31. ^ Benvenuti, M., Mascaro, I., Corsini, F., Ferrari, M., Lattanzi, P., Parrini, P., Costagliola, P., Taneli, G. (2000) Environmental mineralogy and geochemistry of waste dumps at the Pb(Zn)-Ag Bottino mine, Apuane Alps, Italy. European Journal of Mineralogy: 12(2): 441-453.
  32. ^ "Bottino Mine". mindat.org. March 27, 2023. Retrieved April 11, 2023.
  33. ^ Kołodziejczyk, J., Pršek, J., Voudouris, P., Melfos, V. and Asllani, B., (2016) Sn-bearing minerals and associated sphalerite from lead-zinc deposits, Kosovo: An electron microprobe and LA-ICP-MS study. Minerals, 6(2), p.42.
  34. ^ "Pyrrhotite". mindat.org. Retrieved March 24, 2023.
  35. ^ a b c "USGS Publishes Map of Potential Pyrrhotite Occurrences". USGS.gov. April 29, 2020. Retrieved April 11, 2023.
  36. ^ a b Hussey, Kristin; Foderaro, Lisa W. (7 June 2016). "With Connecticut Foundations Crumbling, Your Home Is Now Worthless". The New York Times. Retrieved 2016-06-08.
  37. ^ a b "Crumbling Foundations". nbcconnecticut.com. 22 July 2015. Retrieved 2016-06-08.
  38. ^ a b "U.S. GAO - Crumbling Foundations: Extent of Homes with Defective Concrete Is Not Fully Known and Federal Options to Aid Homeowners Are Limited". gao.gov. Retrieved 2021-02-22.
  39. ^ Prof. Paul Dunlop https://pure.ulster.ac.uk/en/clippings/mica-not-the-primary-cause-of-defective-blocks-study
  40. ^ a b c d Haldar, S. K. (2017). Platinum-nickel-chromium deposits : geology, exploration and reserve base. Elsevier. p.24. ISBN 978-0-12-802041-8.
  41. ^ Kolahdoozan, M. & Yen, W.T.. (2002). Pyrrhotite - An Important Gangue and a Source for Environmental Pollution. Green Processing 2002 - Proceedings: International Conference on the Sustainable Proceesing of Minerals. 245-249.
  42. ^ Warr, L.N. (2021). IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols. Mineralogical Magazine, 85(3), 291-320. https://doi.org/10.1180/mgm.2021.43.
  43. ^ Whitney, D.L. and Evans, B.W. (2010) Abbreviations for names of rock-forming minerals. American Mineralogist, 95, 185–187 https://doi.org/10.2138/am.2010.3371.
  44. ^ The Canadian Mineralogist (2019) The Canadian Mineralogist list of symbols for rock- and ore-forming minerals (December 30, 2019). https://www.mineralogicalassociation.ca/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/symbols.pdf.
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