Has Hlai grammar

This article is a description of the grammar of standardized Has Hlai, a Hlai language spoken on the island of Hainan, China, by the Hlai (Li) ethnic group. The parts of speech are nouns, verbs, adjectives, conjunctions, numerals, adverbs, and pronouns.^[1]^[2]

Introduction

The Hlai people (or, as they are called in Chinese, the Li – 黎族) are the original inhabitants of southern Hainan. A Kra–Dai people, they are believed to have settled there at least 2,000 to 6,000 years ago, and carry genetic markers from ancient people who reached the island between 7,000 and 27,000 years ago.^[3] The Pre-Hlai language they spoke would later evolve into Proto-Hlai, and from there into the modern Hlai languages.

In June 1956, China's government implemented research on Hainan Island of the Hlai people's language.

A 1983 report, Liyu diaocha yanjiu (黎语调查研究),^[4] claimed that the Hlai language is made up of five languages^{[clarification needed]}: Has 侾黎, Gheis 杞黎, Hyuuen 本地黎, Moeifou 美孚黎, and Deitou 加茂黎. For education, the Lauxhuet dialect of Has (Chinese: 侾方言罗活土语) in Ledong Baoyou Baoding (Chinese: 乐东抱由镇保定村) was chosen to be the Li's standardized language. It was this language from which the "Li orthography" (Chinese: 黎文方案) was developed.

In September 1984, two organizations, Central University for Nationalities and the Institute of Minorities in Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, made some revisions to the Li orthography. The Hlai language's orthography was finalized with the publishing of a textbook entitled Basic Li Course (Pinyin: Liyu Jichu Jiaocheng; Chinese: 黎语基础教程).^[5]

At the end of 2019, a Hlai-language dictionary was officially posted online (http://www.tunhlai.com).

Phonology and orthography

Consonants

Has Hlai has 31 consonants.^[6] /ȶ/ is only found as a coda.

(Still under work)		Labial	Alveolar		Alveolo- palatal	Velar		Glottal
(Still under work)		Labial	plain	sibilant	Alveolo- palatal	Plain	Lab.	Plain	Lab.	Pal.
Nasal		m [m]	n [n]		ny [ȵ]	ng [ŋ]	ngw [ŋʷ]
Plosive/ Affricate	aspirated	p [pʰ]	t [tʰ]	c, q [tsʰ]		k [kʰ]	kw [kʷʰ]	(ʔ)
	unvoiced	b [p]	d [t]	z, j [ts]	ty [ȶ]	g [k]	gw [kʷ]
	voiced					gh [ɡ]	ghw [ɡʷ]
	implosive	bh [ɓ]	dh [ɗ]
	lateral	bl [pˡ]
Fricative	voiceless	f [f]	hl [ɬ]					h [h]	hw [hʷ]	hy [hʲ]
Fricative	voiced	v [v]		dz [z]
Approximant		w [ˀw]	l [l]		y [ˀj]
Trill			r [r]

Notes:

/ʔ/ is a null initial
/ʔw/ and /ʔj/ are glottalized
The velar stops are allophonic in Has Hlai with fricative forms (/k/ > /x/, etc)
/f/, /v/ are labiodental; /m/, /b/, /p/, /pʰ/, and /pl/ are bilabial

Vowel rimes

^[7]^{[clarification needed]}

		Nucleus
		a [a]		e [e]		i [i]		o [o]		u [u]		uu [ɯ]
		Short	Long	Short	Long	Short	Long	Short	Long	Short	Long	Short	Long
Coda	-a					ia [ia]				ua [ua]		uua [ɯa]
	-i	ai [ai]	aei [aːi]	ei [ɵi]					oei [oːi]	ui [ui]	uei [uːi]		uuei [ɯːi]
	-u	au [au]	aeu [aːu]		eeu [eːu]	iu [iu]	ieu [iːu]	ou [ou]
	-ɯ	auu [aɯ]		euu [eɯ]
	-m	am [am]	aem [aːm]	em [em]	eem [eːm]	im [im]	iem [iːm]	om [om]	oem [oːm]			uum [ɯm]	uuem [ɯːm]
	-n	an [an]	aen [aːn]	en [en]	een [eːn]	in [in]	ien [iːn]		oen [oːn]	un [un]	uen [uːn]	uun [ɯn]	uuen [ɯːn]
	-ȵ	any [aȵ]	aeny [aːȵ]	eny [eȵ]						uny [uȵ]	ueny [uːȵ]
	-ŋ	ang [aŋ]	aeng [aːŋ]	eng [eŋ]	eeng [eːŋ]	ing [iŋ]	ieng [iːŋ]	ong [oŋ]	oeng [oːŋ]		ueng [uːŋ]	uung [ɯŋ]	uueng [ɯːŋ]
	-p	ap [ap]	aep [aːp]	ep [ep]	eep [eːp]	ip [ip]	iep [iːp]	op [op]	oep [oːp]			uup [ɯp]	uuep [ɯːp]
	-t	at [at]	aet [aːt]	et [et]	eet [eːt]	it [it]	iet [iːt]		oet [oːt]	ut [ut]	uet [uːt]	uut [ɯt]	uuet [ɯːt]
	-ȶ	aty [aȶ]	aety [aːȶ]	ety [eȶ]					oety [oːȶ]	uty [uȶ]	uety [uːȶ]
	-k	ak [ak]	aek [aːk]	ek [ek]	eek [eːk]	ik [ik]	iek [iːk]	ok [ok]	oek [oːk]		uek [uːk]	uuk [ɯk]	uuek [ɯːk]

Tones

Has Hlai has 3 tones. Each tone can take two forms, depending on whether the syllable ends in a stop ("tonic tone")^{[clarification needed]} or not ("level tone")^{[clarification needed]}.

(work in progress)	"level tone"		"tonic tone"
High-Falling	(nothing added) [꜒꜔]	kai ("chicken")	(stop is doubled) [꜒꜔]	oekk ("to drink")
High-Flat	x [꜒꜒]	tax ("rice")	(nothing added) [꜒꜒]	hliet ("to cut")
Low-Flat	s [꜖꜖]	pas ("father")	s [꜖꜖]	daeps ("rope")

Grammar

Nouns

Common nouns

Related to mankind/person

【baiskaux】: (1) woman; (2) wife, it is only used by a husband to call his own wife; it is an impolite word to use to call others' wives.
【pasmaen】: (1) man; (2) husband, it is only used by a wife to call her own husband; it is an impolite word to use to call others' husbands.
【baisdza】: mother, it is used by a narrator. When a child calls his/her own mother, he/she uses the word "bais"
【pasdza】: (1) father, it is used by a narrator. When a child calls his/her own father, he/she uses the word "pas"; (2) a respected way to call an elderly man.

Related to objects/things

【ghang】: hill, mountain
【noms/nams】: (1) water; (2) river
【laengs】: sea
【fei】: (1) n.: fire; (2) v.: walk
【ghei】: rice

Related to time or space

【hwanneix】: today;【uuhaux】: tomorrow
【paisdeuu】: up;【paisfou】: down; 【paiskueng】: right;【paishluums】: left

Proper nouns

People

Han (Chinese) name: All Li's Chinese names are loan words, borrowed from the Hainanese spoken language in the region called Uislius (黄流), e.g., Maeus zek dhongx, (Mao Zedong (毛泽东), the founder of the People's Republic of China.
Hlai name: The Li people usually call their children with names from their own language (Hlai).

Group/organization/party

These are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Dangx Gok Gong Caens Dhaengs (中国共产党), Chinese Communist Party.

Places

These are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Bhakgengs, "Beijing, 北京 (capital of the People's Republic of China)"; Haeisnaems dhaeus, "Hainan Island, 海海南岛"; Lokdhongs, "Ledong, 乐东 (the central city of the tribe of Has Hlai )"

Nations

Most are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Dangx Gok, "China, 中国";
few are not loan words, e.g., Moei, "Han people, 汉族"; Hlai, "Li people, 黎族"

Abstract nouns

These nouns are mostly loan words. The Hlai language being both practical and concrete in nature, is not suitable for describing anything intangible.^{[citation needed]}

The basic rules for Nouns in Hlai language^[8]^[9]^[2]

1. Nouns usually cannot be modified by number alone; the number needs a proper classifier following the number to modify the noun.

zuu

a/one

lang

CL

dzax

snake

"a snake"

But, nouns associated with dates (like year, month, day), are modified with numbers alone (no classifiers).

fus

three

boux

year

"three years"

hlaus

two

hwan

day

"two days"

ba

five

nyaen

month

"May"

When the word "nyaen" refers to the name of a month (as May above), a number can modify "nyaen" without a classifier. However, when the word "nyaen" refers to the number of months (as below), a classifier is required to modify the word "nyaen."

ba

five

hom

CL

nyaen

month

"five months"

2. Nouns cannot be modified by adverbs, nor can a noun be doubled (e.g., **uxaeu uxaeu, "man man"; **blongs blongs, "house house") to express the meaning of "every" as is done in Chinese. The way to present the meaning of "every" is to use the word "ranx" plus a proper classifier as below:

ranx

every

zuen

CL

uxaeu

man/one

"everyone"

ranx

every

hom

CL

blongs

house

"every house"

3. Although the Hlai language does not have declension of gender, it does have two prefixes to indicate the gender: "bais" for female and "pas" for male, e.g.

pasdza, "father"

baisdza, "mother"

paskai, "cock/rooster"（kai: chicken）

baiskai, "hen"

pasdzuengsgong, "salesman" （dzuengs: sale, gong: stuff）

baisdzuengsgong, "saleswoman"

When the word "bais" exists alone, the meaning is mother; "pas" means father. "Pas" could also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

Kun

PL

hluuekmuuen

young man

hauux

those

zuu

one

pas

CL

lax

eat

zuu

one

hom.

CL

"Each of those young men ate one."

4.The Hlai language does not use suffixes or prefixes for nouns to denote plurality as in the English language. But, the Hlai language uses the word "kun" to indicate the plurality of nouns, e.g.

Kun

PL

aeudza

old man

rien

say/talk/speak

tun

word

raeu

laugh

dhuus

in

fou

under

cai.

tree

"The old men were telling jokes under the tree."

The word "kun" can also be used together with a number and a classifier to modify nouns, e.g.,

Kun

PL

hlaus

two

zuen

CL

kauus

older sister

fuuek

weave

riens

skirt

paens.

decorative pattern

"The two older sisters were weaving skirts with a decorative pattern."

5. A noun can be a subject, predicate, object, e.g.

cai

tree

subject

tuuen

out of

ceeng

flower

object

"trees bloom (flowers)"

Veengs

shirt/top

subject

hauux

that

veengs

shirt/top

predicate

meuu.

you.SG

"That shirt/top is yours."

6. A noun can be an attribute, and also can be modified by attributes e.g.

Meuu

you

kweis

want

ojiep

learn

caqias

script

Hlai

Li

da?

Q

"Do you want to learn Hlai script?"

7. A noun can also be an adverbial modifier, e.g.

Tong

tong

neix

this

cai

tree/wood

vuek.

do/make

"This hookah is made out of wood." (tong = An apparatus for smoking, such as a hookah)

8. A noun in relation to time can even be an adverbial modifier to modify a verb, e.g.

Hwanneix

today

fous

hot

dhat

very

lo!

EMPH

"It's so hot today!"

Na

he/she

uunyeuu

day after tomorrow

hei

go

zok

to/toward

das.

mother's mother

"He is going to grandma's house the day after tomorrow."

Fa

we

uupans

yesterday

beuuluueng.

come back

"We came back yesterday."

9. When the word "guu" is placed before a noun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.

Vabheny

airplane

neix

this

guu

POSS

Dongxgok.

China

"This airplane belongs to China."

Hlaus

two

lang

CL

duis

water buffalo

neix

this

guu

POSS

Laufus.

Mr. Fu

"These two water buffaloes belong to Mr. Fu."

Verbs

^[10]^[11]

Action verbs

【vuek，做】: to do, make...(it is used frequently)
【lax，吃】: (1) to eat, drink, smoke...; (2) to swallow up (it is used frequently)
【duuengx，给】: to give
【taeix，打】: to strike, hit
【bleuu，听】: (1) to hear; (2) to feel
【dzok，偷】: to steal
【zongs，坐】: to sit
【ghais，叫，请，派】: to tell someone(s) to do something; to invite...
【fei，走】: (1) v.: to walk; (2) n.: fire
【cuuek，休息】: to rest
【tuas，欺骗】: to cheat
【liengs，看守】: to watch, to guard
others

Linking verbs

【man，是】: am, is, are (be verbs, sometimes omitted in the sentence)
【ghwaix，不是】: am not, is not, are not

Verbs for expressing mental activities

【dhas，怕】: to fear, to be afraid of
【ngop，想念】: to long to see again, to miss
【oep，爱】: to love, to like
【vuuengx，心里烦乱】: confusing, disorderly (used as a verb)
【luuemx，忘记】: to forget
【uuen，埋怨】: to complain
【tuuenngaen，生气】: to be angry (other similar word: kis, kisngaen)
【dhaix，忍受】: to endure, to bear
others

Verbs for expressing existence, change, development

【dhuus，在】:(1) v.: to exist; (2) prep.: in, on, at
【zaux，有】: to have, there is/are
【hlaeux，死】: (1) v.: to die; (2) n.: death
【hlou，生】: (1) v.: to give birth; (2) adj.: alive, living
【long，长大】: (1) v.: to grow up; (2) adj.: big, large
【dzauux，变】: to change
others

Modal verbs

【gieu，能】: to be good at, to be able to, can
【gax，不能】: to be unable to, cannot
【kweis，愿意】: to be willing to
【ais，不愿】: to be not willing to
【dheeng-hwoek，同意，愿意】: to agree with, to be willing to
【kueng，会】: to know how to, to be able to
【boei，不会】: to not know how to, to be unable to
【loepp，可以，能够】: to be allowed to, to be able to
【guulax，必须，应该】: must, should
【kiemx，必须，应该】: must, should (this is a loan word)
【komx，必须，应该】: must, should (this is a loan word)
【auux，敢】: to dare to
others

Verbs of motion

【buuen，来】: to come
【hei，去】: to go
【beuu，回】: to go back to, to return
【luueng，返】: to return
【dhuas，过】: to pass through
【kaen，上】: to go up
【luei，下】: to go down
【hluet，进】: to go into
【tuuen，出】: (1) v.: to go out, to leave, to exit; (2) prep.: from
【dhaens，到】: to arrive

The basic rules for Verbs in Hlai language^[12]^[11]

1. In Hlai language, verbs never change their form. The placement of an adverb or an auxiliary word after or before a verb determines the verb's tense.

A. Progressive aspect

The adverbial word "faets" or "fietla" can express the action in process, and is placed before a verb, e.g.,

ex:

Na

he/she

faets

ADV.PROG

lax

eat

tax.

rice

"He is eating." (Chinese: 他正在吃饭)

ex:

Daty

bird

faets

ADV.PROG

bheny.

fly

"The birds are flying." (Chinese: 鸟正在飞)

ex:

Hluuek

child

na

he/she

fietla

ADV.PROG

laix

plough

dax.

field

"His children/child are/is plowing the field." (Chinese: 他的孩子正在犁田)

B. Perfect aspect

The verbs with the word "bhaeis" expresses an action that has already happened. If "bhaeis" is placed before a verb, it is an adverbial,e.g.,

Hluuek

child

na

he/she

bhaeis

ADV.PERF

hei

go

ang

field

he.

accent

"His children/child already went to the field." (Chinese: 他的孩子已经去山栏地了)

Pashlaus

older brother

na

he/she

bhaeis

ADV.PERF

bleuu

hear

fan

then

rien,

say

"Eis,

accent

hluumsghweuu

don't know

na

he/she

guu.

FUT

loms

still/again

cas

or

da?"

not

'When his brother heard of it, he said, "Oh, I don't know that he would still do that (or) not?"' (Chinese: 他哥哥（已经）听了便说，"哎，不知道他还要这样不?")

If the word "bhaeis" is placed after a verb, it acts as a complement and means "finished", e.g.,

Hou

I

lax

eat

tax

rice

bhaeis

finished

goms

then

hei.

go

"After I finish dinner, I'll go." (Chinese: 我吃完饭就去)

The word "dhuas" can also denote the perfect aspect, ("(1) v.: pass through; (2) an auxiliary word that indicates that an action has already happened, and is placed after the verb; (3) an auxiliary word that expresses a comparison, and is placed after the adjective") e.g.,

Meuu

you

laeis

see

zuu

one

zuen

CL

aeu

person/people

neix

this

dhuas

PERF

cas

or

da?

not

"Have you ever seen this man?" (Chinese: 你见过这个人吗？)

Dhes

I

da

not

rien

say/speak

dhongneix

like this

dhuas.

PERF

"I didn't say anything like that." (Chinese: 我没有说过这样的话)

C. Future aspect

The auxiliary word "kweis" or "guu" indicates that an action is in future by being placed before a verb, e.g.,

Na

he/she

kweis

FUT

hei

go

Damxax.

Sanya city

"He is going to Sanya." (Chinese: 他要去三亚)

Meuu

you

kweis

FUT

vuek

do/make

meshes?

what

"What will you do?" (Chinese: 你要干什么？)

The nuance between the two words "kweis" and "guu" is that: when two verbs are used together, if the first one is the method of the second one, or the second one is the purpose of the first one, only the word "guu" can be placed before the second verb, e.g.,

Bhoek

carry

noms

water

guu

for the purpose of

roengx

cook

tax.

rice

"bring the water (used) for cooking" (Chinese: 打水煮饭)

D. Others

If an action only lasts for a short while, the adverbial word "zuufanx" is placed after the verb, e.g.,

Gaux

lie down

zuufanx.

a short while

"Lie down (for) a short while." (Chinese: 躺一会儿)

Duuengx

to let/to allow

hou

I

cat

wear

zuufanx.

a short while

"Let me wear it (for) a short while." (Chinese: 给我穿一下子)

2. Hlai verbs, including action verbs, verbs for expressing mental activities, and verbs for expressing existence, change, and development, can be predicates or predicate heads in a sentence. Most of these verbs can be followed by objects or by complements, and can be modified by adverbials, nouns of time, and auxiliary words, e.g.,

Dhes

I

naeus

just

buuen.

come

"I just came here." (Chinese: 我刚来)

Mieu

cat

gaenys

bite

diu.

mouse

"A cat bites a mouse." (Chinese: 猫咬老鼠)

Pasdza

father

dhuus

exist in

blongs.

house

"Father is at home." (Chinese: 父亲在家)

Meuu

you

uuhaux

tomorrow

kweis

FUT

hei

go

da?

not

"Are you going tomorrow (or not)?" (Chinese: 你明天去吗？)

3. Hlai verbs, except for linking verbs, can usually be made nominal by adding a prefix "uu-"; nominal verbs can be a subject, but cannot be a major part of the predicate, e.g.,

Uu-laix

NMLZ-plow

hauux

that

dax

field

hou.

my

"The field that has been plowed is mine." (Chinese: 那犁过的是我的田)

Uu-buuen

NMLZ-come

hauux

that

ghueng

young brother or sister

dhes.

my

"The one who is coming is my brother/sister." (Chinese: 那个来的是我的弟弟（妹妹）)

Nominal verbs still can function as a verb with an object following it; the nominal verb and the object together can function as a subject, object or nominal predicate, e.g.,

Duis

buffalo

neix

this

man

is

uu-duuengx

NMLZ-give

hlausghueng.

relatives

"The buffalo is for (giving to) the relatives." (Chinese: 这牛是给亲戚的)

Uu-oep

NMLZ-love

hou

me

man

is

dhangjis

comrade

hou.

my

"The one who loves me is my comrade." (Chinese: 爱我的是我的同志)

4. Hlai verbs are rarely doubled as they are in Chinese; only monosyllabic action verbs and verbs for expressing mental activities can be doubled. Doubled monosyllabic verbs imply that the action is casually and carelessly done, e.g.,

Na

he/she

bleuu

hear

bleuu

hear

fan

then

beuu.

go back

"He (only) heard about/of it and went back." (Chinese: 他听了听就回去了)

Kun

PL

hluuekueng

young girl

dzueis

look

dzueis

look

fan

then

fei

walk

hluet

go into

blongs.

house

"The girls (only) taking a quick look, then went into the house." (Chinese: 姑娘们看了看就走进屋里去了)

A verb followed by "laeis" comes to mean "to try"; if a verb is followed by an object, the word "laeis" should be placed after the object, e.g.,

Hou

I

qim

taste

laeis.

try

"I'll try (to taste) it." (Chinese: 我尝尝看)

Meuu

You (s.)

dzueis

look

dhang

face

na

he/she

laeis.

try

"You try to look at his face." (Chinese: 你看看他的脸)

5. Modal verbs are usually placed before a verb forming the predicate of a sentence to express 1) the ability of the one performing the action, or 2) the possibility, obligation, or need of the action, e.g.,

Dhes

I

kueng

know how

rien

say/speak

tun

word

Moei.

