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Coptic nationalism

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Coptic nationalism refers to the nationalism of the Copts (Coptic: ⲚⲓⲢⲉⲙ̀ⲛⲭⲏⲙⲓ ̀ⲛ̀Ⲭⲣⲏⲥⲧⲓ̀ⲁⲛⲟⲥ Niremenkīmi Enkhristianos, Arabic: أقباط Aqbat), a Christian ethnic and religious minority [1] that primarily inhabit the area of modern Egypt. Coptic nationalism does not have a claim for a Coptic nation but asks for an equal position for Copts in Egypt.[2] Most Copts live in the south of Egypt but the largest concentrations of Copts lives in Cairo and Alexandria.[3] The Copts, like the rest of Egyptians, are descended from the pharaonic inhabitants of Egypt. Most ethnic Copts belongs to the Coptic Orthodox Church. Copts number between 10-15 percent of the Egyptian population[4] of 104 million[5]

The Copts and Egyptian Muslims have many similarities in their identity, as they have lived amongst one another for centuries.[6] The relation between the Copts and Muslims was mostly relaxed before the 1960s, but afterwards the tensions between the respective groups grew. The violence against the Copts increased in the Nassar, Sadat and Mubarak eras. The Copts suffered in ethnic, political and material ways,[7][8][9] and realized they needed to strengthen their positions in these regards.[10] For example, many Copts sought refuge in the United States, which in turn weakened the position of the Copts who stayed in Egypt. These Copts today still face critics and violence against their churches and monasteries.[11]

Pharaonism

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Main article: Pharaonism

In the 1920s, when the Copts and Muslims worked together for the independence of Egypt, the questions of Egyptian identity rose to prominence. In the early twentieth century the political ideology of pharaonism was successful. The ideology known as the 'Pharaonist movement' or 'Pharaonism' looks to Egypt's pre-Islamic past and argued that Egypt was part of a larger Mediterranean civilization. In this way the Copts presented Egypt as more closely linked to Europe rather than to the Middle East.[12]

The Copts emphasize that they have lived in Egypt longer than the Muslims and are therefore an integral part of the history and the country. In that way it gives the Copts a claim to a deep heritage in Egyptian history and culture. With pharaonism the Copts claimed a deeply rooted national identity that transcends the religious opposition between Egypt's Muslim majority and Egypt's Christian minority.

Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic scholars in the early 20th century. The most famous writer in the pharaonism movement was Taha Hussein. But most scholars today see pharaonism as a late development shaped primarily by western Orientalism, and doubt its validity.[13] One of them is the Canadian archaeologist Michael Wood who argues that pharaonism glorifies a period no one can remember and that lacks visible signs for Egyptians because the common language, culture and alphabet of ancient Egypt does not exist anymore. Wood concludes that the 'Pharaonic past, used by the Egyptian nationalists, was simply the wrong past' to use for their nationalism.[14]

Coptic identity

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Main article: Coptic identity