Han/Chinese

"I can speak Chinese." (Chinese: 我会讲汉语)

Meuu

You

kiemx

should/must

hei

go

geek

look for

guns.

firewood

"You should look for firewood." (Chinese: 你应该去砍柴)

Meuu

you

guulax

should/must

dhongneix

like this

vuek

do

naus

just

dhiu.

right

"You must do (it) like this, (for it) to be done just right." (Chinese: 你必须这样做才对)

Na

he/she

gax

be not able

vuek

do

gong

work

neix.

this

"He is not able to do this work." (Chinese: 他无法做这个工作)

Modal verbs cannot be followed by noun-objects, nor can modal verbs be doubled, except in an interrogative sentence, that a positive and negative modal verb is used to ask yes or no, e.g.,

Meuu

You

kueng

know how

da

not

kueng?

know how

"Do you know how to do it (or not)?" (Chinese: 你会不会？)

Only in answering questions, can a modal verb act alone as a predicate, except for the modal verbs "kiemx", "guulax" and the word "guu", which cannot act as a predicate, e.g.,

Meuu

You

gieu

be able to

rien

say/speak

tun

word

Hlai

Li

cas

or

da?

not?

Dhes

I

gieu.

be able to

"Can you speak the Hlai/Li language? I can." (Chinese: 你能说黎语吗？我能)

Modal verbs sometimes can be followed by an object, e.g.,

Na

he

bhaeis

already

o

learn (loan word)

kueng

know how

qias

script

Hlai

Li

he.

accent

"He already learned the Hlai's/Li's script." (Chinese: 他已经学会黎文了)

The antonym of the modal verb "kweis" is "ais"; the antonym of "kueng" is "hluums", and that of "gieu" is "gax", which cannot be used in the imperative mood.

6. Verbs of motion can act alone as a predicate, e.g.,

Uengxtoengs

everyone

buuen

come

res!

accent

"Everyone, come!" (Chinese: 大家来吧！)

Also, verbs of motion can follow a main verb to express the direction of the action forming a predicate, e.g.,

Dhes

I

fei

walk

hluet

go into

blongs.

house

"I walked into the house." (Chinese: 我走进屋里)

Na

he/she

tuuen

from

blongs

house

ghoux

run

tuuen

go out

buuen.

come

"He ran out of the house." (Chinese: 他从屋里跑出来)

Zuufanx

a short while

blei

swim

hei,

go to,

zuufanx

a short while

blei

swim

luueng.

go back

"swim back and forth." (Chinese: 一会儿游去，一会儿游回)

Also, verbs of motion can combine together and become compound words as can be seen in the chart below:

	buuen (来, to come)	hei (去, to go to)	beuu (回, to go back)
luueng (回返, back)	buuenluueng，回来	heiluueng，回去	beuuluueng，回去
dhuas (过, pass)	buuendhuas，过来	heidhuas，过去	beuudhuas，回去，过去
kaen (上, up)	buuenkaen，上来	heikaen，上去	beuukaen，回去，上去
luei (下, down)	buuenluei，下来	heiluei，下去	beuuluei，回去，下去
hluet (进, into)	buuenhluet，进来	heihluet，进去	beuuhluet，回去，进去
tuuen (出, out)	buuentuuen，出来	heituuen，出去	beuutuuen，回去，出去
beuu (回, back)	buuenbeuu，回来	heibeuu，回去

The compound words above can be followed by objects, e.g.,

Hou

I

hwanneix

today

bhaeis

already

duengx

carry/bring

heikaen

go up

hwous.

mountain

"I have already brought (it) to the mountain today." (Chinese: 我今天已经送到山上去)

Pasdza

Father

ghuis

lead/direct

na

he/she

heihluet

go into

hwous

mountain

hloek.

deep

"Father took him into the remote mountains." (Chinese: 父亲带他进入深山)

Pasbhanghlauux

name of a man

fan

then

beuuluueng

come back

blongs.

home

"Then, Pasbhanghlauux went home." (Chinese: Pasbhanghlauux 便回家去)

Except for the word "luueng", the words found in the first column of the chart ("dhuas", "kaen", "luei", "hluet", "tuuen", and "beuu") and the words found along the top row ("buuen", "hei", and "beuu") can exchange positions. After exchanging positions, the compound words cannot be followed by an object, and usually are used in imperative mood.

7. Linking verbs are placed before nouns, noun phrases or pronouns, combining two grammatical parts as a predicate, to provide information about the objects, e.g.,

Hou

I

man

am

Hlai,

Li,

ghwaix

am not

Moei.

Han/Chinese

"I am a Li, not a Han." (Chinese: 我是黎族，不是汉族)

Na

He

man

is

pashlaus

older brother

hou.

my

"He is my older brother." (Chinese: 他是我的哥哥)

The linking verbs can be omitted, e.g.,

Na

He

pasghueng

younger brother

hou.

my

"He is my younger brother." (Chinese: 他是我的弟弟)

But, when the subject or predicate is too long, or when the predicate includes numbers, the linking verbs cannot be omitted, e.g.,

Gha

We

uengxtoengs

everyone

bhaeisbhaeis

all

ruus

all

man

are

uxaeu

people

Dongxgok.

China

"All of us are Chinese." (Chinese: 咱们大家都是中国人)

Linking verbs cannot go with words that indicate the tense (like "faets" or "bhaeis" or "dhuas"), nor with directional verbs or with the complement, nor be modified by adverbials, or be doubled.

8. When the suffix "toengs" is added to some verbs, the compound words become reciprocal verbs, and cannot be followed by any objects, e.g.,

Duis

Water buffalo

tut'toengs.

collide with each other

"The buffaloes collided with each other." (Chinese: 牛互相碰撞)

Na

He/she

hlaus

two

zuen

CL

oeptoengs

love each other

dhat.

truly

"The two of them love each other very much." (Chinese: 他们两人很相爱)

9. Some words in Hlai language are both nouns and verbs, e.g.,

	noun	verb
fun	fun rain long big fun long rain big "heavy rain" (Chinese: 大雨)	fun rain, bhe! accent fun bhe! rain, accent "It is raining!" (Chinese: 下雨了！)
coem	coem fruit cai tree coem cai fruit tree "fruit" (Chinese: 果子)	cai tree coem bear fruit cai coem tree {bear fruit} "The tree bears fruit." (Chinese: 树结果)
dzuuem	dzuuem egg kai chicken dzuuem kai egg chicken "chicken egg" (Chinese: 鸡蛋)	kai chicken dzuuem lay egg kai dzuuem chicken {lay egg} "The chicken is laying an egg." (Chinese: 鸡下蛋)
haeis	haeis excrement duis water buffalo haeis duis excrement {water buffalo} "water buffalo's excrement" (Chinese: 牛屎)	duis water buffalo haeis excrement duis haeis {water buffalo} excrement "The water buffalo is defecating." (Chinese: 牛拉屎)

In Chinese and English, the verb "wear" can apply to different actions, like wearing a necklace, wearing a hat, or wearing earrings. However, in Hlai language these different actions are distinguished by different verbs, e.g.,

"to wear"
- kienx (for wearing a necklace);
- mieng (for wearing earrings);
- ngwaus (for wearing a hat);
- pien (for wearing a skirt, pants, shoes);
- cat (for wearing a top, a shirt)
"noise"
- roeng (from an insect or bird);
- vuns (from a dog);
- hyoen (from a rooster);
- ngwaety (from a human)

Adjectives

^[13]^[14]

Describing the characteristics of a person or thing

【hleny，好】: good
【reek，坏】: bad, not good
【kaeix，冷】: cold
【fous/faus，热】: hot
【dza，老】: old
【bluuek，年轻】: young
【hloek，深】: deep
【tuuens，浅】: shallow
others

Describing the forms/attributes of thing

【long，大】: big, large
【enyx，小】: small
【peek，高】: tall, high
【tauus，矮】: short
【daeus，长】: long
【taty，短】: short
others

Describing the state of actions or emotions

【dzuuns，快】: quick
【dais，慢】: slow
【hluengs，松】: loose
【guung，紧】: tight
【hlenyfaty，快乐】: happy
【heen，容易】: easy
others

The basic rules for Adjectives in Hlai language^[15]^[9]^[14]

1. In Hlai language, adjectives cannot be a subject, nor an object, but can act as a predicate, attribute, adverbial, or complement.

A. As a predicate

The adjective goes after the subject, e.g.,

Zuu hom coem hauux long baisias.

One classifier fruit that big/large very much

"那一个果子很大，That fruit (is) large!"

Zuu zuen aeu max reek.

One classifier man/person there bad

"那一个人坏，That man (is) bad/notorious."

B. As an attribute

The adjective goes after the noun that is modified, e.g.,

dhop kieu

cloth blue/green

"蓝布，(a) blue cloth"

veengs paens

shirt/top colorful

"花衣服，(a) loud (pronounced colors) shirt"

fun long

rain big

"大雨，heavy rain"

hwous enyx

mountain small

"小山，(a) small mountain / hill"

blongs peek

house tall

"高房子，(a) tall house"

ceeng hleny

flower good

"好花，(a) pretty flower"

C. As an adverbial

The adjective is placed before the verb, e.g.,

Meuu dais dais lax as.

You slow slow eat an accent

"你慢慢地吃吧！(You) Eat slowly."

Na kauuspaeis fei.

He/she swift in action walk

"他迅速地走，He walked quickly."

D. As a complement

The adjective usually comes after the verb in a sentence, e.g.,

Na vuek reek he.

He/she do/make bad an accent

"他弄坏了，He has broken (it)."

Meuu bhaeis laix hleny hyos?

You already plow well marker of question

"你已经犁好了吗？Have you finished plowing?"

2. An adjective also can be modified by adverbs, which can be placed either before or after the adjective, e.g.,

da hleny

not good

"不好，not good"

da peek

not tall

"不高，not tall"

vaeu reek

most bad

"最坏，worst"

duix hlenymuuen

most beautiful

"最美丽，most beautiful"

paens dhatdhat

colorful/floral truly/really

"很花，very colorful"

hlenyfaty baisias

happy very much

"很高兴，very happy"

3. In Hlai language, adjectives have comparative and superlative degrees.

A. comparative degree

Either "dhuas" or "bhi", denote comparative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If the word "dhuas" is used, it should be placed after the adjective, and the adjective and "dhuas" should be placed between the two objects being compared, e.g.,

Baisdza peek dhuas hluuekbaiskaux.

Mother tall more than daughter

"母亲高过女儿，The mother is taller than her daughter."

Zuuhwuuep long dhuas zuu'ei.

Winter melon/white gourd big more than pumpkin

"冬瓜大过南瓜，The white gourd is bigger than her pumpkin."

If the loan word "bhi" is used, it is placed between the two objects being compared, and the adjective is placed after the latter object, e.g.,

Meuu bhi dhes peek.

You compare I tall

"你比我高，You are taller than I (am)."

Blongs dhes bhi blongs na hleny.

House my compare house his good

"我的房子比他的房子好，My house is better than his."

B. superlative degree

Either "vaeu" or "duix", denote superlative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If either "vaeu" or "duix" is used, it should be placed before the adjective, e.g.,

Pashlaus vaeu gieu.

Older brother most capable

"哥哥最能干，The older brother is most capable."

Baiscuty duix hlenymuuen.

Youngest daughter most beautiful

"幺妹最漂亮，The youngest daughter is most beautiful."

According to my Hlai language consultant, Mr. Liu, "The word veau could possibly imply a derogatory, an exaggerated or overstated statement." It depends on the context.

C. Others

"Zuugit", instead of indicating comparative or superlative degrees, denotes "(just) a little bit", e.g.,

Zuu kuuengx cai neix peek zuugit.

One classifier tree this tall a little bit

"这棵树高一点，This three is just a little bit taller."

Veengs neix baen zuugit.

shirt/top this new a little bit

"这衣服新一点，This dress is just a little bit newer."

4. Except for adjectives that describe a mental/emotional status, adjectives can be made nominal by adding the prefix "uu-". Adjectives that are nominal cannot be a predicate, but can act as a subject, an object, or an attribute, e.g.,

Uu-hleny neix man guu meuu.

The good one this is a maker of possession you

"这个好的是你的，This good one is yours."

Na qieng dheuu uu-daeus.

He/she want to take the long one

"他想拿长的，He wants to take the long one."

Kai uu-long hauux man guu dhes.

Chicken the big one that is a maker of possession me

"那只大的鸡是我的，That big chicken is mine."

5. Adjectives for describing the forms/attributes of things, and those for describing the status of actions or emotions, can be doubled, but the adjective has to be monosyllabic.When the adjectives are doubled, the degree of the adjective increases, e.g.,

veengs kaeu kaeu

shirt/top white white

"白白的衣服，white clothes"

dzuuns dzuuns buuen

quick quick come

"快快来，come quickly"

dais dais fei

slow slow walk

"慢慢走，walk slowly" (When the Hlai people are saying farewell (bye), "dais dais fei" is the phrase they say to each other.)

Two different adjectives can be doubled like AABB, e.g.,

Blongs dhes baen baen hleny hleny.

House my new new good good.

"我的房子又新又好，My house is new and good."

Zuu hom hwous neix peek peek long long.

One classifier mountain this high high big big

"这一座山又高又大，This mountain is tall and big."

Two different adjectives also can be positioned in an ABAB pattern, e.g.,

Guen neix peek tauus peek tauus.

Road this high short high short

"这条路高高低低，This road is rough/bumpy."

Na fei aus uty aus uty.

He/she walk swing swing swing swing

"他踉踉跄跄地走着，He is walking tipsy (unsteady like a drunk)."

Zuu dhaenx guen neix muety toei muety toei.

One classifier road this straight flat straight flat

"这一条路平平直直，This road is straight and smooth."

Also, some monosyllabic adjectives express an increasing degree by the adding of a prefix, which combines the initial consonant of that adjective with a vowel like "i" or "u"; and the tone of the prefix is the first tone, e.g.,

li- loek

prefix dark

"黑漆漆，pitch-dark"

ri- raeux

prefix sparse

"稀疏，sparse"

gu- goeks

prefix concave

"黑漆漆，full of bumps and holes/uneven"

ghu- ghaeu

prefix clear

"清澈，clear"

6. Some adjectives can have a duplicated suffix tagged on to the ends, which cannot exist independently, to intensify the description, e.g.,

kaeu- laepplaepp

white something looks bright

"亮晶晶，something is so white as to be bright"

loek- tingting

black something looks dark

"黑漆漆，something is so black as to be dark"

tax fous-qiettqiett

rice hot something looks hot

"饭热乎乎，the hot rice"

7. The word "enyx" is used to describe something small, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the latter word, e.g.,

"enyx" + noun	noun + "enyx"
enyx hla, small fish "小鱼，small fish"	hla enyx, fish small "小的鱼，small fish"
enyx kai, small chicken "小鸡，chick"	kai enyx, chicken small "小的鸡，chick"
enyx dziengx, small finger "小指，small finger"	dziengx enyx, finger small "小的手指，small finger"

The word "long" is used to describe something big or large, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the former word, e.g.,

"long" + noun	noun + "long"
long duis, big water buffalo "大的水牛，big buffalo"	duis long, water buffalo big "大水牛，big buffalo"
long hwoet, big wind "大的风，big wind."	hwoet long, wind big "大风，big wind"
long cai, big tree "大的树，big tree"	cai long, tree big "大树，big tree"

Another way to express something big or large is to add the prefix "bais-" to nouns related to objects/things; but, if the prefix "bais-" is added to nouns related to mankind/persons, it becomes an indicator of gender, e.g.,

bais-fun, big rain "大雨，heavy rain"	bais-kuuengxcai, big tree "大树，big tree"
bais-qien, big stone "大石头，big stone"	bais-coem, big fruit "大果子，big fruit"
bais-duis, big water buffalo "母水牛，female buffalo"	bais-kai, big chicken "母鸡，hen"

Nouns that have the prefix "bais-" added on to them can be modified by the word "long" to increase the degree, e.g.,

bais-kuuengxcai long,

big tree big

"很大的树，large tree"

bais-qien long,

big stone big

"很大的石头，large stone"

If the speaker intends to increase the degree, the word "dhat" or "dhatdhat" can be added.

Numbers

^[16]^[17]

Numbers in Hlai language, including cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, and numbers of approximation, usually act as subjects, predicate, or objects in a sentence. When numbers are used with classifiers, together they become a phrase that can be an attribute to modify the noun phrase.

Cardinal numbers

Basic numbers units

【ceuus/zeuus/zuu，一】: one (in some case, the word "lax" also mean the digit—"one")
【hlaus，二】: two
【fus，三】: three
【caus，四】: four
【ba，五】: five
【dom，六】: six
【tou，七】: seven
【ghou，八】: eight
【fauus，九】: nine
【fuet，十】: ten
【ghwaen，百】: hundred
【nguen，千】: thousand
【vaens，万】: ten thousand

Basic numbers unit combinations

【fuet ceuus，十一】: eleven
【fuet hlaus，十二】: twelve
【hlaus fuet，二十】: twenty
【fus fuet ba，三十五】: thirty five
【lax ghwaen hlaus fuet，一百二十】: one hundred twenty
【caus nguen uengx ceuus，四千零一】: four thousand zero one (4,001)
【zuu vaens，一万】: ten thousand

C. Cardinal numbers by themselves usually cannot modify nouns, but need to be placed before a classifier to modify the noun that goes after the classifier, e.g.,

ex:

一只鸡

zuu

one

lang

CLF

kai

chicken

"one chicken"

ex:

十个人

fuet

ten

zuen

CLF

aeu

person/man

"ten people"

ex:

两千棵树

hlaus

two

nguen

thousand

kuuengx

CLF

cai

tree

"two thousands tree"

However, in relation to dates (like year, month, day), numbers can modify these types of nouns without classifiers.

ex:

你们住在北京一年了

Meuuda

you

doengs

live

dhuus

in

Bhakgengs

Beijing

zuu

one

boux

year

hei

pass

lo.

accent

"You have lived in Beijing for a year."

ex:

他两天不上山砍柴了

Na

he

hlaus

two

hwan

day

da

not

kaen

go up

hwous

mountain

geek

search

guns

firewood

lo.

accent

"These past two days he has not gone up to the mountain to look for firewood."

D. Cardinal numbers cannot be doubled, except for with "nguen" and "vaens"; when their pattern is AABB, and the resulting phrase means a number of great amount, e.g.,

ex:

有千千万万的人来

Zaux

have

nguen

thousand

nguen

thousand

vaens

ten thousand

vaens

ten thousand

aeu

man

buuen.

come

"There are thousands of people coming."

ex:

千千万万的人都想去北京

Nguen

thousand

nguen

thousand

vaens

ten thousand

vaens

ten thousand

aeu

man

ngan

also/all

qieng

desire

hei

go

Bhakgengs.

Beijing.

"Thousands of people want to go to Beijing."

Sometimes, the words "nguen" and "vaens" combine with "jieng" or "zuu" to form an ABAC phrase to modify a noun, synonymous in meaning to the AABB pattern, e.g.,

ex:

有成千成万的人去

Zaux

have

jieng

form

nguen

thousand

jieng

form

vaens

ten thousand

aeu

man

hei.

go

"There are thousands of people going."

ex:

千千万万的人都盼望天下雨

Zuu

one

nguen

thousand

zuu

one

vaens

ten thousand

aeu

man

ngan

all

qieng

desire

fas

sky

fun.

rain

"Thousands of people look forward to the rain."

E. There are four words ("zuu", "ceuus/zeuus", and "lax") that can represent the place value of "one", but each word has its own usage.

First, when Hlai people count, they will say, "ceuus/zeuus, hlaus, fus, caus…(1, 2, 3, 4…)", they won't use "zuu" or "lax" for one.

The word "zuu" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun.

ex:

一只水牛

zuu

one

lang

CLF

duis

water buffalo

"one water buffalo"

The digit 1, when it is either in the 100's, 1,000's, 10,000's, 100,000's.... place of a number, the word "zuu" should be used for 1, e.g.,

ex:

一百

zuu

one

ghwaen

hundred

"one hundred"

ex:

一千

zuu

one

nguen

thousand

"one thousand"

ex:

一万

zuu

one

vaens

ten thousand

"ten thousand"

The digit 1, when it is either in the 10's or 1's place of a number, the word "ceuus/zeuus" should be used for 1, e.g.,

ex:

十一

fuet

ten

ceuus/zeuus

one

"eleven (11)"

ex:

一百一十

zuu

one

ghwaen

hundred

ceuus/zeuus

one

fuet

ten

"one hundred and ten (110)"

ex:

一万一千零一十一

zuu

one

vaens

ten hundred

zuu

one

nguen

thousand

ceuus/zeuus

one

fuet

ten

ceuus/zeuus

one

"Eleven thousand and eleven (11,011)"

ex:

一百零一

zuu

one

ghwaen

hundred

uengx

and

ceuus/zeuus

one

"one hundred and one (101)"

However, if the number is used with a classifier, then the word "zuu" should be used, e.g.,

ex:

一千零一个

zuu

one

nguen

thousand

uengx

and

zuu

one

hom

CLF

"one thousand and one (objects)"

The word "lax" cannot be used with a classifier. The word "lax" only can be used in the first digit when the number is bigger than ten. However, if the number is multiple of 10 like 100, 1000, 10000...etc., the word "zuu" should be used, instead of "lax". e.g.,

ex:

一十一

lax

one

fuet

ten

ceuus/zeuus

one

(=

=

fuet

ten

ceuus/zeuus)

one

"eleven (11)"

ex:

一百一十一

lax

one

ghwaen

hundred

ceuus/zeuus

one

fuet

ten

ceuus/zeuus

one

"one hundred and eleven (111)"

ex:

一千六百

lax

one

nguen

thousand

dom

six

ghwaen

hundred

(=

=

zuu

one

nguen

thousand

dom

six

ghwaen)

hundred

"one thousand six hundred (1600)"

F. There are two words ("fuet" and "bun") that are used for the place value of "ten," but each word has its usage.

First, "fuet" is used for the number ten when counting.

"Bun" does not need to go with a classifier to modify a noun. However, if the word "bun" does go with a classifier to modify a noun, the only two classifiers that can be used are "hom" and "lang"; but when "lang" is used with people, "bun" cannot be used.

ex:

二十块钱

hlaus

two

bun

ten

hom

CLF

gan

money

(=

=

hlaus

two

bun

ten

gan)

money

"twenty dollars"

ex:

三十只鸡

fus

three

bun

ten

lang

CLF

kai

chicken

(=

=

fus

three

bun

ten

kai)

chicken

"thirty chickens"

"Fuet" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun, e.g.,

ex:

十只水牛

fuet

ten

lang

CLF

duis

water buffalo

"ten water buffalo"

However, "fuet" can be placed in front of nouns, which are also classifiers, e.g.,

ex:

五十岁

ba

five

fuet

ten

boux

CLF/year

"fifty years"

ex:

三十岁

fus

three

fuet

ten

waeu

CLF/bowl

"thirty bowls"

Zero

In Hlai language, there is no word for the number "zero"; some areas adopted the loan word "lengs" (零，zero), e.g.,

ex:

一百零五

zuu

one

ghwaen

hundred

lengs

zero

ba

five

"one hundred and five (105)"

However, the number "zero" can be represented by the conjunction "uengx" or "loms", e.g.,

ex:

一百零二（个）

zuu

one

ghwaen

hundred

uengx

and

hlaus

two

(hom)

(CLF)

"one hundred and two (102)"

ex:

三千零二十（个）

fus

three

nguen

thousand

loms

again

hlaus

two

fuet

ten

(hom)

(CLF)

"three thousand and twenty (3020)"

H. In Hlai language, there are two rules to construct numbers

(1) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed after "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is addition, e.g.,

ex:

十一

ten

one

"eleven (11)"

ex:

十二

ten

two

"twelve (12)"

(2) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed before "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is multiplication, e.g.,

ex:

三十

three

ten

"thirty (30)"

ex:

二百

two

hundred

"two hundred (200)"

Ordinal numbers

A. In Hlai language, the word "ghwous" (头，head) or "ceuus" (一，one) means "first", and the word "cuty" (尾，tail) means "last"; for all numbers in between first and last, the word "tom" (中间，middle) is used.

hluuek-ghwous-ghwa

child head to plant

"老大（长子），the first born child (usually, it means "son")"

hluuek-tom

child middle

"老二，老三…，the child(ren) in the middle"

hluuek-cuty

child tail

"老幺，the youngest child"

When one's gender is needed, the word "pasmaen" (男人，man) or "baiskaux" (女人，woman) can be added, e.g.,

hluuek-pasmaen-ghwous-ghwa = hluuek-ghwous-ghwa

child man head to plant = child head to plant

"长子，the first born son"

hluuek-baiskaux-ghwous-ghwa = hluuek-baiskaux-long

child woman head to plant = child woman big

"大女儿，the first born daughter"

Usually "ghwous" indicates the oldest male; "long" the oldest female, like "kauuslong" (大姐, oldest sister), "zoulong" (大嫂，wife of oldest brother).

Moreover, the prefix "pas-" (男性，man) or "bais-" (女性，woman) can be added to the words "tom" and "cuty", to indicate gender, e.g.,

pas- tom

male prefix middle

"次子，the son in the middle"

bais- cuty

female prefix tail

"幺女，the youngest daughter"

When ordinal numbers apply to things, usually the phrase is constructed by "ghwous" + "zuu" + a proper classifier to represent the first one, e.g.,

ghwous zuu kuuengx

head one classifier for tree

"头一棵，the first (tree)"

To present the last one, usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baiscuty" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,

baiscuty zuu hom

last/tail one classifier

"最后一个，the last (one)"

To present the middle one(s), usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baistom" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,

baistom zuu lang

middle one classifier

"第二，或第三…，the 2nd, or 3rd…"

Counting with ordinal numbers

Usually, any accuracy in communication is done with loan words from Chinese, e.g.,

【dhoeis-iet，第一】: first
【dhoeis-dzis，第二】: second
【dhoeis-das，第三】: third
【dhoeis-dis，第四】: fourth
【dhoeis-ngau，第五】: fifth
【dhoeis-laekk，第六】: sixth
【dhoeis-qiet，第七】: seventh
【dhoeis-bhoeix，第八】: eighth
【dhoeis-gaeus，第九】: ninth
【dhoeis-dapp，第十】: tenth

dhoeis-iet dus

first group

"第一组，the first group"

dhoeis-bhoeix dhuix

eighth team

"第八队，the eighth team"

dhoeis-dzis bhaenx

second class

"第二班，the second class"

C. For counting the passage of years, months, days, or time

In Hlai culture, people use a way similar to the Chinese Zodiac to count years, and even days, e.g.,

year
- 【boux-diu，鼠年】: the year of the mouse
- 【boux-duis，牛年】: the year of the buffalo
- 【boux-cauus，鱼年】: the year of the fish
- 【boux-bous，兔年】: the year of the rabbit
- 【boux-dang，龙年】: the year of the dragon
- 【boux-zan，虫年】: the year of the insect
- 【boux-ngas，马年】: the year of the horse
- 【boux-mat，人年】: the year of the man
- 【boux-nok，猴年】: the year of the monkey
- 【boux-kai，鸡年】: the year of the chicken
- 【boux-tety/hwanba，狗年】: the year of the dog
- 【boux-bou，猪年】: the year of the pig
day
- 【hwan-diu，鼠日】: the day of the mouse
- 【hwan-duis，牛日】: the day of the buffalo
- 【hwan-cauus，鱼日】: the day of the fish
- 【hwan-bous，兔日】: the day of the rabbit
- 【hwan-dang，龙日】: the day of the dragon
- 【hwan-zan，虫日】: the day of the insect
- 【hwan-ngas，马日】: the day of the horse
- 【hwan-mat，人日】: the day of the man
- 【hwan-nok，猴日】: the day of the monkey
- 【hwan-kai，鸡日】: the day of the chicken
- 【hwan-tety/hwanba，狗日】: the day of the dog
- 【hwan-bou，猪日】: the day of the pig

For counting months, in Hlai culture, there are two kinds of calendar: one is following the Han's solar calendar, e.g.,

【zuu-nyaen-baen，一月、正月】: January
【hlaus-nyaen，二月】: February
【fus-nyaen，三月】: March
【caus-nyaen，四月】: April
【ba-nyaen，五月】: May
【dom-nyaen，六月】: June
【tou-nyaen，七月】: July
【ghou-nyaen，八月】: August
【fauus-nyaen，九月】: September
【fuet-nyaen，十月】: October
【fuetceuus-nyaen，十一月】: November
【fuethlaus-nyaen，十二月、腊月】: December

The other is following the Han's lunar calendar, e.g.,

【zuu-hwan-nyaen，初一】: the first day of a lunar month
【hlaus-hwan-nyaen，初二】: the second day of a lunar month
【fus-hwan-nyaen，初三】: the third day of a lunar month
【caus-hwan-nyaen，初四】: the fourth day of a lunar month
..........
【fuetceuus-hwan，十一日】: the 11th day of a lunar month
【fuetceuus-hwan，十二日】: the 12th day of a lunar month
..........
【hlausfuetceuus-hwan，二十一日】: the 21st day of a lunar month
【fusfuet-hwan，三十日】: the 30th day of a lunar month

Number of Approximation

A. In Hlai language, one way to represent approximate numbers is to place two or three sequential numbers together, e.g.,

hlaus fus (hom)

two three (classifier)

"两三（个），two or three"

ba dom (hom)

five six. (classifier)

"五六（个），five or six"

hlaus fus caus (hom)

two three four (classifier)

"二三四（个），two, three, or four"

tou ghou fauus (hom)

seven eight nine (classifier)

"七八九（个），seven, eight, or nine"

Usually, the numbers one and two are not put together.

B. Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dzaengsloepp" (大约/大概，probably), e.g.,

dzaengsloepp zaux fuet dom hom

probably have ten six classifier

"大概有十六个，probably have sixteen (ones)"

dzaengsloepp zaux hlaus fuet boux he

probably have two ten year accent

"大概有二十岁，about twenty years old"

The word "dzaengsloepp" also can be shortened to "loepp",e.g.,

loepp zaux tou fuet ceuus kuuengx

probably have seven ten one classifier for tree

"大约有七十一棵，probably have seventy-one (trees)"

C. Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dza" (余，a surplus/more than), e.g.,

hlaus dza hom

two surplus classifier

"两个多，more than two (less than three)"

fuet dza boux

ten surplus year

"十多年，more than ten years (less than twenty)"

The word "dza" can also be used with "loepp" to represent approximate numbers. The construction is "loepp" + zaux + number + "dza", e.g.,

Na loepp zaux fuet dza boux da buuen he.

he probably have ten surplus year not come accent

"他大约有十余年没来了，He hasn't come (to this place) for more than ten years."

The word "zaux" in this construction can be omitted, e.g.,

Zuu hom as neix loepp fuet dza gins.

one classifier watermelon this probably ten surplus classifier, about 500g

"这个西瓜大约有十多斤，This watermelon is a little more than 10 gins."

D. There are some synonyms, like "zuugit", "zuugitgit", "zuugitlaei", that can be used to represent approximate numbers. These words indicate the uncertainty of a small amount, e.g.,

Na naus lax zuugit vi!

he just/only eat a little bit accent

"他才吃一点点，He only ate a little bit.)"

Hou zaux zuugitgit.

I have a little bit

"我有一点点，I have a little bit.)"

bhinx zuugitlaei

lack a little bit

"缺了一点点，lacks a little bit."

The word "zuutom" (一部分，a part/some) represents the uncertainty of a given amount, e.g.,

zuutom hei zuutom buuen

some go some come

"一部分（人）去，一部分（人）来，Some (people) go, some (people) come."

paem na dhuus zuutom guen

meet he in part way

"在半路上碰见他，meet him part way"

Sometimes, the word "zuutom" means "half",e.g.,

zuu pas zuutom

one classifier for man half

"一人一半，each one (gets) half"

Another word to represent the uncertainty of a given amount is "gei" (几, 若干, several), which implies the amount is less than ten, e.g.,

gei hwan neix

several day this

"这几天，these days"

Mansnyoengx zaux gei zuen aeu buuen.

only have several classifier man come

"只有几个人来，Only a few people come (less than ten)"

E. The word "hloei" (多, many/much) can represent the uncertainty of a great amount; if the amount is even greater, this word, "hloei" is repeated, "hloeihloei", e.g.,

Bhous na hauux hloei duis dhat.

village he that many water buffalo very

"他那个村牛很多，There are a lot of buffalo in his village."

Dhuix fa neix zaux uxaeu hloeihloei.

team we this have man so many

"我们这个队有许多人，We have so many people on this team."

When a certain amount is requested, the word "hloeiras" (多少，how many/much) can be used in an interrogative sentence, e.g.,

Meuu boux neix hloeiras boux?

you year this how many year

"你今年多大岁数？How old are you this year?"

Meuu zaux hloeiras zuen hluuekghueng?

you have how many classifier younger sister or brother

"你有多少个弟弟妹妹？How many younger brothers and sisters do you have?"

Classifiers

^[18]^[19]^[20]

1. Classifiers that modify nouns

A. Common classifiers

• 【hom，个、块、所、颗、粒、朵、元、座、盏、顶...】: most frequently used, and used with inanimate objects (including fruit, month, story, building, flower, money, mountain, light-stand, hat...), e.g.,

zuu hom waeu

one classifier bowl

"一个碗, a bowl."

• 【zuen，位】: it is only used with humans, e.g.,

hlaus zuen bhiengs

two classifier soldier

"两个士兵, two soldiers"

• 【laus，个、位】: it is only used with males whether a baby, child, boy or young man, e.g.,

zuu laus hluuek

one classifier child

"一个男孩, a boy"

• 【hauus，个、位】: it is only used with females whether a baby, child, girl or young woman, e.g.,

hlaus hauus hluuek

two classifier child

"两个女孩, two girls"

• 【lang，只】: it can be used with humans, animate objects and spiritual beings, e.g.,

fus lang kai

three classifier chicken

"三只鸡, three chickens"

• 【kuuengx，棵】: it is used with larger plants (flowers use "hom"), e.g.,

caus kuuengx cai

four classifier tree

"四棵树, four trees"

• 【fans，件】: it is used with shirts or blouses, e.g.,

ba fans veengs

five classifier shirt/top

"五件衣裳, five shirts or blouses"

• 【hyax，条、件】: it is used with trousers/pants, e.g.,

hlaus hyax kous

two classifier pants

"两条裤子, two pairs of pants"

• 【ruet，条】: it is used with skirts, e.g.,

zuu ruet riens

one classifier the traditional Hlai skirt

"一条筒裙, a skirt"

• 【tos，套】: it is used with a suit of clothes or an outfit, e.g.,

zuu tos veengs kous

one classifier shirt/top pants

"一套衣服裤子, a suit or outfit having a matching top and bottom"

• 【tut，套】: it is used with a suit or outfit of clothes, e.g.,

zuu tut veengs

one classifier shirt/top

"一套衣服, a suit of clothes"

• 【dhanx，条、根】: it is used with linear objects, e.g.,

zuu dhanx dhoei

one classifier rope

"一根绳子, a rope"

dom dhanx noms

six classifier river

"六条河, six rivers"

• 【viens，块，张】: it is used with massive or planar objects, e.g.,

tou viens noeng duis

seven classifier skin water buffalo

"七张牛皮, seven pieces of cow hides"

• 【rueis，块、张】: it is usually used with flat surfaced planar objects, e.g.,

hlaus rueis aek bou

two classifier meat pig

"两块猪肉, two slabs of pork"

fus rueis noeng loei

three classifier skin muntjak

"三张麂子皮, three pieces of chamois (small antelope) hide"

• 【ban，头、只】: it is used with cows or horses, e.g.,

hlaus ban gas

two classifier horse

"两匹马, two horses"

• 【pous/paus，堆】: it is used with a relative smaller pile (pous/paus is also a verb), e.g.,

zuu pous van

one classifier earth

"一堆土, a pile of earth"

zuu pous guns

one classifier firewood

"一堆柴, a pile of firewood"

• 【kun，堆】: it is used with a relative bigger pile, e.g.,，

zuu kun muens

one classifier rice in the husk

"一大堆稻谷, a large pile of rice"

• 【baep，把】: it is usually used with seedling (There is no wheat on the Island of Hainan/Hlai people's territory.), e.g.,

zuu baep fan

one classifier seedling

"一把秧, a handful of rice seedlings"

• 【hax，把】: it is usually used with rice, e.g.,，

zuu hax muens

one classifier rice

"一把稻子, one handful of rice"

• 【bhaeng，间】: it is usually used with a room or building, e.g.,

zuu bhaeng blongs

one classifier house

"一间屋子, a building/house"

zuu bhaeng qiafei

one classifier train

"一节火车厢, a box car"

• 【bhaengs，梭/颗、封】: it is usually used with letters (a written communication as one sent through the mail) a bullet or a firecracker, e.g.,

zuu bhaengs veji

one classifier bullet

"一梭/颗子弹, a bullet"

zuu bhaengs dienx

one classifier letter

"一封信, a letter"

• 【bhak，块】: it is usually used with flat objects, e.g.,

zuu bhak gias

one classifier glass

"一块玻璃, a piece of glass"

zuu bhak qias

one classifier paper

"一块硬纸片, a piece of cardboard"

• 【bheek，幅】: it is usually used with a picture or painting, e.g.,

zuu bheek ueix

one classifier picture/painting

"一幅画, a picture/painting"

• 【bhuek，把】: it is usually used with straw, e.g.,

zuu bhueks ngwiengs

one classifier straw

"一把稻草, a handful of straw"

• 【bhui，本】: it is usually used with books, e.g.,

hlaus bhui qias

two classifier book

"两本书, two books"

• 【cax，座】: it is usually used with mountains, e.g.,

zuu cax hwous

one classifier mountain

"一座山, a mountain"

• 【ceuus，枝、秆】: it is usually used with a pen or stick, e.g.,

zuu ceuus bhit

one classifier pen

"一支笔, a pen"

• 【cueng，枚】: it is usually used with a needle, e.g.,

zuu cueng guty

one classifier needle

"一枚针, a needle"

• 【dhien，畦or 幅】: it is usually used with farmland (rectangular plots of land in a field, separated by ridges, usually for growing vegetables), also used with cloth, e.g.,

zuu dhien van bheuudaeis

one classifier land/earth vegetables

"一畦菜地, a bed of vegetables"

zuu dhien dhop

one classifier cloth

"一幅布, a piece of cloth"

• 【dhun，户、家】: it is usually used with households, e.g.,

bhous fa zaux hlaus fuet dhun blongs.

Village our have two ten classifier households

"我们村子有二十户人家, There are twenty households in our village."

• 【gas，辆、架】: it is usually used with a car or a plane, e.g.,

zuu gas qia

one classifier car

"一辆车, a car"

zuu gas vabheny

one classifier airplane

"一架飞机, an airplane"

• 【ghoeix，行、排】: a row, a line, e.g.,

fus ghoeix cai

three classifier tree

"三行树, three rows of trees"

zuu ghoeix qias

one classifier word/letter

"一行字, one line of words"

• 【ha，缕】: it is usually used with light.

• 【hus，副】: it is usually used with playing cards, poker.

• 【hwoens，堆、块】: it is usually used with fields or objects that can be organized in a pile, e.g.,

zuu hwoens guns

one classifier firewood

"一堆柴火, a pile of firewood"

zuu hwoens dax

one classifier field

"一块水田, a field"

• 【hluut，层】: it means "layers" or "levels", e.g.,

fus hluut laeus

three classifier the floor in building

"三层楼, three floors"

Van neix zaux fus hluut na.

Land this have three classifier thickness

"这土有三层厚, This soil has three layers."

• 【ka，枝】: it is usually used with branches, e.g.,

zuu ka cai

one classifier tree

"一枝树枝, a branch"

• 【kok，棵】: it is usually used with mushrooms, e.g.,

zuu kok dhety

one classifier mushroom

"一棵菌子, a mushroom"

• 【koen，只】: it is usually used with one object in a pair, e.g.,

zuu kuen zuugoems

one classifier shoe

"一只鞋, a shoe"

zuu koen fiek

one classifier classifier

"半挑东西, a pole balanced on a shoulder by half a load being carried in the front and the other half being carried in the back (fiek: the action of carrying stuff on a shoulder becomes a classifier)."

• 【kou，张、顶】: it is usually used with mesh, e.g.,

zuu kou ghoeis hla

one classifier net fish

"一张鱼网, a fishing net"

• 【liemx，瓣】: it is usually used with a clove or segment of fruit, e.g.,

zuu liemx coembhem

one classifier grapefruit

"一瓣柚子, a piece of grapefruit"

• 【leep，叠】: it is usually used with thin objects like paper, e.g.,

hlaus leep qias

two classifier paper

"两层纸, two sheets of paper"

• 【leeps，瓣、片、层】: it is usually used with thin objects

• 【luuengs，把】: it is usually used with a saw (tool for sawing)

• 【moux，种、类】: it means a "kind, sort", e.g.,

neix zuu moux hleny

This one classifier good

"这一种好, This is a good one."

zaux hlenyhloei moux muens

have many classifier rice

"有好多种稻子, There are many kinds of rice."