During the 1919 Revolution, political participation of Copts increased resulting in the election of two prime ministers of Coptic origin, Boutros Ghali Pasha and Youssef Wahba Pasha.[15] There were intentions from certain Coptic politicians, such as Dr. Akhnoukh Fanous to cooperate with the British colonialists, however most Copts did not support such plans due to belief that all Egyptians shared the same fate no matter the religion.[16] Coptic identity as it stands now saw its roots in the 1950s with the rise of pan-Arabism under Nasser. The goal of constructing a modern Coptic identity was to create and ideological space for the Copts within Egypt.[17] Up to that point, Egyptian nationalism was the major form of expression for Egyptian identity;[18] Copts viewed themselves as only Copts without any Arab sentiment.[19] The struggle to ascertain this Egyptian identity began as Nasser and his regime tried to impose an Arab identity on the country, and attempted to erase all references to Egypt as a separate and unique entity.[20][unreliable source?] During the pan-Arab nationalist movement led by Gamal Abdel Nasser in the 1950s, Copts have heavily been marginalized of civil domains in Egypt, however this phenomenon has been aggravated under Hosni Mubarak and his three decade long presidential mandate, by being completely excluded “in a king of political (dis)engagement”. The state religion in Egypt is Islam, which still creates religious tensions in society due to underrepresentation of Copts in political life.[21] Persecution is pivotal to Copts' sense of identity.[22] Egyptian Copts still undergo different types of violences through extremist groups attacks, religious marginalization and other forms of discrimination.[23] As a reflection of that coptic activism was very prominent during the 2011 Arab Spring, where they protested for their civil rights.[24] Since the 18th century, martyr symbolism has been prevalent in Coptic culture through sermons, songs and religious lessons.[25] The Coptic Church believes in the importance of remembering and celebrating such acts of “willful death” in order to preserve and continue both Egyptian and Christian identities.[26] Common phrases spoken at protests, such as the Maspero demonstrations, are “With our spirits, our blood, we will redeem the cross” showcase the importance of religion in the Coptic community and their fight for rights.[27] However, nowadays these chants and protests are used as a way to threaten the state rather than a direct intention of death. [28] Coptic discourse is nationalistic, but not in a way that it claims that Copts are a nation of their own or aim to have a separate coptic state.[29]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Minahan 2002, p. 467 [dead link‍]
  2. ^ Van Der Vliet, Jacques (2010-01-01), "The Copts: 'Modern Sons Of The Pharaohs'?", Religious Origins of Nations?, BRILL, pp. 279–290, doi:10.1163/ej.9789004173750.i-366.57, ISBN 978-90-474-4436-7, retrieved 2023-05-17
  3. ^ Doubt, Keith; Shatzmiller, Maya (2005). "Islam and Bosnia: Conflict Resolution and Foreign Policy in Multi-Ethnic Societies". Sociology of Religion. 66 (1): 92. doi:10.2307/4153123. ISSN 1069-4404. JSTOR 4153123.
  4. ^ "Egypt's Sisi meets world Evangelical churches delegation in Cairo". 19 Nov 2017.
  5. ^ Pennington, J. D. (April 1982). "The Copts in modern Egypt". Middle Eastern Studies. 18 (2): 158–179. doi:10.1080/00263208208700503. ISSN 0026-3206.
  6. ^ Tadros, Mariz (2013-06-15), "Coptic Protest and Copts in Protest", Copts at the Crossroads, American University in Cairo Press, pp. 161–182, doi:10.5743/cairo/9789774165917.003.0009, ISBN 9789774165917, retrieved 2023-05-17
  7. ^ Doubt, Keith; Shatzmiller, Maya (2005). "Islam and Bosnia: Conflict Resolution and Foreign Policy in Multi-Ethnic Societies". Sociology of Religion. 66 (1): 92. doi:10.2307/4153123. ISSN 1069-4404. JSTOR 4153123.
  8. ^ May, Stephen; Modood, Tariq; Squires, Judith (2004-11-11), "Ethnicity, nationalism, and minority rights: charting the disciplinary debates", Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Minority Rights, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–24, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511489235.002, ISBN 9780521603171, retrieved 2023-05-17
  9. ^ Kan, Toby (2020-09-03). "Coptic Christians and Muslims in Egypt: Two Communities written by Flkry F. Andrawes, and Alison Orr-Andrawes". International Journal of Asian Christianity. 3 (2): 240–241. doi:10.1163/25424246-00302011. ISSN 2542-4238. S2CID 234613656.