• 【paeng，串】: it is usually used with fruit, e.g.,

zuu paeng zuuloengs

one classifier betel nut

"一串槟榔, a cluster of betel nut"

• 【pienx，把】: it is usually used with knives e.g.,

zuu pienx gas

one classifier knife

"一把刀, a knife"

• 【puens，杆、根】: it is usually used with tree trunks or any bar-like or rod-like objects, e.g.,

zuu puens cai

one classifier tree

"一根树干, a stump (or tree trunk)"

zuu puens bhit

one classifier pen

"一支笔, a pen"

• 【raeis，块、片】: it is used with fields, e.g.,

zuu raeis dax

one classifier field

"一片田, a field"

• 【ras，棵，株】: it is usually used with grass or rice, e.g.,

zuu ras gans

one classifier grass

"一棵草, a blade of grass"

• 【rok，块】: it is usually used with hillside fields (fields far from a water source), e.g.,

zuu rok ang

one classifier field

"一块刀耕地, a field"

(ang: specifically, a burned up plot of land that is fertilized for future farming by the remaining ashes; an ancient farming way of Hlai people, but now forbidden by the CN government)

fus rok pos

three classifier hillside field

"三块旱地, three fields on the hillside"

• 【ruets，摞】: it is usually used with massive objects

• 【taeu，批、群】: it is usually used with a batch of goods or a group of animals, e.g.,

caty zuu taeu liem

buy one classifier sickle

"买一批镰刀, buy a bundle of sickles"

zuu taeu dzeeng

one classifier goat/sheep

"一群羊, a flock of goats"

• 【tuueng，把】: it is usually used with farm tools, e.g.,

zuu tuueng rik

one classifier rake

"一把耙, a rake"

• 【vaen，梳、下】: it is usually used with comb-like, comb-shaped objects, e.g.,

zuu vaen hweek

one classifier banana

"一梳芭蕉, a bunch of bananas"

or it is used for counting the number of times of pestling, e.g.,

ceek fuet vaen

pestle ten classifier

"舂十下, pestle ten times"

• 【vans，张、页、幅、块】: it is usually used with paper products, e.g.,

zuu vans qia

one classifier paper

"一张纸, a piece of paper"

zuu vans diets

one classifier picture

"一幅照片, a photograph"

• 【voei，桶】: it is usually used with something that can be carried in a bucket, e.g.,

zuu voei ghei

one classifier rice

"一桶米, a bucket of rice"

• 【vong，嘟噜】: it is usually used with something formed as a cluster (tropical fruit is usually in clusters, such as coconuts, betel nuts), e.g.,

zuu vong coemcai

one classifier fruit

"一嘟噜果子, a cluster of fruit"

B. Classifiers for measurement

• 【mous，亩】: (Chinese acre) a unit of area to measure a land or field, about 667 square meters, e.g.,

zuu mous dax

one classifier field

"一亩田, one mu of field"

• 【dho，丈】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 dho is about 350 centimeters, e.g.

zuu dho dhop

one classifier cloth or textile

"一丈布, one zhang of cloth"

• 【qieux，尺】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 qieux is about 35centimeters, 10 qieux = 1 dho.

hlaus qieux dhop

two classifier cloth or textile

"两尺布, two feet of cloth"

• 【cuns，寸】: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, about 3.5 cm, 10 cuns = 1 qieux.

fus cuns dhop

three classifier cloth or textile

"三寸布, three inches of cloth"

• 【hlaenx，庹】: the length of two arms, about the height of a person, about 5–6 feet.

• 【hwuup，拃】: the distance between the thumb and the middle finger pressed down on a surface in a straight line, about 15–20 centimeters, e.g.,

zuu hwuup daeus

one classifier length

"一拃长, one zuo length"

• 【tunx，节】: the length of a finger, about 6–9 centimeters.

• 【dhas，石】: a unit of weight, e.g., fuetdhas ghei, "十石米 (fuet: ten, ghei: uncooked rice)." 1 dhas is probably equal to 150 gins, about 75 kg.

• 【dhaeu，斗】: a unit of weight, e.g.,zuu dhaeu ghei，"一斗米 (zuu: one, ghei: uncooked rice)."10 dhaeu = 1 dhas; 1 dhaeu = 10 kax = 15 gins, about 7.5 kg.

• 【kax，升】: a unit of weight, e.g.,fus kax ghei, "三升米 (fus: three, ghei: uncooked rice)." 1 kax = 1.5 gins, about 0.75 kg.

• 【gins，斤】: a unit of weight, e.g.,zuu gins hla，"一斤鱼 (zuu: one, hla: fish)." 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 0.5 kg.

• 【luuengx，两】: a unit of weight, e.g., zuu luuengxnyaeus，"一两盐 (zuu: one, nyaeus: salt)." 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 500 g; so 1luuengx = 31.25 g

• 【dhun，吨】: a modern unit of weight, 1000 kg, e.g., fauus dhun ghoei，"九吨铁, a ton of iron (fauus: nine, ghoei: iron)."

C. Classifiers derived from nouns or verbs

• 【kop，捧 or 把】: the original action of holding or carrying something in both hands becomes a measurement, e.g.,

zuu kop ghei

one classifier rice

"一捧米, one scoop of rice"

• 【koens，捆】: the original action of tying, binding or bundling up becomes a measurement, e.g.,

zuu koens hya

one classifier thatch or couch grass

"一捆茅草, a sheaf of thatch"

• 【bhiek，捆】: it is usually used with a bundle of objects that is carried on one's shoulders, e.g.,

zuu bhiek guns

one classifier firewood/sticks

"一捆柴, a bundle of firewood/sticks"

• 【zeems，撮】: the original action of picking up (with all five fingers) becomes a measurement, e.g.,

zuu zeems nyaeus

one classifier salt

"一撮盐, one pinch (using all five fingers) of salt."

• 【jims，撮】: the original action of picking up (with the thumb and forefinger/index finger) becomes a measurement, e.g.,

jims zuugit nyaeus

pick up a little of salt

"拈一点盐, a pinch (using only two fingers) of salt"

hlaus jims nyaeus

two classifier salt

"两撮盐, two pinches of salt"

• 【fiek，担or 双】: the original action of carrying a pole (usually bamboo-made) on a shoulder that is used for measurements becomes a measurement for things that were carried on poles, e.g.,

zuu fiek guns

one classifier firewood

"一担柴a bundle of firewood"

zuu fiek zuugoems

one classifier shoe

"一双鞋, a pair of shoes"

• 【gok，杯、瓶】: a cup (or a bottle), originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu gok noms

one classifier water

"一杯水, a cup of water"

zuu gok ghweis

one classifier oil

"一瓶油, a bottle of oil"

• 【waeu，碗】: a bowl, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu waeu tax

one classifier cooked rice

"一碗饭, a bowl of rice"

• 【boux/baux，岁】: a year, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu fuet ghou boux

one ten eight classifier

"十八岁, 18 years old"

• 【bhaem，围】: the original action of embracing something with two arms becomes a measurement, e.g.,

hlaus blaem cai

two classifier tree

"两围的树 tree size of two men's arms wrapped around it"

• 【comx，袋】: usually, objects that can be carried in bags that have become classifiers, e.g.,

zuu comx ghei

one classifier rice

"一袋米, a bag of rice"

• 【ding，升】: a barrel (made of coconut shells), originally a noun, becomes a measurement, e.g.,

zuu ding ghei

one classifier rice

"一升米, a barrel of rice"

• 【dhak，滴】: the original action is dripping; the meaning is "a drop", used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu dhak noms

one classifier water

"一滴水, a drop of water"

• 【dzuen，挂】: the stalk bananas grow on, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu dzuen hweek

one classifier banana

"一大挂芭蕉, a stalk of bananas"

• 【fas，阵】: as a noun it means sky, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu fas fun

one classifier rain/shower

"一阵雨, a (rain) shower"

• 【fiens，把】: as a noun it is the handle of farm tools, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu fiens gwaek

one classifier hoe

"一把锄头, a hoe"

• 【fok，块】: as a noun it is a place, area, or region, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu fok gom neix

one classifier region this

"这块地方, this region"

• 【gieps，夹】: the original action is sheaving the thatch, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

hlaus gieps hya

two. classifier thatch

"两夹茅草, two sheaves of thatch"

• 【guengs，篮、框】: a basket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu guengs ghei

one classifier hoe

"一筐米, a basket of rice"

• 【guety，串】: a stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu guety hla

one classifier fish

"一串鱼, a string of fish"

• 【neny，串】: a bamboo stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu neny hla

one classifier fish

"一串鱼, a string of fish"

• 【neny，枝】: as a noun it means a little branch, but it can also be used as a classifier with a branch or flower, e.g.,

zuu neny ceeng

one classifier flower

"一枝花, a flower"

• 【ghongs，丛】: as a noun it means a grove, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu ghongs hweek

one classifier banana

"一丛芭蕉树, a grove of banana trees"

• 【hoep，盒】: as a noun it means a box, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu hoep cuax

one classifier matches

"一盒火柴, a box of matches"

• 【hwang，圈】: as a noun it means a ring, ferrule, or band, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu hwang zuu hwang noms

one classifier one classifier water

"一圈一圈的水, a ripple (of water)"

• 【hwaeng，垄】: as a noun it means a balk, that is to be heaped up with soil into ridges, e.g.,

zuu hwaeng man

one classifier a general term for potato

"一垄甘薯, a ridge of sweet potatoes"

• 【hwoens，丘、床】: as a noun it means something lined up forming a pattern, e.g.,

zuu hwoen dax

one classifier field

"一丘田, a field";

zuu hyoen haeus

one classifier quilt

"一床被子, a quilt"

• 【op，抱】: the original action is holding a baby, e.g.,

zuu op guns

one classifier firewood

"一抱柴火, an armful of firewood"

• 【puuen，代】: as a noun it means seniority in respect to age, and as a classifier it means "generations," e.g.,

fa buuen neix bhaeis zaux fus puuen bhe

We come here already have three classifier accent

"我们来这儿已有三代了, We've been here for three generations."

• 【rei，枝】: as a noun it means sprouts, and as a classifier it is used with sprouts.

• 【ruek，窝、笼、盒】: as a noun it means nest, cage, or box, and it can be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu ruek bou

one classifier pig/hug

"一窝猪, a litter of pigs"

zuu ruek kai

one classifier chicken

"一笼鸡, a cage of chickens"

zuu ruek aenx

one classifier cake

"一盒点心, a box of cakes"

Sometimes, it is also used with urine, e.g.,

zuu ruek dhou

one classifier urine

"一泡尿, a stream of urine"

• 【taen，场、趟】: as a noun it means altar (usually for worship of the demons or the ancestors), but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

bhaeis vuek zuu taen dings.

Already do one classifier demon

"已经祭了一趟鬼, (The priest) already sacrificed once to the demons."

• 【taeng，桶】: a bucket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,

zuu taeng noms

one classifier water

"一桶水, a bucket of water"

• 【tiep，夹】: the original action is picking up food up with chopsticks, but as a noun it means chopsticks, which can be used as a classifier referring to the food amount that is taken up with a pinch of the chopsticks, e.g.,

zuu tiep bheuucai

one classifier vegetable

"一夹菜, a chopstick-pinch of food"

• 【tuck，包】: the original action is to wrap up; bind up; enclose; pack, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu tuek dza

one classifier cigarettes

"一包烟, a pack of cigarettes"

• 【veeng，户】: as a noun it means lord or master, and as a classifier it can be used with households, e.g.,

zuu veeng

one classifier

"一户(人家), a household."

• 【zaemx，步】: as a noun it means step, and the verb is stepping or walking, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,

zuu ghwaen zaemx

one hundred classifier

"一百步, one hundred steps"

• 【zeeng，穗、粒】: as a noun it means kernels (husks) of rice, but it can also be a classifier to mean the husks from a stalk of rice or something with larger kernels, e.g.,

zuu zeeng muens

one classifier rice

"一穗稻子, a stalk of rice"

zuu zeeng nyaeus

one classifier salt

"一粒粗盐, a grain of coarse salt"

2. Classifiers for modifying verbs

• 【faei，下、次、回】: time, e.g.,

taeix zuu faei

hit/beat one classifier

"打一下, to hit/beat once"

• 【gaeis，回、次、遍】: time, e.g.,

na bhaeis rien hlaus gaeis

he/she already say/speak two classifier

"他已经说了两遍了, He already said (it) two times."

• 【guen，趟、遍】: time, e.g.,

hei zuu guen

go one classifier

"去一次, go (there) one time"

• 【caety，阵、遍】: it is usually used by women, it means "time", e.g.,

bhaeis fun zuu caety

Already rain one classifier

"下了一阵雨, It already showered."

kai bhaeis hyoen fus caety

Chicken already cock crow three classifier

"鸡已叫了三遍, The chicken has already crowed three times."

• 【pienx，遍】: time, e.g.,

tak zuu pienx

study one classifier

"读一遍, read one time"

• 【caeu，阵】: it is usually used by the elderly, it means "time", e.g.,

zuu caeu fun

one classifier rain

"一阵雨, a shower (describing rain)"

zuu caeu hwoet

one classifier wind

"一阵风, a gust of wind"

• 【caens，顿】: classifier for meal, e.g.,

zuu caens tax

one classifier rice

"一顿饭, a meal"

• 【kok，脚】: feet, e.g.,

teeks zuu kok

kick one classifier

"踢一脚, give (it) a kick"

• 【boms，口】: mouth, e.g.,

gaenys zuu boms

bite one classifier

"咬一口, to take a bite"

• 【feek，口or 句】: mouth, e.g.,

lax zuu feek tax

eat one classifier rice

"吃一口饭, to take a bite of food"

na zuu feek tun ruus da rien

he/she one classifier word even not say

"他一句话也不说, He did not even say a word."

• 【pui，阵、遍】: it means "time" and is used to count sleep, e.g.,

gaux zuu pui

sleep one classifier

"睡一觉, time spent in rest/sleep"

The basic rules for Classifiers in Hlai language^[21]^[20]

1. Classifiers cannot be doubled as AA (e.g., lang lang), but can be used in a AB+AB pattern, e.g.,

Daty zuu kun zuu kun bheny.

bird one classifier one classifier fly

"鸟成群成群地飞，Birds fly in groups."

2. Classifiers cannot modify nouns alone; classifiers and numbers must be used together to modify nouns, e.g.,

Zuu lang ba neix long dhat!

one classifier dog this big really/truly

"这只狗真大！This dog is really big!"

3. Classifiers (for modifying verbs) and numbers must be used together and be placed after the verb as a complement; in some regions, the combination (number+classifier) would be placed before the verb, e.g.,

Raux fus gaeis =Fus gaeis raux

read aloud three classifier= three classifier read

"读三遍，read three times"

Taeix zuu guen = Zuu guen taeix

hit one classifier = one classifier hit

"打一次，to hit/punch one time"

4. In some occasions, the combination of numbers and classifiers exists alone, whereby they are not modifying any nouns or verbs, e.g.,

Hou caty zuu hom, meuu ngan caty zuu hom.

I buy one classifier you also buy one classifier

"我买一个，你也买一个，I buy one, and you buy one."

Pronouns

^[22]^[23]

There are three kinds of pronouns: the personal pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, and interrogative pronoun.

Personal pronouns

	singular	plural
1st person	hou, "我" (polite) dhes, "我" (casual)	fa, "我们" (exclusive) gha, "咱们" (inclusive)
2nd person	meuu, "你"	meuuda, "你们"
3rd person	na, "他/她/它"	kun, "他们" kunaeu, "他们"

The different usage of "hou" and "dhes"^[24]

The women prefer to use "hou" when women talk to women, or women to men. They prefer to use "hou" in order to express themselves as a humble woman and to show respect to their listeners.
When a senior member of the family (an elderly, parents, older brothers or sisters...etc.) is angry with a junior, he/she could choose to use "hou" or "dhes"; on the contrary, juniors are forbidden to use "dhes" when speaking with the seniors in conversation, or when they are angry at them.
Among blood relatives, when men speak to women, they use "hou"; when men speak to men, either "hou" or "dhes" can be used; when juniors speak to a senior, they usually use "hou".
Among in-laws, no matter whether men, women, seniors, or juniors, when they speak to each other, the word "hou" is preferable to express politeness.
Between hosts and guests, no matter the gender or age, the word "hou" must be used to express politeness and respect.
When someone asks a who question, "Asras…?" If it is answered with the first personal pronoun, "hou" is preferable over "dhes", e.g.,

Q: 谁在那里？A: 我呀！

Asras

Who

dhuus

is

hauux?

there?

A:

Hou

I

res!

accent

Q: Who is there? A: (It's) I.

1. If someone answers with the word "dhes", it expresses his impatient attitude. Usually, it occurs between family members' conversations, e.g.,

Q: 谁在那里？A: 我嘛！还有谁？

Q:

Asras

Who

dhuus

is

hauux?

there?

A:

Dhes

Me

vi!

accent!

Asras?

Who?

"Q: Who is there? A: (it's) I! Who else?"

When a man sings to a woman to express his love to her, he will definitely use "hou"; if he uses "dhes", she would think he is not sincere, e.g.,

露脸给我瞧；露眼睛给我见

Tuuen

Go out

dhang

face

duuengx

give

hou

me

nga;

look

tuuen

go out

ca

eye

duuengx

give

hou

me

laeis

see

"Let me see your face; let me look into your eyes."

When someone speaks rudely, he uses "dhes" instead of "hou".
In today's Hlai society, the difference between "hou" and "dhes" is not so strict. Generally, women mostly use "hou"; men usually use "dhes". The word "hou" expresses politeness and respect to the listener, and the word "dhes" is more casual.

P.S. My language consultant said: the word "kun" is a simplified form of "kunaeu". Usually, in a conversation held between those of the same gender group, "kun" is used; in a conversation held between those of different gender groups, "kunaeu" would be used to show respect. Or, if a conversation were made up of those from both the older and younger generation, the younger generation would need to use "kunaeu" to show respect toward the elderly.

	Singular 单数	Plural 复数
Reflexive pronouns 反身代名词	paszauus, "自己, self" (男性用, man/male use); zuenzauus, "自己, self" (女性用, woman/female use); veengzauus, "自己, self" (通用, general use) goemzauus, "自己, self" (委婉, polite use)
General pronouns 泛称代名词	uengxtoengs, "大家, everyone"; aeu, "人家, people"; himax, "某人, someone"; aeu uughwaix, "别人, others"

Personal pronouns can be both a subject and an object, e.g.,

ex:

他打小鸟

Na

he

taeix

hit

hluuek

child

daty.

bird

"He hit the little bird."

ex:

拿木棍打他

dheuu

take

toencai

stick

taeix

hit

na

him

"take a stick to hit him"

Personal pronouns can also act as an attribute to indicate the possessive relation, e.g.,

ex:

咱们按照他的话去做

Gha

we

vou

follow

tun

words

na

his

hei

to

vuek.

do

"Let's follow his words to do (it)."

Reflexive pronouns can be an appositive to another pronoun to emphasize the pronoun, e.g.,

ex:

这是我自己做的

Neix

this

man

is

hou

I

zuenzauus

self

vuek.

do

"I made it myself."

The auxiliary word "guu" can be placed before a personal pronoun to indicate the possessive relation. After placing the word "guu", the pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,

ex:

这一只鸡是他的

Neix

this

zuu

one

lang

CLF

kai

chicken

man

is

guu na.

his

"This chicken is his."

ex:

这房子是我的

Blongs

house

neix

this

man

is

guu dhes.

mine

"This house is mine."

Demonstrative pronouns

【neix，这】: this; here; so; such
【hauux，那】: that; there; so; such
【max，那】: that; there

The word "neix" refers to someone, or something, at a close distance; the word "hauux" is farther away than the word "neix"; the word "max" is even farther. These three words also can be combined to the words "dhong" or "hi" and become compound words as below,

【dhongneix，这】: like this
【dhonghauux，那】: like that
【hineix，这】: such
【hihauux，那】: like that

Other demonstrative pronouns are:

【uughwaix，别的】: other
【ranx，每】: every

When a demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, it is placed before the head word, e.g.,

ex:

这是新的衣服

Neix

this

veengs

shirt/top

baen.

new

"This (is) a new dress."

ex:

那是大水牛

Hauux

that

duis

water buffalo

long.

big

"That (is) a big buffalo."

When a demonstrative pronoun combines with a number, a classifier, and a noun to form a noun phrase, the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, e.g.,

ex:

那一棵树好得很

Hauux

that

zuu

one

kuuengx

CLF

cai

tree

hleny

good

baisias.

very

"That tree is very good."

When a demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute in a noun phrase, it can be placed either in the beginning or at the end of the noun phrase, e.g.,

ex:

这一只鸡肥

Neix

this

zuu

one

lang

CLF

kai

chicken

ghweis.

fat

"This chicken is fat."

ex:

这一只鸡肥，

Zuu

one

lang

CLF

kai

chicken

neix

this

ghweis.

fat

"This chicken is fat."

If the linking verb is placed between the demonstrative pronoun and the noun, the demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, e.g.,

ex:

这是两只小鸡，

Neix

this

man

are

hlaus

two

lang

CLF

kai

chicken

enyx.

little

"These are two chicks."

The words "neix", "hauux", and "max" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and an object; the word "uughwaix" can be a subject, an attribute, and an object; the compound words "dhongneix", "dhonghauux", "hineix", and "hihauux" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and a predicate, e.g.,

ex:

这样做吗？

Dhongneix

like this

vuek

do

yos?

Q

"Is it done like this?"

ex:

这样的东西好吗？

Gong

stuff

dhongneix

like this

hleny

good

yos?

Q

"Is such a thing as this good?"

ex:

别那样说，

Yous

don't

rien

say

dhonghauux.

like that

"Don't say that."

ex:

你是那样的吗？

Meuu

you

dhonghauux

like that

yos.

Q

"Are you like that?"

There is no declension in demonstrative pronouns to indicate singular or plural. So, the demonstrative pronouns need to go with the number and classifier, or the word "zuugit" to indicate singular or plural, e.g.,

ex:

那一群鸟飞了，

Zuu

one

kun

CLF

daty

bird

hauux

that

bheny

fly

he.

accent

"The flock of birds (is) flying away."

ex:

这些米是谁的？

Zuugit

some

ghei

rice

neix

this

ghei

rice

uuras?

whose

"Whose rice is this?"

When the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, it is usually placed after the head word, e.g.,

ex:

这只虾大

Buuemx

shrimp

neix

this

long.

big

"This shrimp is big."

ex:

他拿这么多

Na

he

qieus

take

hloei

many/much

neix.

so/such

"He took so much."

ex:

你要这么少

Meuu

you

dheuu

take/want

raux

little/few

hauux.

so/such

"You took/want so little."

When the demonstrative pronoun is placed after the personal pronoun, or the interrogative pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun loses its meaning, and becomes an empty word that functions as an emphasis to make it sound fluent, e.g.,

ex:

你要拿什么东西？

Meuu

you

neix

empty word

kweis

want

dheuu

take

gong

stuff

meshes?

what

"What are you going to take?"

ex:

谁找我？

Uuras

who

hauux

empty word

gongx

look for

hou?

me

"Who is looking for me?"

The demonstrative pronoun "ranx" is only placed before the classifier, and can be doubled for emphasis, e.g.,

ex:

每个人吃一个

Ranx

every

zuen

CLF

lax

eat

zuu

one

hom.

CLF

"Everyone eats one."

ex:

每一个人都吃一个

Ranx

every

ranx

every

zuen

CLF

uuaeu

man

ruus

all

lax

eat

zuu

one

hom.

CLF

"Everyone eats one."

The demonstrative pronoun "uughwaix" can be an attribute and an object, e.g.,

ex:

别的东西

gong

stuff

uughwaix

other

"other stuff"

ex:

别人（他人，不相干的人）

aeu

man

uughwaix

other

"other's"

ex:

有别的没有？

Zaux

have

uughwaix

other

cas

or

da?

not

"Do (you) have (any) other stuff?"

Interrogative pronouns

【ras，哪，如何】: Where? Which? How?
【uuras/asras，谁】: Who?
【dhongras，怎样】: How?
【qiras，何时】: When? What time?
【hloeiras，多少】: How much? How many?
【meshes，什么】: What?
others

The interrogative word "uuras" ("asras") can be a subject, an attribute, or an object, e.g.,

ex:

谁找我？

Uuras

who?

gongx

look for

hou?

me

"Who is looking for me?"

ex:

你看见谁？

Meuu

you

laeis

see

uuras?

who?

"Who do you see?"

ex:

他来谁的家？

Na

he

buuen

come

blongs

house

uuras?

who?

"Whose house is he coming to?"

Just like personal pronouns, when the auxiliary word "guu" isplaced before an interrogative pronoun, it indicates a possessive relation, and the interrogative pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,

ex:

那黄牛是谁的？

Nyiu

cow

max

that

man

is

guu uuras?

whose?

"Whose cow is that?"

ex:

这衣服是谁的？

Veengs

shirt/top

neix

this

man

is

guu uuras?

whose?

"Whose shirt/top is this?"

The interrogative word "meshes" cannot be a subject, only an attribute or an object, e.g.,

ex:

什么东西最好？

Gong

stuff

meshes

what

vaeu

most

hleny?

good

"What is the best stuff?"

ex:

他要拿什么？

Na

he

kweis

want

dheuu

take

meshes?

what

"What does he want to take?"

The interrogative word "ras" cannot be a subject, only an attribute, an adverbial or an object., e.g.,

ex:

他在哪里？

Na

he

dhuus

exist

ras?

where?

"Where is he?"

When the word "ras" acts as an attribute, it is usually used with a number and clasiifier, and is placed before a noun, e.g.,

ex:

哪一个房子最大？

Ras

which

zuu

one

hom

CLF

blongs

house

vaeu

most

long?

big

"Which house is the biggest one?"

When the word "ras" acts as an adverb, it is usually placed after the adjective, e.g.,

ex:

这果子有多大？

Coem

fruit

neix

this

long

big

ras?

how

"How big is this fruit?"

The interrogative word "dhongras" usually acts as an adverbial, and is most often is placed before a verb, but sometimes it can be placed after a verb, e.g.,

ex:

怎么吃也吃不完，

Dhongras

How

lax

eat

ngan

also

da

not

bhaeis.

finish

"There is more food than we can eat."

ex:

这山栏地怎样种？

Ang

hilly field

neix

this

ghwa

plant

dhongras?

how?

"How is this hilly field to be planted?"

The interrogative word "qiras" most often acts as an adverbial, and must be placed before the verb, e.g.,

ex:

你什么时候上街？

Meuu

you

qiras

when

hei

go

qix?

street

"When are you heading out for the streets (to buy something)?"

ex:

他什么时候返校？

Na

he

qiras

when

beuubuuen

go back

ohyaeu?

school

"When is he going back to school?"

The interrogative word "hloeiras" most often acts as an object, e.g.,

ex:

你有多少，我要多少，

Meuu

you

zaux

have

hloeiras,

how many

hou

I

dheuu

take

hloeiras.

how many

"However many you have, I will take them."

Adverbs

^[25]^[26]

Negation

【da，不】: not
【yous，不要，别】: Do not
others

These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verbs or adjectives, e.g.,

ex:

今天他不去

Hansneix

now

na

he/she

da

not

hei.

go

"Today he won't go."

ex:

这东西坏了，别吃！

Gong

stuff

neix

this

reek

bad

he,

accent

yous

don't

lax.

eat

"This stuff (is) bad, don't eat (it)!"

When the adverb "da" modifies verbs or adjectives, and "zo", an accentuated emphatic particle, is placed at the end of the sentence, "da" means "not yet", e.g.,

ex:

他不来

Na

he/she

da

not

buuen.

come

"He won't come."

ex:

他还没来呢

Na

he/she

da

not

buuen

come

zo

EMPH

"He hasn't come yet!"

When the adverb "da" is placed at the end of a sentence, then the word "da" signals a question, e.g.,

ex:

你有球吗？

Meuu

you

zaux

have

kius

ball

da?

Q

"Do you have a ball?"

Degree

【veau，最】: for expressing superlative degree
【duix，最】: for expressing superlative degree (this is a loan word)
【zangs，太】: too
【nguenxges，更加】: more, even more (this is a loan word)
【loeppvaix，恰恰，相当】: just right, just enough, exactly
【dhat，很】: very
【baisias，很，极，非常】: very much
others

These adverbs are usually placed before the adjectives to modify them, e.g.,

ex:

最坏

vaeu

most

reek

bad

"worst"

ex:

最美丽

duix

most

hlenymuuen

beautiful

"most beautiful"

ex:

太热

zangs

too

fous

hot

"too hot"

ex:

更好

nguenxges

even

hleny

good

"even better"

ex:

恰恰好

loeppvaix

exactly

hleny

good

"just right"

But, the adverbs "dhat" and "baisias" are placed after the adjectives. These two words also can modify verbs, e.g.,

ex:

很冷

kaeix

cold

dhat

very

"very cold"

ex:

非常快

dzuuns

quick

baisias

very much

"very quick"

To increase the degree of something, two different adverbs can modify the same term, e.g.,

ex:

快极了

vaeu

most

dzuuns

quick

baisias

very much

"Very, very (extremely) quick"

ex:

他非常穷

Na

he/she

vaeu

most

vaet

poor

baisias

very much

"He is very, very (extremely) poor."

The word "dhat" can be doubled to increase the degree, e.g.,

ex:

这件衣服非常好，

Veengs

shirt/top

neix

this

hleny

good

dhatdhat.

very much

"This shirt/top is a very good one."

Scope, extent, or range

【ruus，都】: all
【ngan，也，都】: also, all
【nyoengx，仅，只】: only
【mans，仅，只】: only
others

These adverbs are usually placed before the verbs to modify them, e.g.,

ex:

大家都相信，

Uengxtoengs

everyone

ruus

all

qim.

believe

"Everyone believes that."

ex:

我也做，

Hou

I

ngan

also

vuek.

do

"I also do (that)."

ex:

他只要一个果子，

Na

he/she

mans/nyoengx

only

dheuu

take

zuu

one

hom

CLF

coem.

fruit

"He only took one fruit."

These adverbs "mans" and "nyoengx" can be linked together to emphasize the voice, e.g.,

ex:

他只有一个孩子，

Na

he/she

mans-nyoengx

only

zaux

have

zuu

one

zuen

CLF

hluuek.

child

"He has only one child."

Timing

【bhaeis，已经】: already
【kuenx，先】: earlier, before, first, in advance
【naeus，刚】: just, a moment ago
【faets，正在】: in process
【dhom，还】: still, yet
【fan，就，便】: then (This word is usually used in a narrative when describing something.)
【goms，就】: then (This word is usually used in a quote.)
others

These adverbs cannot be doubled for intensity, except for the adverb "naeus", e.g.,

ex:

他刚刚来，

Na

he/she

naeus naeus

just

buuen.

come

"He has just come."

Adverbs for indicating timing usually modify verbs, and are placed before the verbal phrase, e.g.,

ex:

他刚从家里出去，

Na

he/she

naeus

just

hei

go out

tuuen

from

blongs.

house

"He's just gone out of the house."

ex:

他还没去呢，

Na

he/she

dhom

still

da

not

hei

go

zo.

EMPH

"He hasn't gone yet."

ex:

一进门我就看见他，

Zuughanx

right after

hluet

enter

blongs

house

hou

I

fan

then

laeis

see

na.

he/she

"As soon as I entered the house, I saw him."

ex:

你来到这里了，就别再回去了，

meuu

you

buuen

come

dhaens

to

neix

here

goms

then

bhaeisyous

never/not

hei

go

beuu.

back

"(Since) You came here, don't go back."

ex:

你先说，

Meuu

you

kuenx

first

rien.

say

"You speak first."

However, the adverb "kuenx" can also be placed after the verbal phrase, e.g.,

ex:

你先说，

Meuu

you

rien

say

kuenx.

first

"You speak first."

Duplication or continuation

【loms，又，再，还】: also, again,
【uuloms，又，再，还】: also, again,
【toengs，互相】: each other
others

These adverbs modify verbs; the word "loms" or "uuloms" is placed before a verb, and the word "toengs" is placed after a verb, e.g.,

ex:

你再说一遍，

Meuu

you

loms

again

rien

say

zuu

one

gaeis.

CLF

"Repeat that once more."

ex:

他们互相打架了，

Kun

they

taeix

fight

toengs

each other

he.

EMPH

"They fought each other."

The verb being modified by the adverb "toengs" can be modified by other adverbs, which are placed before the verb, e.g.,

ex:

你们别互相打架了！

Meuuda

you.PL

yous

don't

taeix

fight

toengs

each other

as!

EMPH

"Don't fight each other!"

Emphasis or transition

【oms，又，却】: but, a signal word for a transition
【naus，到底】: a signal word for emphasis
【cuuslax，原来】: so, a signal word for a transition
others

These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,

ex:

这样大的树却断了，

Baiscai

big-tree

long

big

neix

such

oms

but

caeu.

break

"Such a big tree, but (it) was broken!"

ex:

人家到底为什么骂你？

Aeu

others

naus

emphasis

cas

scold

meuu

you

vuek

do

meshes

what=why?

"Why do people scold you?"

A more unusual placement of these adverbs is at the beginning of a sentence, e.g.,

ex:

原来他在那里！

Cuuslax

so

na

he/she

dhuus

exist/in

max.

there

"So, there he is!"

Conjunctions

^[27]^[28]

Link nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, or verb-object phrases

【uengx，和，与】: and
【ku，跟，同，和】: and, to, with
【nyuek，同，和】: and, with
others

That link nouns:

ex:

狗和猪争吃

Ba

dog

ku

and

bou

pig

zestoengs

fight each other

kweis

want

lax

eat

tax.

rice

"A dog and a pig fight each other for food to eat."

ex:

妻子和丈夫共同学习

Toengsdhun

wife

nyuek

and

toengsblongs

husband

uengxtoengs

together

ojiep.

learn

"A husband and (his) wife study together."

That link pronouns:

ex:

我和你共同干活

Hou

I

uengx

and

meuu

you

uengxtoengs

together

vuek

do

gong.

work

"I and you will work together."

That link noun phrases:

ex:

我给你一个大果子和两个大箩筐

Hou

I

duuengx

give

meuu

you

dheuu

AUX

zuu

one

hom

CLF

coem

fruit

long

big

ku

and

hlaus

two

hom

CLF

guengs.

basket

"I'll give you the big fruit and two large baskets."

That link verb-object phrases:

ex:

我上街吃饭和喝酒

Dhes

I

hei

go

qix

street

lax

eat

tax

rice

ku

and

lax

eat

bhiengx.

sticky rice wine

"I hit the streets to eat rice and drink wine."

These conjunctions can be added to more than two nouns, pronouns, or phrases; These conjunctions can even be placed before the first noun, pronoun, or phrase, e.g.,

ex:

我和你和他去买东西

Uengx

and

hou

I

uengx

and

meuu

you

uengx

and

na

he

hei

go

caty

buy

gong.

stuff

"I and you and he will go shopping."

These conjunctions can also function as prepositions, as can be seen in the chart below:

	As a conjunction	As a preposition
Ku	我和他去 Hou I ku and na he hei. go Hou ku na hei. I and he go "I and he go."	我跟他说 Hou I rien say ku to na. him Hou rien ku na. I say to him "I said to him."
Uengx	你有纸和笔吗？ Meuu You zaux have bhit pen uengx and qias paper hyos? Q Meuu zaux bhit uengx qias hyos? You have pen and paper Q "Do you have pen and paper?"	你跟他说吗？ Meuu You rien say uengx to na him hyos? Q Meuu rien uengx na hyos? You say to him Q "Are you talking to him?"
Nyuek	父亲和孩子在家 Pasdza Father nyuek and hluuek child(ren) dhuus in blongs. house Pasdza nyuek hluuek dhuus blongs. Father and child(ren) in house "The father and the child(ren) are at home."	母亲和孩子睡 Baisdza Mother gaux lie down nyuek with hluuek. child(ren) Baisdza gaux nyuek hluuek. Mother {lie down} with child(ren) "The mother sleeps with her child(ren)."

The word "nyuek" is used in Hlai's folk song, and can be linked with a verb, e.g.,

ex:

母亲边数落边骂，父亲又骂又打

Baisdza

Mother

zok

rebuke

nyuek

and

cas,

scold,

pasdza

father

cas

scold

nyuek

and

taeix.

beat

"(The) mother rebuked and scolded, (the) father scolded and beat."

Some adverbs, like "loms" (又，却，again) and "hloeis" (顺便，by the way, 而且 and), can also function as conjunctions, e.g.,

ex:

那头水牛大而且肥

Duis

water buffalo

hauux

that

long

big

hloeis

and

ghweis.

fat

"That buffalo is big and fat."

ex:

这条路宽而且直

Guen

road

neix

this

bheeng

wide

loms

and

muety.

straight

"This road is wide and straight."

Link verbs, adjectives, and phrases

【cuus，或者，还是】: or
【cas，或者，还是】: or
【cuusnaus，还是】: or
others

ex:

你躺或者坐着都可以

Meuu

You

gaux

lie down

cuus

or

zongs

sit

ngan

also

loepp.

allow

"You are allowed to either lie down or sit down."

ex:

你去还是不去？

Meuu

You

hei

go

cuus

or

da？

not

"Are you going or not?"

ex:

我这件衣服好吗？

Veengs

shirt/top

dhes

my

neix

this

hleny

good

cas

or

da？

not

"Does my dress/top look good?"

ex:

近来你好吗？

naeusneix

Recently

meuu

you

hleny

good

cas

or

da？

not

"How have you been recently?"

Generally, the word "cas" is a synonym of "cuus." Both can be used in indicative and interrogative sentences. But, another synonym "cuusnaus" can only be used in interrogative sentences, e.g.,

ex:

他去还是我去？

Na

He

hei

go

cuusnaus

or

hou

I

hei？

go

"Is he going or should I go?"

ex:

你要买菠萝还是菠萝蜜？

Meuu

You

kweis

want

caty

buy

rasbluenx

pineapple

cuusnaus

or

caty

buy

lauxmety？

jackfruit

"Do you want pineapple or jackfruit?"

Link a single subordinate clause

【hans，因为】: because
【dosdzis，所以】: so
【laeis，如果】: if
【tom，但是】: but
【dagoms，不然】: otherwise
others

ex:

因为他不来，所以我不去了，

Hans

Because

na

he

da

not

buuen,

come,

hou

I

da

not

hei

go

bhe.

accent

"Because he didn't come, I didn't go."

ex:

因为他有知识，所以他懂道理，

Na

He

kueng

know

caqias,

script

dosdzis

so

na

he

kuengghweuu

know

li.

principle

"Because he knows the script, he understands the principle."

ex:

如果你去，我就等你，

Laeis

If

meuu

you

hei,

go

hou

I

goms

then

dzoeng

wait

meuu.

you

"If you go, then I'll wait for you."

ex:

以前我们很穷，但是现在和那个时候不同了，

qimax

Before

gha

we

vaet

poor

baisias,

very much

tom

but

hansneix

now

da

not

dhong

like

qihauux

before

bhe.

accent

"Before we were very poor, but now we are not like we were before."

ex:

你去，不然他去，

Meuu

You

hei,

go

dagoms

otherwise

na

he

hei.

go

"You go, otherwise he'll go."

The word "dagoms" also means "not only" or "or", e.g.,

ex:

他不但会犁田，而且会割稻，

Na

He

dagoms

not only

gieu

know

laix

how

dax,

plow

uuloms

field

gieu

but also

kieux

know how

muens.

reap rice

"Not only does he know how to plow, but he also knows how to harvest."

ex:

你走路去，或者坐车去，

Meuu

You

fei

walk

guen

road

hei,

go

dagoms

otherwise

zongs

sit

qia

car

hei.

go

"You (can) walk (there), or take a bus (there)."

Link two or more clauses

The first clause	The latter clause
Not only... 不但...	but also/even... 而且...
dacaux... danyoengx... dagoms...	uengx... koms... toep...

ex:

马不但吃草，而且喝水，

Gas

Horse

dacaux

not only

lax

eat

gans,

grass

lax

eat

uengx

also

noms.

water

"A horse not only eats grass, but also drinks water."

ex:

他不但打你，而且打我，

Na

He

dacaux

not only

taeix

beat

meuu,

you

taeix

beat

koms

even

hou.

me

"Not only did he beat you, he even beat me."

ex:

我不但有弟弟，而且有妹妹，

Dhes

I

dacaux

not only

zaux

have

pasghueng,

younger brother,

zaux

have

toep

even

baisghueng.

younger sister

"I not only have (a) younger brother(s), (but) I even have (a) younger sister(s)."

Generally, the word "danyoengx" or "dagoms" is the synonym of the word "dacaux", e.g.,

ex:

这头牛不但力气大，而且安静吃草，

Duis

buffalo

neix

this

danyoengx

not only

long

big

kaux,

strength

uuloms

but also

doengs

live

gans.

grass

"The cow is not only strong, but it also eats grass quietly."

ex:

他不但会犁田，而且会割稻，

Na

He

dagoms

not only

gieu

know

laix

how

dax,

plow

uuloms

field

gieu

but also

kieux

know how

muens.

reap rice

"He not only knows how to plow the field, but he also knows how to harvest the rice."

The first clause	The latter clause
Because... 因为...	so/therefore... 所以...
hans... ienxuis...(this is a loan word)	dosdzis...(this is a loan word)

ex:

因为昨天下雨，所以我不能来，

Hans

Because

uupans

yesterday

fas

sky

fun,

rain

dosdzis

so

hou

I

gax

cannot

buuen.

come

"(Because) It was raining yesterday, so I couldn't come."

Relationships between linked elements

Parallel relationship

The conjunction words that express a parallel relationship are "uengx" (和, and), "ku" (和, and), and "nyuek" (和, and), e.g.,

ex:

我和你去，

Hou

I

uengx

and

meuu

you

hei.

go

"I'll go with you."

ex:

我和你和他去干工，

Uengx

And

hou

I

uengx

and

meuu

you

uengx

and

na

he

hei

go

vuek

do

gong.

work

"I will go to work with you and him."

ex:

妻子和丈夫共同学习，

Toengsdhun

Wife

nyuek

and

toengsblongs

husband

uengxtoengs

together

ojiep.

study/learn

"The husband and wife study together."

ex:

我上街买上衣和买裤子，

Hou

I

hei

go

qix

street

caty

buy

veengs

shirt/top

ku

and

caty

buy

kous.

pants

"I went shopping to buy a coat and to buy pants.

ex:

我给他一只鸡和一只狗，

Dhes

I

duuengx

give

na

him

lax

auxiliary

zuu

one

lang

CLF

kai

chicken

ku

and

zuu

one

lang

CLF

ba.

dog

"I gave him a chicken and a dog."