  10. ^ May, Stephen; Modood, Tariq; Squires, Judith (2004-11-11), "Ethnicity, nationalism, and minority rights: charting the disciplinary debates", Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Minority Rights, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–24, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511489235.002, ISBN 9780521603171, retrieved 2023-05-17
  11. ^ Affairs, Berkley Center for Religion, Peace and World. "Minority (Trans)Nationalism between Egypt and the United States". berkleycenter.georgetown.edu. Retrieved 2023-05-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ Tadros, Mariz (2013-06-15), "Coptic Protest and Copts in Protest", Copts at the Crossroads, American University in Cairo Press, pp. 161–182, doi:10.5743/cairo/9789774165917.003.0009, ISBN 9789774165917, retrieved 2023-05-17
  13. ^ van der Vliet, Jacques (June 2009), "The Copts: 'Modern Sons of the Pharaohs'?", Church History & Religious Culture, 89 (1–3): 279–90, doi:10.1163/187124109x407934.
  14. ^ Reid, Donald Malcolm (2003). "7". Whose Pharaohs?: Archaeology, Museums, and Egyptian National Identity from Napoleon to World War I. U. of California Press. pp. 258ff. ISBN 9780520240698.
  15. ^ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Egypt : Copts of Egypt". Refworld. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
  16. ^ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Egypt : Copts of Egypt". Refworld. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
  17. ^ Vliet, Jacques van der (2009-01-01). "The Copts: 'Modern Sons of the Pharaohs'?". Church History and Religious Culture. 89 (1): 279–290. doi:10.1163/187124109X407934. ISSN 1871-2428.
  18. ^ Haeri, Niloofar. Sacred language, Ordinary People: Dilemmas of Culture and Politics in Egypt. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 2003, pp. 47, 136.
  19. ^ Deighton, H. S. "The Arab Middle East and the Modern World", International Affairs, vol. xxii, no. 4 (October 1946), p. 519.
  20. ^ "COPTIC ASSEMBLY OF AMERICA - Reactions in the Egyptian Press to a Lecture Delivered by a Coptic Bishop in Hudson Institute". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2016-04-20.
  21. ^ Vliet, Jacques van der (2009-01-01). "The Copts: 'Modern Sons of the Pharaohs'?". Church History and Religious Culture. 89 (1): 279–290. doi:10.1163/187124109X407934. ISSN 1871-2428.
  22. ^ Deighton, H. S. "The Arab Middle East and the Modern World", International Affairs, vol. xxii, no. 4 (October 1946)
  23. ^ Ramzy, Carolyn M. (2015-10-20). "To Die is Gain: Singing a Heavenly Citizenship among Egypt's Coptic Christians". Ethnos. 80 (5): 649–670. doi:10.1080/00141844.2014.943260. ISSN 0014-1844. S2CID 144166700.
  24. ^ Ramzy, Carolyn M. (2015-10-20). "To Die is Gain: Singing a Heavenly Citizenship among Egypt's Coptic Christians". Ethnos. 80 (5): 649–670. doi:10.1080/00141844.2014.943260. ISSN 0014-1844. S2CID 144166700.
  25. ^ Ramzy, Carolyn M. (2015-10-20). "To Die is Gain: Singing a Heavenly Citizenship among Egypt's Coptic Christians". Ethnos. 80 (5): 649–670. doi:10.1080/00141844.2014.943260. ISSN 0014-1844. S2CID 144166700.
  26. ^ Ramzy, Carolyn M. (2015-10-20). "To Die is Gain: Singing a Heavenly Citizenship among Egypt's Coptic Christians". Ethnos. 80 (5): 649–670. doi:10.1080/00141844.2014.943260. ISSN 0014-1844. S2CID 144166700.
  27. ^ Ramzy, Carolyn M. (2015-10-20). "To Die is Gain: Singing a Heavenly Citizenship among Egypt's Coptic Christians". Ethnos. 80 (5): 649–670. doi:10.1080/00141844.2014.943260. ISSN 0014-1844. S2CID 144166700.
  28. ^ Ramzy, Carolyn M. (2015-10-20). "To Die is Gain: Singing a Heavenly Citizenship among Egypt's Coptic Christians". Ethnos. 80 (5): 649–670. doi:10.1080/00141844.2014.943260. ISSN 0014-1844. S2CID 144166700.
  29. ^ Vliet, Jacques van der (2009-01-01). "The Copts: 'Modern Sons of the Pharaohs'?". Church History and Religious Culture. 89 (1): 279–290. doi:10.1163/187124109X407934. ISSN 1871-2428.

Bibliography

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  • Shatzmiller, Maya (2005). Nationalism and Minority Identities in Islamic Societies. McGill-Queen's Press.
  • Lin Noueihed, Alex Warren. The Battle for the Arab Spring: Revolution, Counter-Revolution and the Making of a New Era. Yale University Press, 2012.
  • Jacques van der Vliet (2010). The Copts: ‘Modern Sons of the Pharaohs’?
  • J.D. Pennington (1982). The Copts in Modern Egypt
  • E.J. Chitham (1986). The Copts as a Minority group in The Coptic Community in Egypt
  • Charles D. Smith (2005). The Egyptian Copts: Nationalism, Ethnicity, and Definition of Identity for a Religious Minority in Nationalism and Minority Identities in Islamic Societies. McGill-Queens's Press.
  • F.F. Andrawes & A. Orr-Andrawes (2019). ‘Two communities, one nation’ Coptic Christians and Muslims in Egypt’. American University in Cairo Press.
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