Progressive relationship

The conjunctions that express a progressive relationship are "loms" (又, again), "hloeis"(并且, 而且, and), and similar phrases like "dacaux…koms…" (不但...而且...，not only... but also...), e.g.,

ex:

他吃一口又一口，

Na

He

lax

eat

zuu

one

feek

bite

loms

and

zuu

one

feek.

bite

"He eats (one) bite by (one) bite."

ex:

这东西又酸又辣，

Gong

stuff

neix

this

fas

sour

hloeis

and

ghety.

hot

"This is sour and hot."

ex:

他不但骂我，而且骂你，

Na

He

dacaux

not only

cas

scold

hou,

me

cas

scold

koms/uengx

even/and

meuu.

you

"Not only did he scold me, but he even/also scolded you."

In the construction of phrases like "dacaux…koms…" ("not only…but also…"), the conjunctions "but also" ("koms", "uengx", or "toep") must be placed in the second clause, between the verb and the object.

Optional relationship

The conjunctions that express an optional relationship are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g.,

ex:

你要去捕鱼还是不去？

Meuuda

You

kweis

want

hei

go

geek

look for

hla

fish

cuus

or

da?

not

"Are you going to go fishing or not?"

ex:

咱们抬还是扛？

Gha

We

caem

carry by hand

cuus

or

bhiek

carry by shoulder

les?

Q

"Will we carry (it) with our hands or on our shoulders?"

ex:

你要拿荔枝还是椰子？

Meuu

You

kweis

want

dheuu

take

zuucoeis

litchi

cuusnaus

or

dheuu

take

zuuyunx？

coconut

"Do you want to choose litchi or coconut?"

Transitional relationship

The conjunctions that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "tus" (但是, but), e.g.,

ex:

他不是黎族，但会讲黎话，

Na

He

ghwaix

is not

Hlai,

Li

tom

but

kueng

know

rien

say

tun

language

Hlai

Li

"He is not a Li, but he speaks the Li dialect."

ex:

他愿意去，但没有时间，

Na

He

kweis

want

hei,

go

oms

but

wenysnaeis

no

hwan

day

"He's willing to go, but there's no time."

Conditional relationship

The conjunctions that express a conditional relationship are "laeis", "dalunx", e.g.,

ex:

不管他怎样说，我都去，

Dalunx

no matter what

na

he

rien

say

dhongras,

how

hou

I

ngan

also

hei

go

"No matter what he says, I'll go."

ex:

如果他不来，我就去了，

Laeis

If

na

he

da

not

buuen,

come

hou

I

goms

then

hei

go

lo

accent

"If he doesn't come, then I'll go."

Causal relationship

The conjunctions that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,

ex:

我不去，因为有病，

Dhes

I

da

not

hei,

go

hans

because

zaux

have

cok

sickness

"I'm not going because I'm sick."

ex:

天下雨了，别去，不然要得病，

Fas

Sky

fun,

rain

yous

don't

hei,

go

dagoms

otherwise

ia

gain

cok

sickness

"It's raining. Don't go! Otherwise, you'll get sick."

Prepositions

^[29]^[30]

Place, direction, or time

A. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.

【dhuus，在】: in, at, on
【tuuen，从】: from
【ueks，里】: inside

ex:

你住在那里哟！

Meuu

You

doengs

live

dhuus

in

max

there

hyo!

accent

"You live there!"

ex:

你从哪里来？

Meuu

You

buuen

come

tuuen

from

ras?

where?

"Where do you come from?"

However, as more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, they have gradually adopted Chinese grammar, and have placed the prepositional phrase before the verb, e.g.,

ex:

你住在那里哟！

Meuu

You

dhuus

in

max

there

doengs

live

hyo!

accent

"You live there!"

ex:

你从哪里来？

Meuu

You

tuuen

from

ras

where

buuen?

come

"Where do you come from?"

The word "ueks" can be placed after the preposition "dhuus", e.g.,

ex:

坐在那里面

zongs

Sit

dhuus

in

ueks

inside

hauux

there

"Sit in (inside) there"

The prepositional phrase being constructed by the word "ueks" can also act as a subject, e.g.,

ex:

这屋子里面暗得很

Ueks

Inside

blongs

house

neix

this

mangshais

dark

baisias.

very

"Inside of the house is very dark."

B. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after the verb, and acts as a complement.

【dhaens，到】: until
【zok，往，向】: toward, to
【dhuas，过】: through
【buu，在】: on, in
【beeng，沿】: along

ex:

客人等你到晚上

Bhousaeu

Guest

dzoeng

wait

meuu

you

dhaens

until

cop.

night

"The guest(s) waited for you until night."

ex:

我们到学校去

Fa

We

hei

go

zok

to/toward

ohyaeu.

school

"We are going to the school."

ex:

人们络绎不绝走过村边

Aeu

People

fei

walk

reuureuu

back and forth

dhuas

along

ngaeix

edge

bhous.

village

"People walk back and forth along the outskirts of the village."

ex:

叫他穿在身上

Ghais

Tell

na

him

pien

wear

buu

on

huen.

body

"Tell him to wear it."

ex:

鸟叫在甘蔗园篱笆东边

Daty

Bird

roeng

chirping

buu

on

peek

east

goep

fence

maeis.

sugarcane

"The bird is chirping on the eastern fence of the sugar cane garden."

ex:

沿着河边走

fei

walk

beeng

along

ngaeix

edge/bank

noms

river

"walk along the river bank"

C. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.

【niens，沿】: along

ex:

他沿着那条路去学校

Na

He

niens

along

guen

road

hauux

that

hei

go

ohyaeu.

school

"He traveled along that road to school."

However, the prepositional phrase of "niens" can also be placed after averb, e.g.,

ex:

沿着田埂走

fei

walk

niens

along

hyoen

ridge

dax

field

"walk along the ridge of the field"

Prepositions related to method

【aens，按】: by, according to (this is a loan word)

ex:

他们按劳动的强弱来分配

Kunaeu

They

aens

according to

laeustaeng

work

gieu

strong

ku

and

gax

weak

buuen

come

gauxtoengs.

distribute

"They distributed the work according to the capability of the laborers."

Prepositions related to reason, or purpose

【guu ghais，为了】: for the purpose
【uis，为了】: for (this is a loan word)
【uislaeus，为了】: for (this is a loan word)
【cuuslax，由于】: because of

ex:

心烦由于你

vuuengx

disturb

hwoek

heart

cuuslax

because of

meuu

you

"upset because of you"

The word "cuuslax" is only used in poetry as above.

ex:

牛主人要回家就打牛，为了叫牛快走

Veeng

Master

duis

water buffalo

kweis

want

beuu

go back

fan

then

taeix

hit

duis,

water buffalo

guu ghais

in order that

duis

water buffalo

dzuuns

fast/quick

fei.

walk

"The buffalo's owner wanted to go home and so hit the buffalo, in order to get the buffalo to walk fast."

Since more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, sometimes they express the purpose by using the loan word "uis" or "uisliaeus".

Prepositions related to object

A. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after verbs, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.

【toep，连】: even
【koms，连】: even
【goem，对，和，与】: to, with
【ku，对，和】: to

ex:

他穷得连睡的地方也没有

Na

He

vaet

poor

toep/koms

even

fok

place

gaux

to sleep

ngan

also

wenysnaeis.

no

"He is so poor that he even has no place to sleep."

ex:

和他对唱山歌

vuektun

sing

goem

with

na.

him

"Sing a song with him."

ex:

母亲对他说

Baisdza

Mother

rien

say

ku

to

na.

him

"(His) mother told him."

However, because of the influence of Chinese grammar, the "ku" prepositional phrase can also be placed before the verb, e.g.,

ex:

母亲对他说

Baisdza

Mother

ku

to

na

him

rien.

say

"(His) mother told him."

B. When a prepositional phrase, constructed by the preposition "dhuas," modifies an adjective as a complement, it indicates a comparison.

【dhuas，过】: than

ex:

幺妹子比姐姐们漂亮

Ghueng

Younger sister

baiscuty

youngest

hlenymuuen

beautiful

dhuas

than

kun

plural

hluuekkauus.

older sister

"The youngest sister is more beautiful than her older sisters."

C. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.

【uengx，和，跟】: with

ex:

他跟小孩打架

Na

He

uengx

with

enyxlauux

kids

taeixtoengs.

fight

"He fought with the child(ren)."

However, the prepositional phrase using "uengx" can also be placed after the verb, e.g.,

ex:

他来跟小弟玩

Na

He

buuen

come

doengs

play

uengx

with

hluuekpasghueng.

young brother

"He came to play with (his) little brother."

5. Prepositions related to agent

A. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.

【ia，被】: by
【ghoems，被】: by
【dheuu，把】: by using

ex:

他被狗咬了

Na

He

ia

by

ba

dog

gaenys

bite

he!

accent

"He was bitten by a dog!"

ex:

我被他打了

Hou

I

ghoems

by

na

him

taeix

hit

bhe.

accent

"I was hit by him."

ex:

母亲把米煮成饭

Baisdza

Mother

dheuu

use

ghei

rice

roengx

cook

tax.

rice

"Mother cooked rice from grains of rice."

Auxiliary words

^[31]^[32]

Structural auxiliary words

There are three words in the category of structural auxiliary words: "guu", "uu-", and "dhaens"

When the word "guu" is placed before a noun or a pronoun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.,

ex:

这东西是你的

Gong

Stuff

neix

this

guu

belong to

meuu.

you

"This is yours."

ex:

那房子是我的

Blongs

House

hauux

that

man

is

guu

belong to

dhes.

me

"That house is mine."

However, the word "guu" can be omitted, e.g.,

ex:

这件衣服是她的

Veengs

shirt/top

neix

this

veengs

shirt/top

na.

he/she

"This dress is hers."

The auxiliary prefix "uu-" can be added to some verbs or adjectives. After adding this prefix, the nominalized verb or adjective can be a subject, object, or an attribute, but cannot be a predicate, e.g.,

ex:

红的好

Uu-ghaens

AUX-red

hleny.

good

"The red one is good."

ex:

我吃小的

Hou

I

lax

eat

uu-enyx.

the small one

"I will eat the small one."

ex:

这是吃的东西

Neix

This

man

is

gong

stuff

uu-lax.

AUX-eat

"This is something that can be eaten."

Another structural auxiliary word is "dhaens". It is usually placed after a verb or an adjective, and is followed by a complement that indicates the result or degree of the action/situation, e.g.,

ex:

冷得发抖

Kaeix

Cold

dhaens

so as to

nyan.

shiver

"It is so cold as to (make one) shiver."

ex:

酸得流口水

Fas

Sour

dhaens

so as to

maeu

drool

nomshloei.

saliva

"It is so sour as to (make one) drool."

ex:

他胖得难走路

Na

He

ghweis

fat

dhaens

so as to

gax

cannot

fei

walk

guen.

road

"He is so fat that it's hard (for him) to walk."

ex:

他去到河边就回来

Na

He

hei

go

dhaens

arrive

ngaeix

edge/bank

noms

river

fan

then

beuuluung.

come back

"He went to the riverside and later he will come back."

Past tense auxiliary word

The word "dhuas" is placed after a verb to indicate an action has already happened, e.g.,

ex:

我去过北京

Hou

I

hei

go

dhuas

AUX

Bhakgengs.

Beijing

"I have been to Beijing."

ex:

你见过他吗？

Meuu

You

laeis

see

dhuas

AUX

na

he

cuus

or

da?

not?

"Have you seen him?"

ex:

我想过这个问题

Hou

I

qieng

think

dhuas

AUX

muixdhoeis

question

neix.

this

"I thought about this question."

Acting-receiving auxiliary words

Both the auxiliary words "lax" and "dheuu" are often used to indicate the relationship of acting and receiving between an agent and a patient.

The original meaning of the word "lax" is "to eat", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word; the word "lax" is usually placed after the person-object in double-object sentences, even when the thing-object is absent.

ex:

我哥哥给他一只狗

Pashlaus

Older brother

hou

my

duuengx

give

na

him

lax

AUX

zuu

one

lang

CLF

ba.

dog

"My brother gave him a dog."

ex:

你教我黎话

Meuu

You

dun

teach

hou

me

lax

AUX

tun

language

Hlai.

Li

"You teach me the Li's language."

ex:

我讲给他

Hou

I

rien

say

duuengx

to

na

him

lax.

AUX

"I spoke to him."

The original meaning of the word "dheuu" is "to take", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word, e.g.,

ex:

他给我一个水果

Na

He

duuengx

give

hou

me

dheuu

AUX

zuu

one

hom

CLF

coem.

fruit

"He gave me one fruit."

ex:

这一个椰子给你

Zuu

One

hom

CLF

zuuyunx

coconut

neix

this

duuengx

give

meuu

you

dheuu.

AUX

"This coconut is for you."

Generally, the word "lax" and "dheuu" are exchangeable.

Accent markers

^[33]^[34]

Indicative mood

There are several words used in the indicative mood, like "lo", "bhe", "ve/vi", "he", "zu/zo", and "rus"

A. 【lo, 了】：this word indicates that something is in the process, or is forth coming, and it expresses the feeling of hope or surprise, e.g.,

ex:

天要下雨了

Fas

sky

fun

rain

lo.

accent

"It's going to rain."

ex:

你这样做就不对了

Meuu

you

dhongneix

like this

vuek

do

goms

then

da

not

dhiu

right

lo.

accent

"It is not right for you to do this."

B. 【bhe, 啊】：this word indicates something has already happened, and it usually does not express the subjective feeling, e.g.,

ex:

天（已经）下雨了

Fas

sky

fun

rain

bhe.

accent

"It is raining (it rained)."

ex:

那个坏人死了

Aeu

person

reek

bad

hauux

that

hlaeux

die

bhe.

accent

"That bad man died."

ex:

那甘薯好吃啊

Man

potato

hauux

that

hleny

good

lax

eat

bhe.

accent

"That sweet potato was delicious."

C. 【ve/vi, 的, 了】：this word indicates that the speaker is explaining something, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,

ex:

这字不是我写的

Qias

letter

neix

this

ghwaix

is not

hou

I

taeis

write

ve.

accent

"This word is not what I wrote."

ex:

你给我就行了

Meuu

you

duuengx

give

hou

I

goms

then

bhaeis

finish

ve.

accent

"Give (it to) me, then it's done."

D. 【he，啦】：this word indicates something has already happened, and it does not express the subjective feeling, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,

ex:

我做完工了

Dhes

I

vuek

do

gong

work

bhaeis

finished

he.

accent

"I finished (my) job."

E. 【zo/zu，还…呢】：this word indicates something is a fact or true, in which the speaker tries to persuade others, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,

ex:

鱼还活着呢

Hla

Fish

dhom

still

hlou

alive

zo.

accent

"The fish is still alive."

ex:

他还没做呢

Na

He

dhom

still

da

not

vuek

do

zo!

accent

"He hasn't done it yet."

ex:

天还没下雨呢

Fas

Sky

da

not

fun

rain

zo!

accent

"It hasn't rained yet."

Sometimes the words "zo/zu" can have "ho" or "nex" added to them to put an emphasis on the mood, e.g.,

ex:

那个坏人怎么还没死呢！

Aeu

person

reek

bad

hauux

that

da

not

hlaeux

die

zuho!

accent

"Why hasn't the bad man died yet?"

ex:

我什么都没看见呢，

Hou

I

da

not

laeis

see

meshes

anything

zunex!

accent

"I haven't seen anything!"

F. 【rus，呢】：this word indicates that something is not sure, and the speaker's tone is mild and indirect, tactful, e.g.,

ex:

今天他不来呢

Hwanneix

today

na

he

da

not

buuen

come

rus.

accent

"He won't come today."

ex:

我们这鲩鱼一下游上，一下游下，没看见呢，

Fa

we

neix

this

zuu

one

tienx

fish's name

zans

up.

zuu

one

tienx

fish's name

luei,

down

da

not

laeis

see

rus.

accent

"(A fish said:) We fish swam back and forth, (you) did not see."

Interrogative mood

There are several words used in the interrogative mood, like "hos", "yos", "os", "hyos", "zuumos", "huux", "hauux", "yax", "nex/nix", "zuurasve", "bas/vixbas", and "zuuras/cuusras".

A. 【hos，yos，os，hyos, zuumos，吗】：these words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,

ex:

你不去干活吗？

Meuu

you

da

not

hei

go

vuek

do

gong

work

hos?

Q

"Don't you go to work?"

ex:

今天他不来吗？

Hwanneix

today

na

he

da

not

buuen

come

yos.

Q

"Isn't he coming today?"

ex:

这是你的吗？

Neix

this

man

is

guu meuu

yours

os?

Q

"Is this yours?"

ex:

他是你弟弟吗？

Na

he

man

is

pasghueng

younger brother

meuu

your

hyos?

Q

"Is he your younger brother?"

ex:

你回来是因为想我吗？

Meuu

You

beuu

come back

ngop

think

dhang

face

hou

my

vi

accent

zuumos?

Q

"You came back (because) you are thinking of me?"

B. 【huux，hauux，呢，呀】：these words are used in sentences with an interrogative pronoun, e.g.,

ex:

你买什么东西呢？

Meuu

you

caty

buy

gong

stuff

meshes

what

huux?

Q

"What do you buy?"

ex:

你是谁？

Meuu

you

uuras

who

hauux?

Q

"Who are you?"

C. 【nex/nix，yax，呢，呀】：these words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,

ex:

咱们大家要挑还是抬呢？

Gha

we

uengxtoengs

everyone

kweis

AUX

caep

carry by hands

cas

or

caem

carry or shoulders

nix?

Q

"Do we carry (it) with our hands or carry (it) on our shoulders?"

ex:

这是谁的呀？

Neix

this

guu asras

whose

yax?

Q

"Whose is this?"

D. 【zuuras/cuusras，吗】：these words are used in interrogative sentences where the speaker inquires by questioning closely, e.g.,

ex:

今天我和他要去三亚，难道你又不去吗？

Hwanneix

today

hou

I

uengx

and

na

he

kweis

auxiliary

hei

go,

Damxax,

Sanya

meuu

you

loms

again

da

not

hei

go

zuuras?

Q

"Today I'm going to Sanya with him, aren't you going?"

ex:

他们一起干活，难道你不干吗？

Kun

they

uengxtoengs

everyone

vuek

do

gong,

work

meuu

you

oms

but

da

not

vuek

do

cuusras?

Q

"Everyone is working, but why aren't you?"

E. 【zuurasve，bas/vixbas，吧，了吧】：these words express a possibility, e.g.,

ex:

他来了吧？

Na

he

buuen

come

zuurasve?

Q

"Did he come?"

ex:

你烧山栏地了吗？

meuu

you

bhaeis

already

cuis

burn

ang

field

vixbas?

Q

"Did you already burn the field?"

ex:

你要去吗？

meuu

you

kweis

AUX

hei

go

bas?

Q

"Are you going to go?"

Imperative mood

There are several words used in the imperative mood, like "as", "bas", "res", "bhislo".

A. 【as，吧，啊】：this word is used to enjoin or to exhort someone to join in to do something, and the tone is soft and gentle, e.g.,

ex:

你们看我们的马吧！

Meuuda

you

dzueis

look

gas

horse

fa

we

as!

IMP

"Look at our horses!"

ex:

就那样吧！

Goms

then

dhonghauux

like that

as！

IMP

"That's it!"

B. 【bas，啊，吧】：this word is used to command, to request, or to exhort someone to do something, e.g.,

ex:

你拿吧！

Meuu

you

dheuu

take

bas!

IMP

"Take it!"

ex:

你快去吧！

Meuu

you

dzuuns

quickly

hei

go

bas!

IMP

"Quickly go!"

ex:

给我一个葫芦瓜吧！

Duuengx

give

hou

me

zuu

one

hom

CLF

ghaeix

cucurbita gourd

bas!

IMP

"Give me a gourd!"

C. 【bhislo，咯】：this word is used by one with a discontented mood to command, to request, or to hasten someone to do something, e.g.,

ex:

该睡了！

Zoen

sleep

bhislo!

IMP

"Go to sleep!"

ex:

快做咯！

Vuek

do

dzuuns

quickly

bhislo!

IMP

"Do it quickly!"

ex:

现在已经有咱们黎族文字，大家应该要努力学习咯！

Hansneix

now

bhaeis

already

zaux

have

caqias

script

gha

we

Hlai,

Li,

uengxtoengs

everyone

guulax

should

tuuen

out.

kaux

strength

o

learn

bhislo!

IMP!

"Now that we Li already have a script, we should do our best to learn it!"

Sometimes the word "bhislo" is also used to put an emphasis on the indicative mood, e.g.,

ex:

你不知道吗？这就是黎族文字呀！

Meuu

You

hluumsghweuu

NEG-know

mos？

Q?

Neix

This

man

is

caqias

script

Hlai

Li

bhislo!

accent!

"Don't you know? This is Li people's script!"

D. 【res，吧】：the usage of this word is similar with the word "bas", however, the tone of the word "res" is kind and warm, e.g.,

ex:

你们快吃吧！

Meuuda

you

dzuuns

quickly

lax

eat

res!

IMP

"Come on, eat quickly!"

ex:

进来吧！

Hluet

enter

buuen

come

res!

IMP

"Come on in!"

ex:

喝茶吧！

Hyaeu

drink

dhe

tea

res!

IMP

"Drink (some) tea!"

Exclamatory mood

There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aiho", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feeling, e.g.,

ex:

你说对极了！

Meuu

you

rien

say

dhiu

right

dhat

very

ho!

EXCM

"You're right!"

ex:

别打架了！

Yous

don't

taeixtoengs

fight each other

a!

EXCM

"Don't fight!"

Usually, these words are placed in the end of a sentence; however, sometimes these words act as one word sentences, e.g.,

ex:

啊！那小伙子好极了！

O!

EXCM

Pasceuus

guy

hauux

that

hleny

good

dhat

very

o!

EXCM

"Ah! That young man is great!"

ex:

唉！已经破了。

Aei!

EXCM

Bhaeis

already

poens

break

he.

accent

"Oh! It's broken."

ex:

哎哟！痛极了！

Aiho!

EXCM

Cok

pain

baisias

very much

ho!

EXCM

"Oh! It's painful!"

Onomatopoeic words

^[35]^[36]

Onomatopoeic words for expressing the feeling of surprise, exclamation, or agreement. Usually, these words are independent/separated from a sentence or clause, e.g.,

ex:

"哎呀！肚子疼啊！

Aidza!

Ouch!

Cok

Pain

raeis

intestines

ha!

accent

Oh dear! What stomach pains!"

ex:

哎哟，痛极了！

Aiho!

Ouch!

Cok

Pain

baisias

very much

ho!

accent

"Oh, what great pain!"

ex:

哟！水涨了！

Ihyos!

Ah!

Noms

River

bhaeis

already

long

big

bhe!

accent

"Yo! The water has gone up!"

ex:

哟，这是什么？

Isdzos!

Mmm!

Neix

This

man

is

meshes?

what

"Oh, what is this?"

However, some onomatopoeic words can go with or within a sentence or clause, e.g.,

ex:

唉，是那样！

Euu,

Yes,

dhonghauux

that

(is)

bhe!

accent

"Yes, just like that!"

ex:

他唉（答应）了吗？

Na

He

bhaeis

already

euu

agree

cas

or

da?

not

"Did he already agree or not?"

Onomatopoeic words for imitating human, animate, or nature sounds，e.g.,

ex:

姑娘在那里嘻嘻地笑

Hluuek'ueng

Girl

raeux

laugh

hihi

onomatopoeia

dhuus

in

hauux.

there

"The girl laughed there."

ex:

天哗哗地下雨了

Fas

sky

fun

rain

fosfos

onomatopoeia

bhe.

accent

"It is raining."

ex:

长腿蛙又叫，"别！别！别"

Gaet

Frog(with-long-legs)

fan

then

loms

again

roeng,

call

"Beets!

onomatopoeia

Beets!

onomatopoeia

Beets!"

onomatopoeia

"The frog called again, "Ribbit! Ribbit! Ribbit!"

More onomatopoeic words below:

Birds	catcatscat, "鸟叫声; bird"; hwaxhwax, "鸟叫声"; jitjit, "喳喳（鸟叫声）" aekk/aekaek, "乌鸦的叫声，crow"; guxguguxgus, "布谷鸟的叫声"; gaengxgoeng, "冈工（鸟叫声）"; zatzat, "麻雀叫声"; aepaep, "鸭叫声，duck" weepweep, "母鸡叫声"; gokgok, "母鸡叫小鸡的声音"; goksguudheek, "母鸡下蛋的叫声" jiepp, "小鸡叫声"
Four-legged animal	bhesbhes, "黄牛的叫声，cow"; uungas, "（牛）叫；牛叫声"; hexhex, "羊叫声，goat"; ixhes, "马叫声，horse"; vuns, "狗叫，吠"; kuek, "（麂子）叫"; mieuxmieux, "咪咪（猫叫声）"; nyaeuxnyaeux, "猫叫声"
Insect	nongxniengx, "蝉叫声"; hwexhwex, "蝉叫声" rixrix, "蟋蟀鸣叫声" guuroks, "一种青蛙"（guuroks 像它的叫声）"
Sounds of nature or action	bhoengs, "当当（打锣声）"; bhopp, "东西落地声"; bloks, "小石头或青蛙落水声"; blongx, "扑通（重物落地或落水声）"; ceepp, "脚步声"; blus, "扑通（落水声）"; dongdong, "咚咚（打鼓声）"; fittfitt, "哭泣声"; gakgak, "笑声"

Phrases in the Hlai language

The construction of phrases and their basic rules in Hlai^[37]^[38]

There are five kinds of phrases: the coordinative phrases, the attribute phrases, the verb-object phrases, the complement phrases, and the subject-predicate phrases.

1. Coordinative phrases

The method used to coordinate equivalent elements in a coordinative phrase is to use conjunctions, but another method is not to use conjunctions. The nouns and pronouns sometimes use the conjunctions, sometimes they do not.

e.g.

父

bais

mother

母

pas

father

"parents"

e.g.

鸡

kai

chicken

和

ku/uengx

and

鸭

eps

duck

"chicken and duck"

Usually, the verbs and adjectives need conjunctions.

e.g.

又打又骂

taeix

beat

loms

and

cas

scold

"beat and scold"

e.g.

又酸又辣

fas

sour

hloeis

and

ghety

hot

"sour and hot"

However, when the verbs and adjectives are doubled, there is no need for conjunctions.

e.g.

往

hei

go

往

hei

go

返

luueng

back

返

luueng

back

"go back and forth"

e.g.

红

kiu

green

红

kiu

green

绿

ghaens

red

绿

ghaens

red

"green and red"

2. Attribute phrases

The elements in the attribute phrases are not equivalent; one element is the head word, and the other element is the modifier that modifies the head word. Usually, the head word is a noun, a verb, or an adjective.

A. Noun as the head word

Usually, the modifier is placed after the noun head word.

a. Noun (the head word) + noun

e.g.

猪

aek

meat

肉

bou

pig

"pork"

e.g.

牛

hau

horn

角

duis

water buffalo

"buffalo's horn"

b. Noun + adjective

e.g.

noms

water

ghan

cold

"cold water"

e.g.

veengs

shirt/top

baen

new

"new shirt/top"

The word "enyx" (小, small) is the exception where the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,

e.g.

enyx

small

veengs

shirt/top

"kid's shirt (it also means brassiere)"

e.g.

enyx

small

duis

water buffalo

"calf (young water buffalo)"

e.g.

enyx

small

dziengx

finger

"little finger (pinkie)"

c. Noun+ verb

e.g.

fok

place

gaux

sleep

"a place for sleeping"

e.g.

daty

bird

bheny

fly

"(a) flying bird(s)"

d. Noun+ pronoun

e.g.

pashlaus

older brother

hou

my

"my older brother"

e.g.

blongs

house

hauux

that

"that house"

e. Number + classifier + Noun (the head word)

The modifier, which is constructed with a number and classifier, must be placed before the head word.

e.g.

fus

three

zuen

CL

aeudza

old man

"three old men"

e.g.

hlaus

two

hom

CL

dzuuem

egg

"two eggs"

f. Attribute phrases influenced by Chinese

Like Chinese, these modifiers are placed after the head word, and most of these words are loan words, e.g.,

Noun + noun (the head word)

e.g.

Dongxgoknaengsmiens

China

people

"Chinese people" Mismatch in the number of words between lines: 1 word(s) in line 1, 2 word(s) in line 2 (help);

Adjective + noun (the head word)

e.g.

hiuxdius

superior

odex

student

"superior student"

Verb + noun (the head word)

e.g.

goeisgiet

resolve

muixdhoeis

problem

"resolving (the) problem"

B. Verb as the head word

The modifiers that modify verbs are the adverbs, adjectives, pronouns, nouns, numbers, or verbs. Usually, the monosyllabic modifier is placed before the head word; the disyllabic/doubled adjective, the pronoun, or the number can be either placed before or after the head word, e.g.,

a. Adverb + verb

e.g.

da

not

oep

love/like

"don't like"

e.g.

bhaeis

already

lax

eat

"already ate"

e.g.

yous

Don't

rien

say

"don't say"

e.g.

naeus

just

buuen

come

"just came"

e.g.

ais

not willing to

lax

eat

"not willing to eat"

b. Adjective + verb

e.g.

dzuuns

quick

rien

say

"(be)quick (to) say(it)" (it means out with it)

e.g.

hleny

good

lax

eat

good (to) eat" (it means delicious)

e.g.

gin

hurry

lax

eat

"busy eating"

c. Noun + verb

e.g.

cai

wood

vuek

make

"made of wood"

e.g.

uuhaux

tomorrow

hei

go

"(will) go tomorrow"

d. Verb + verb (the head word)

e.g.

oep

like

lax

eat

"like to eat"

e.g.

hei

go

dzok

steal

"go (and) steal"

e.g.

gaux

lie down

dzueis

look

"reading lying down"

e. Disyllabic/doubled adjective + verb (the head word), or

Verb (the head word) + disyllabic/doubled adjective

dais dais fei= fei dais dais

slow slow walk

"慢慢走，walk slowly" (This is also used to say good bye.)

dzuuns dzuuns raux = raux dzuuns dzuuns

quick quick read

"快快读，read quickly"

hleny hleny rien = rien hleny hleny

good good say

"好好说，say (it) nicely"

liloek vuek= vuek liloek

dark do

"漆黑做，do (it in) darkness"

f. Pronoun + verb (the head word), or Verb (the head word) + Number

dhonghauux nyop = nyop dhonghauux

like that sew

"那样缝，sew like that"

dhongras vuek? = vuek dhongras?

how do

"怎么做？How is it to be done?"

qiras hei? = hei qiras?

When go

"何时走？When (is it time to) go?"

g. Number+ verb (the head word), or Verb (the head word) + Number

zuu gaeis hei = hei zuu gaeis

one classifier go

"去一趟，(make) a trip" (means to run an errand)

fus faei taeix= taeix fus faei

three classifier beat

"打三下，beat (something) three times"

zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx ghwa= ghwa zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx

one classifier one classifier plant

"一棵一棵地种，plant one by one"

zuu boms zuu boms lax= lax zuu bomszuu boms

one classifier one classifier eat

"一口一口地吃，eat one (bite) at a time"

C. Adjective as the head word

The modifiers that modify adjectives are adjectives, adverbs, or pronouns. Usually, when the modifier is an adjective or adverb, the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,

a. Adjective+ adjective (the head word)

e.g.

hleny

good

coem

sharp

"so sharp"

e.g.

reek

bad

coem

sharp

"not sharp"

b. Adverb + adjective (the head word)

e.g.

duix

most

reek

bad

"worst"

e.g.

bhaeis

already

reek

bad

"already (gone) bad"

Only few adverbs, like "dhat" (真, 很, really, very) or "baisias" (非常, 极, very much, most), are placed after the head word, e.g.,

c. Adjective (the head word) + adverb

e.g.

dzuuns

quick

dhat

very

"very quick"

e.g.

hleny

good

baisias

very much

"very good"

Also, when the modifier is a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun or noun, the modifier is placed after the head word, e.g.,

d. Adjective (the head word) + demonstrative pronoun

e.g.

vaet

poor

neix

this

"this poor"

e.g.

long

big

dhongneix

like this

"this big"

e.g.

peek

high

dhonghauux

like that

"that high"

e. Adjective (the head word) + interrogative pronoun

e.g.

bheeng

wide

ras?

How?

"How wide?"

e.g.

hloei

many/much

ras?

how?

"How many/much?"

f. Adjective (the head word) + noun

e.g.

long

big

nyiu

bull

"big as a bull"

e.g.

bheeng

wide

laengs

sea

"wide as the sea"

The construction of the phrase above actually is: Adjective (the head word) + dhong/bhaen + noun, the word "dhong" (像, as, like) or "bhaen" (像, as, like) is omitted, e.g.,

e.g.

long

big

(dhong)

as

nyiu

bull

"big as a bull"

3. Verb-object phrases

The verb is the head word, and the object can be a noun, a pronoun, a number, or a verb. Usually, the verb is placed before the object, e.g.,

A. Verb (the head word) + noun (object)

e.g.

lax

eat

tax

rice

"eat rice (the meaning is to eat)"

e.g.

dzueis

look

qias

book

"read book (the meaning is to read)"

B. Verb (the head word) + pronoun (object)

e.g.

dheuu

take

hauux

that

"take that one"

e.g.

ngwaety

call

meuu

you

"(I'll) call you"

e.g.

bhiek

carry (something) on shoulder

meshes

what?

"carry what"

C. Verb (the head word) + verb (object)

e.g.

dhas

fear

rien

say

"怕说，fears to say"

e.g.

auux

dare

vuuek

do

"dare to do (something)"

D. Verb (the head word) + number (object)

e.g.

caty

buy

zuu

one

hom

CL

"buy one"

e.g.

lax

eat

fus

three

waeu

CL

"eat three bowls (of food)"

E. Verbal adjective (the head word) + noun (object)

Some verbal adjectives can act as the head word with the noun as the object, e.g.,

e.g.

leis

thin

aeu

people

"(makes) people thin"

e.g.

ghweis

fat

aeu

people

"(makes) people fat"

4. Complement phrases

The Complement phrases include both a verb-complement phrase and an adjective-complement phrase.

A. Verb-complement phrase

The verb is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, ora number with a classifier. The verb is placed before the complement.

a. Verb (the head word) + verb (complement)

e.g.

fei

walk

hluet

go into

"walk in"

e.g.

dheuu

take

buuen

come

"plan to come"

b. Verb (the head word) + adjective (complement)

e.g.

lax

eat

kuuem

full

"ate (until) full (stuffed)"

e.g.

riemx

fix

hleny

good

"fixed well"

e.g.

roengx

cook

fui

cooked

"cooked thoroughly"

c. Verb (the head word) + number (complement)

e.g.

fei

walk

zuu

one

guen

CL

"(make) a trip" (means to run an errand)

e.g.

fun

run

ba

five

hwan

day

ba

five

cop

night

"(it) rained five days and five nights"

d. Verb (the head word) + noun (complement)

In this case, the verb must be an intransitive verb, and the phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.

e.g.

bhaeis

already

hlaeux

die

duis

water buffalo

he.

accent

"The water buffalo already died."

B. Adjective-complement phrase

The adjective is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The complement indicates the result of the head word, so usually the auxiliary word "dhaens" is placed between the complement and the head word.

a. Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + verb (complement)

e.g.

kaeix

cold

dhaens

as to

nyan

shiver

"(so) cold as to shiiver"

e.g.

reek

bad

haeis

smell

dhaens

as to

asras

who

ruus

all

ais

not willing to

dheuu

take

"(so) foul smelling as to not one is willing to take (it)"

b. Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + adjective (complement)

e.g.

gheuu

thin

dhaens

as to

ghau

transparency

"(so) thin as to be transparent"

e.g.

fui

cooked

dhaens

as to

ghaens

red

"(so) cooked (hot) as to become red"

c. Adjective(the head word) + number (complement)

e.g.

long

big

fus

three

boux

CL/year

"three years older"

e.g.

hloei

many

zuu

one

hom

CL

"one more"

e.g.

peek

high

zuutom

half

ghwous

head

"a half-head taller"

d. Adjective (the head word) + noun (complement)

In this case, the adjective acts not as an attribute to the noun, but functions as expository to the noun. The phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.

e.g.

Long

big

hwoet

wind

bhe！

accent

"The wind (is) strong!"

e.g.

Cok

hurt

bok

stomach

dhat

very

lo！

accent

"A stomachache! (very painful)"

5. Subject-predicate phrases

This kind of phrase is constructed by the subject and the predicate; usually, the subject is a noun or a pronoun, and the predicate is a verb or an adjective.

e.g.

Wenysnaeis

no

aeu

people

rien

say

na

he

reek.

bad

"No one said he (is) bad."

e.g.

Uengxtoengs

everyone

ruus

all

rien

say

gong

stuff

neix

this

fas.

sour

"Everyone (all) says this stuff (is) sour."

e.g.

Daty

bird

bheny

fly

lo.

accent

"Birds have flown (away)."

e.g.

Na

he

buuen

come

lo.

accent

"He has come."

The construction of the subject-predicate phrase is the same as the attribute phrase.Usually, if there is an element, like an accent, an adverb, or a noun, that is either placed after or before the phrase, then it is a subject-predicate phrase. See the chart below:

Subject-predicate phrases		Attribute phrases
Daty bheny bhe. birds fly accent	鸟飞了 The birds have flown away.	daty bheny birds fly	飞的鸟 the flying birds
Aeu buuen he. people come accent	人家来了 People have come.	aeu buuen people come	来的人 the people (who) have come
qi coem duuek time fruit ripe	果子成熟的时候 time to harvest fruit	coem duuek fruit ripens	熟的果子 ripened fruit
cai peek baisias tree tall very much	树高得很 The tree (is) very tall.	cai peek tree tall	高的树 tall tree

Sentence construction and the basic rules^[39]^[40]

ex:

在河边的房子

blongs

house

dhuus

in/exist

ngaeix

edge/bank

noms

river

hauux

that

"the house that (is) on the bank of the river"

ex:

我的哥哥和你的弟弟

pashlaus

older brother

hou

my

uengx

and

pasghueng

younger brother

meuu

your

my older brother and your younger brother

The statements above are incomplete sentences. But, when we add some critical words, they become complete sentences to communicate a complete thought that makes sense to the listeners or readers, e.g.,

ex:

那房子在那条河边

Blongs

house

hauux

that

dhuus

in/exist

ngaeix

edge/bank

noms

river

hauux.

that

"That house (is) on the bank of that river."

ex:

我的哥哥和你的弟弟都是工人

Pashlaus

older brother

hou

my

uengx

and

pasghueng

younger brother

meuu

your

ngan

also

gaengxnaengs.

worker

"My older brother and your younger brother (are) both workers."

The chart below presents the grammatical elements that construct a sentence.These elements are a subject, a predicate, an object, a complement, an attribute and an adverbial phrase.

Subject 主语			Predicate 谓语
			Verb 述语			Object 宾语
(Attribute) （定语）	Head word 中心语	Attribute 定语	Adverbial 状语	Head word 中心语	(Adverbial) （状语）	(Attribute) （定语）	Head word 中心语	Attribute 定语
					Complement 补语

Subjects

The subject is placed before the predicate; and either the nouns, pronouns, numbers, or phrases can be the subject.

Predicates

The predicate is placed after the subject to provide information about the subject. Usually, verbs or adjectives are the predicate; however, nouns, pronouns, and phrases can also be the predicate.

Passive voice

In the examples above, the subjects are the actors who act out the actions; however, the subjects can also receive the actions, which is called passive voice. Auxiliary words like "ia" or "ghoems" can be used to denote passive voice, e.g.,

ex:

鸡被狐狸咬了

Kai

Chicken

ghoems

by

dauxmuty

fox

gaeny

bite

bhe.

accent

"A chicken was bit by a fox."

ex:

那村子被火烧了

Bhous

Village

hauux

that

ghoems

by

fei

fire

cuis

burn

lo.

accent

"That village was burned by fire."

Objects

An object follows a verb. However, if the sentence is passive voice, the object can be placed before the verb phrase. Usually, a noun, pronoun or phrase can act as an object; sometimes, a number or verb can also be a subject, e.g.,

Double objects (with giving-receiving relation)

The construction is Verb + person-object + lax/dheuu + thing-object, e.g.,

ex:

母亲给她一条裙子

Baisdza

Mother

duuengx

give

na

her

lax

auxiliary word

zuu

one

ruet

CL

riens.

skirt

"Mother gave her a skirt."

ex:

我教你黎话

Hou

I

dun

teach

meuu

you

lax

auxiliary word

tun

language

Hlai.

Li

"I teach you the Li lauguage."

ex:

哥哥给弟弟一个荔枝

Pashlaus

older brother

duuengx

give

pasghueng

younger brother

dheuu

auxiliary

zuu

one

hom

CL

zuucoeis.

litchi

"The older brother gave (his) younger brother a litchi (a kind of fruit)."

The auxiliary word "lax" can be replaced by the verb "duuengx" (给, give), then the construction becomes Verb + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, and the objects generally cannot be omitted, e.g.,

ex:

我买龙眼给你

Hou

I

caty

buy

coembhans

longan (fruit)

duuengx

give

meuu.

you

"I bought longan (to) give to you."

ex:

母亲挑水给弟弟

Baisdza

Mother

caep

carry

noms

water

duuengx

give

pasghueng.

younger brother

"The mother carried water (to) give to the younger brother."

ex:

姐姐煮饭给妹妹

Hluuekkauus

Older sister

roengx

cook

tax

rice

duuengx

give

baisghueng.

younger sister

"The older sister cooked rice (to) give to the younger sister."

Sometimes, the verb "duuengx" (给, for) can be placed both before the thing-object and the person-object, then the sentence construction becomes Verb + duuengx + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, e.g.,

ex:

他给我衣服

Na

He

duuengx

give

veengs

shirt/top

duuengx

give

hou.

me

"He gave a shirt to me."

ex:

父亲不给我糖

Pasdza

Father

da

not

duuengx

give

nomstaengs

sugar

duuengx

give

dhes.

me

"(My) Father did not give me sugar."

When both speaker and listener are clear what the thing-object is, or the subject itself is the given thing, the thing-object can be omitted, but the auxiliary needs to be kept, e.g.,

ex:

你给他

Meuu

You

duuengx

give

na

him

dheuu.

auxiliary word

"You give it to him."

ex:

这把小刀给你

Zuu

One

pienx

CL

enyx

small

gas

knife

neix

this

duuengx

give

meuu

you

lax.

auxiliary word

"This small knife (was) given (to) you."

ex:

这只鸡给你

Zuu

One

lang

CL

kai

chicken

neix

this

duuengx

give

meuu

you

lax.

auxiliary word

"This chicken (was) given (to) you."

Double objects (without giving-receiving relation)

Although some verbs in double-object sentences do not imply the giving-receiving relation, the auxiliary word "lax", which indicates that the subject is "helping" the person-object, is still needed. e.g.,

Hou reengs meuu lax.

I move you auxiliary word (help)

"我帮你搬，I will help you (to) move."

Meuu laix na lax.

You plow him auxiliary word (help)

"你帮他犁田，You help him (to) plow."

Baisdza caep hluuekbaiskaux lax.

Mother carry daughter auxiliary word (help)

"母亲帮女儿挑，A mother helps her daughter carry (the stuff)."

The auxiliary word "lax" can be followed by another object, e.g.,

Taeix dhes lax tax.

Put me auxiliary word (help) rice

"帮我打饭，Please help get me (some) rice."

Hou caty meuu lax bheuucai.

I buy you auxiliary word (help) vegetable

"我帮你买菜，I'll help you buy (some) vegetables."

Na rien na kueng poengs meuu lax ceengcai.

He say he would water you auxiliary word (help) flower

"他说他会帮你给花浇水，He said he would help you water the flowers."

Complement

There are three kinds of complements: sequential, directional, and quantitative complements. A complement goes after the verb or the adjective, in order to explain the sequence, degree, direction, or amount of the action. Usually, the verb, adjective, number, or phrase acts as a complement. Generally, a complement is placed after a verb, but if an object follows that verb, then the sequential complement and quantitative complement have to be placed after that object; the directional complement can either be placed after or before that object, e.g.,

A. Sequential complement

Dzax ghoems taeix hlaeux bhe.

Snake by hit die accent

"蛇被打死了，The snake was beaten to death by (someone)."

Hou bhaeis lax kuuem he.

I already eat full accent

"我已经吃饱了，I have already eaten (rice) and am full."

Na lax tax kuuem he.

He eat rice full accent

"他吃饱饭了，He ate and is full."

If the sequential complement is a phrase, the prepositional word "dhaens" is needed to be placed before the phrase, e.g.,

Na gwaeng dhaens tuuen nomswoms.

He pull preposition go out sweat

"他拉到出汗，He pulled until he sweat."

Duis ghoux dhaens ngaeix noms hauux.

Water buffalo run preposition edge/bank river that

"水牛跑到那河边，The water buffalo ran to the bank of that river."

Veengs neix baen dhaens asras ruus qieng cat.

shirt/top this new preposition whoever also want wear

"这衣服新到谁都想穿，This shirt is so new that everyone wants to wear it."

B. Directional complement

The directional complement is constructed by a verb + a directional verb, e.g.,

fei buuen walk come 走来, walk and come	fei beuu walk come back 走回去, walk back	fei dhaens walk arrive 走到, walk to	fei kaen walk go up 走上, walk up	fei hluet walk go into 走进, walk into
fei hei walk go 走去, walk and go	fei luueng walk go back 走回来, walk back	fei dhuas walk pass 走过, walk through	fei luei walk go down 走下, walk down	fei tuuen walk go out 走出, walk out

a. Directional complement without an object

Most directional complements can act as a complement after alone verb, e.g.,

Na qieus buuen bhe.

He bring come accent

"他拿来了，He brought something here."

Duis ghoux hei lo!

Water buffalo run go accent

"水牛跑去了，The water buffalo ran (away)."

Aeudza buuen luueng bhe

Old man come go back accent

"老人回来了，The old man came back."

Uengxtoengs caep hei beuu bhe

Everyone carry go come back accent

"大家挑回去了，Everyone carried (something) back (home)."

Na ais caus. luei ba.

He is not willing to come down down accent

"他不愿意走下来吧，He is not willing to come down."

Na ghoux tuuen hos?

He run go out accent of question

"他跑出来了吗？Did he run out (from there)?"

b. Directional complement with an object

These three directional verbs, "dhuas", "kaen", and "hluet", need an object to go after them, e.g.,

Tuas zuens dhuas zuu dhanx dhaeix.

Rabbit jump over one classifier stream

"兔子跳过一条小沟，The rabbit jumped over a stream."

Uengxtoengs caem kaen hwous max.

Everyone carry on shoulders go up mountain that

"大家抬到那山上，Everyone shouldered (something) up that mountain."

Diu bhaeis ghoux hluet cuengs he.

Mouse already run go into hole accent

"老鼠已经跑进洞，The mouse already ran into the hole."

C. Quantitative complement

The quantitative complement, which is constructed by either (number + verbal classifier), or (number + time classifier), usually goes after a verb, sometimes goes after an adjective, e.g.,

a. Verb + (number + verbal classifier)

Hou uengx meuu hei zuu gaeis.

I and you go one classifier

"我和你去一趟，I and you (can) go (there)."

Kai bhaeis hyoen fus dzax bhe.

Chicken already crow three classifier accent

"鸡已经啼三遍了，The rooster has already crowed three times."

b. Verb + (number + time classifier)

Fa bhaeis o zuu bhoux he.

We already learn one year/classifier accent

"我们已经学一年了，We (have) already studied for one year."

Na bhaeis doengs fus hwan he.

He already stay three day accent

"他已经住三天了，He (has) already stayed (for) three days."

Na beuu blongs zaux hlaus nyaen bhe.

He go back home have two month accent

"他回家有两个月了，He has been home for two months now."

c. Adjective + (number + classifier)

Blongs neix peek dhuas blongs hauux zuugit.

House this high/tall than house that a little bit

"这房子比那房子高一点，This house (is just) a little bit taller than that house."

Waeu neix hloei fus hom.

Bowl this more three classifier

"这碗多三个，This bowl (has) three extra (ones)."

5. Attribute

The attribute is to modify or to define the subject or object, in order to indicate the characteristics, amount, or possession. Usually, the attribute, which can be an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, a number, a verb, or different kinds of phrases, is placed after the head word, except when a number acts as an attribute, the number must be placed before the head word, e.g.,

A. Noun (head word) + noun (attribute)

aek duis

meat water buffalo

"牛肉，beef"

feekx hweek

skin banana

"香蕉皮，banana peel"

coem coeis

fruit litchi

"荔枝果，litchi (fruit)"

dzuuem kai

egg chicken

"鸡蛋，chicken egg"

Na kueng rien tun Hlai.

He know say/speak language/word Li

"他会说黎话，He knows(how to) speak the Li's language."

Neix man bheuu cai.

This is leaf tree

"这是树叶，This is a tree's leaf."

B. Noun (head word) + adjective (attribute)

tau loek

pot black

"黑锅，black pot"

zuu fans veengs kaeu

one classifier shirt/top white

"一件白上衣，one white shirt"

noms neix noms ghan.

water this water cold

"这水是冷水，This water (is) cold water."

C. Noun (head word) + pronoun (attribute)

Gha Hlai zaux caqias veengzauus bhe.

We Li people have script self accent

"咱们黎族有自己的文字了，We, Li people, have our own script."

Hluuek na kweis hei zok Damxax.

Older sister his/her is going to go to/toward Sanya

"他姐姐要去三亚，His older sister is going to go to Sanya."

D. Number (attribute) + noun (head word)

Zuu zuen aeu dhuus blongs max.

One classifier man in house that

"一个人在那边房子，A man (is) in that house."

Hlaus lang duis neix ghweis dhat dhat.

Two classifier water buffalo this fat very very

"这两头牛肥极了，These two water buffalos (are) very, very fat."

E. Noun (head word) + verb (attribute)

Dhuus max wenysnaeis fok gaux.

In/at there no place lie down

"在那里没有地方睡，At that place, (there is) no place to sleep."

Toep laty ghoux ruus zeuu loem.

Even wild boar run also shoot right

"连跑的野猪也射中，He shot even a running wild boar right on."

Neix gong lax fa.

This stuff eat our

"这是我们吃的东西，This (is) our food ."

F. Noun (head word) + phrase (attribute)

veengs dhuus blongs hauux

shirt/top in house that

"在那房子的衣服，the shirt (that is) in that house"

hluuekueng naeus buuen hauux

girl just come that

"那位刚来的姑娘，that girl (who) just came"

zuu lang duis lax gans kuuem

one classifier water buffalo eat grass full

"一只吃饱草的水牛，a water buffalo (that) eats grass (until it's) full"

qi meuu buuen hauux

time you come that

"你来的那个时候，that time (when) you came"

6. Adverbial

The adverbial modifies or defines verbs or adjectives, in order to indicate the why, how, when, and where of the verb, or the degree of the adjective. Most often it is an adverb, an adjective, or a verb that acts as an adverbial; sometimes, a noun, a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun, a number, and various phrases can also be adverbials. Adverbials can either be placed before or after the verb or adjective. e.g.,

A. Adverbs as Adverbials

Most adverbs are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,

Na oms da buuen zo.

He still not come accent

"他还没来呢，He has not come (yet)."

Hwanneix fas vaeu fous hos.

Today sky mosthot accent

"今天天气很热啊，Today the weather (is) very hot."

Qi lax tax yous rien tun!

Time eat rice don't say/speak word

"吃饭时别说话！It is eating time, don't talk!"

Zuu lang aeu neix da hlenymuuen.

One classifier man this not beautiful

"这个人不漂亮！This person (is) not beautiful."

Only fewadverbs, like "dhat", "luueng", "baisias" and "dhatdhat", are placed after the verb or adjective, e.g.,

Na buuen dhat.

He come really

"他真的来了，He really came."

Na vuek luueng.

He do back

"他重新做，He (is) re-doing (it)."

Gong neix hleny dhatdhat.

Stuff this good really

"这东西真好，This is really good stuff."

Maeis neix dheeng baisias.

Sugarcane this sweet very

"这甘蔗非常甜，This sugarcane (is) very sweet."

B. Adjectives as Adverbials

Most adjectives are placed before verb or adjective head words. Only a few adjectives, like "hleny" (好, good/so), and "reek" (坏, bad/not so), can be adverbials to modify adjective head words, e.g.,

reek coem

bad/not so sharp

"不锋利，not so sharp"

Gas neix hleny coem hos！

Long knife this good/so sharp accent!

"这把刀好快啊！This knife is (so) sharp!"

Dais fei as, baisdza！

Slow walk accent, old lady!

"慢走啊，老大娘，Slow(ly) walk, (lady/old woman)."

Meuu dzuuns buuen bhe！

You quick come accent

"你快来吧，(You) quick(ly) come."

If an adjective is doubled, it can be placed after the verb, e.g.,

Meuu buuen dzuunsdzuuns bhe！

You come quick quick accent

"你快快来吧，(You) come double quick."

C. Verbs as Adverbials

When verbs act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial verbs are placed before that head word, e.g.,

Na ngais rien.

He/she cry say

"她哭着说，She said (it while) crying."

Meuu dzok dzueis meshes?

You steal/secretly look what

"你偷看什么？What are you secretly looking at?"

Na oep lax zuuyunx.

He like eat coconut

"他爱吃椰子，He likes to eat coconuts."

D. Nouns as Adverbials

When nouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial nouns are placed before that head word, e.g.,

Neix man cai vuek

This is tree make

"这是木制的，This is made of wood."

Meuu ashaux hei hyos?

You tomorrow go question accent

"你明天去吗？Are you going tomorrow?"

E. Pronouns as Adverbials

When pronouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial pronouns can either be placed before or after that head word, e.g.,

Na dhongneix rien. = Na rien dhongneix.

He like this say = He say like this

"他这样说，He said (it) like this."

Gong neix dhongras vuek = Gong neix vuek dhongras

work this how do = work this do how

"这活儿怎样做？How (is) this work done?"

Qiras dhaens = dhaens qiras

When arrive = arrive when

"何时到？When (will he) arrive?"

However, when pronouns act as adverbials to modify a head word that is an adjective, the adverbial pronouns are only placed after that head word, e.g.,

Gom neix bheeng dhonghauux.

Region this wide/vast like that/so

"这地方那么宽，This region (is) so vast."

Zuu zuen aeu neix hleny dhonghauux.

One classififer man this good/kind like that/so

"这个人那么好，This man (is) so good."

Zuu dhanx dhoei neix daeus ras?

One classififer rope this long how?

"这一条绳子有多长？How long (is) this rope?"

F. Prepositional phrases as Adverbial

When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "ia" (被, by) or "dheuu" (被, by), act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies a head word that is a verb, and must be placed before that head word, e.g.,

Ia ba gaenys

by dog bite

"被狗咬，bit by a dog"

dheuu na taeix

by him hit

"被他打，hit by him"

When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "tuuen" (从, by), "dhuus" (在, in/at), "ku" (对, to), "uengx" (和, and),or "nyuek" (和, and) act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies the head word that is a verb, and must be placed either before or after that head word, e.g.,

tuuen max zuu dhanx guen kaen hwous

From that one classifier road go up mountain

"从这一条路上山，by that road (one can) go up the mountain"

toek tuuen deuu cai

drop from on tree

"从树上掉下来，drop from the tree"

dhuus blongs dzoeng meuu = dzoeng meuu dhuus blongs

at house/home wait you = wait you at house/home

"在家等你，(I'll) wait for you at home."

ku na rien = rien ku na

to him say = say to him

"对他说，say to him"

uengx meuu hei= hei uengx meuu

With you go = go with you

"同你去，(I'll) go with you."

meuu doengs nyuek na. = meuu nyuek na doengs.

You play with/and him = You with/and him play

"你和他玩，You play with him."

Some prepositions, like "bhi" (比, than/compare), "dhuas" (过, than), "dhong" (同/像/如, same/be like), or "bhaen" (像, be like), have nouns as adverbials to modify the adjective head word, of which some are placed before that head word, others after, and still others either before or after, e.g.,

Before the adjective head word:

Meuu bhi dhes peek.

You than/compare me tall

"你比我高，You (are) taller than me."

After the adjective head word:

Meuu peek dhuas na.

You tall than him

"你高过他，You (are) taller than him."

Ba long dhuas mieux.

Dog big than cat

"狗大过猫，A dog (is) bigger than a cat."

Before or after the adjective head word:

hloek bhaen laengs

deep like/as sea

"像海一样深，as deep as the sea."

enyx dhong guty

small like/as needle

"像针一样小，as small as a needle."

Kai neix bhaen eps ghweis. = Kai neix ghweis bhaen eps.

Chicken this like/as duck fat = Chicken this fat as duck

"这只鸡像鸭一样肥，This chicken (is) as fat as (a) duck."

Sentence patterns and types^[41]^[42]

Sentence patterns and their basic rules

1. Simple sentence

The simple sentence includes subject-predicate sentence, no subject sentence, one word sentence, e.g.,

A. Subject-predicate sentences

Fas fun lo.

sky rain accent

"天要下雨了，It's going to rain."

Na hei bhe.

He go accent

"他去了，He went."

Enyxlauux raeu he.

Child laugh accent

"小孩笑了，(The) child(ren) laughed."

The simple sentences above include two elements: subjects and predicates, however, other elements like objects, complements, or adverbials can be included, e.g.,

(subject + predicate + object)

Hou lax tax.

I eat rice

"我吃饭，I eat rice."

(subject + predicate + complement)

Na qieus buuen bhe.

He bring come accent

"他拿来了，He brought (it with him)."

(subject + adverbial + predicate + complement)

Enyxlauux bhaeis fei hluet blongs.

Child already walk into house

"小孩走进屋子，(The) child(ren) walked into the house."

B. No subject sentences

This simple sentences look like inverted sentences, e.g.,

Tuut dhoei bhe.

Break rope accent

"断绳了，The rope (is) broken."

Hloei aeu dhat.

Many people really/very

"人真多，(There are) so many people."

Hlaeux hlai bhe.

Die fish accent

"鱼死了，The fish died."

C. One word sentence

Asras？

Who？

"谁？Who?"

Ahyo!

Oh my!

"哎哟！Oh my!"

A: "Meuu kweis da kweis？" B: "Kweis."

    You     be willing to  NEG be willing to        be willing to

A: 'Are you willing (or) not willing?' B: '(Yes, I am) willing.'

A: 你愿意不愿意？B:愿意

2. Compound sentences

There are two kinds of compound sentences; one is a coordinate compound sentence, the other is a subordinate compound sentence, e.g.,

A. Coordinate compound sentences

The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: parallel, progressive, and optional.

a. The parallel relationship

Usually, there is no need of conjunctions between clauses.

Hou kweis hei kuishuix, na kweis hei ang.

I will go have a meeting he will go field

"我要去开会，他要去山栏地，I'm going to a meeting, he's going to the field."

Coem hweek hou ngan lax dhuas,

Fruit banana I also eat auxiliary past tense

zuuyunx hou ngan lax dhuas.

coconut I also eat auxiliary past tense

"香蕉我吃过，椰子我也吃过，I've eaten bananas, and I have also eaten coconuts."

Na hoen vuek veengs vuek riens,

He/she know how to do shirt do skirt

hoen vuek ang vuek dax.

know how to do hilly field do plain field

"她能做衣服做裙子，能耕田种地，She can make shirts and skirts, (she also) can work (in) hilly (and) plain fields."

b. The progressive relationship

The conjunction words that express a progressive relationship between clauses are "loms" (又, still),"oms" (还, 却, yet),"ruus" (都, all), "koms" (连, even/also), and their similar phrases such as "dacaux…koms/uuloms…"(不但...而且...，not only... but also...), e.g.,

Fas bhaeis cop, na loms da beuu.

Sky already late he still not come back

"天已经晚了，他还不回来，It was late, and he still (had) not come back."

Fas oms da dhenys, na bhaeis hei ang he.

Sky yet not bright, he already go field accent

"天尚未亮，他已经去田里了，It was not yet the break of dawn, and he had already gone to the field."

Meuuda man Moei, fa man Hlai, gha ruus man uxaeu Dongxgok.

You are Han, we are Li, we all are people China

"你们是汉族，我们是黎族，咱们都是中国人，You are Han, we are Li, we are all Chinese."

Na kueng rien tun Hlai,

He know how to speak language/word Li

kueng rien koms tun Moei.

know how to speak also/even language/word Han

"他会说黎话，也会说汉话，He knows how to speak the Li language, also knows how to speak the Han language."

hou dacaux dzueis bhaeis, uuloms taeis bhaeis.

I not only read finished, but also write finished

"我不仅看完了，而且写完了，Not only did I finish reading, but I also finished writing."

c. The optional relationship

The conjunction words that express an optional relationship between clauses are "cuus" (或, or), "cas" (或, or), "casnus" (或, or), "cuusnaus" (或, or), and "dagoms" (或, or), e.g.,

Pashlaus meuu buuen, cas pasghueng meuu buuen.

Old brother your come, or younger brother your come

"你哥哥来，还是你弟弟来，(Either) your older brother (will) come, or your younger brother (will) come."

Lax man cuusnaus lax tax？

Eat potato or eat rice

"吃白薯还是米饭？Do you eat potatoes or rice?"

Meuu rien ku na, dagoms rien ku hou.

You say/tell to him, or say/tell to me

"你对他说，或者告诉我，You tell him, or tell me."

B. Subordinate compound sentences

The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are not equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: transitional, conditional, and causal.

a. The transitional relationship

Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause, and the latter one is the major clause. The conjunction words that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (但是, but), "oms" (却, but), and "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), "tus" (但是, but), e.g.,

Uupans hou hei zok na, tom na hei qix.

Yesterday I go to him, but he go street

"昨天我到他家去，但是他已经上街去了，Yesterday I went to (find) him (at his house), but he had already hit the streets."

Na kweis vuek tun, oms dhas zuugheidhang.

She want sing a song, but fear shame

"她想唱歌，又怕害羞，She wants to sing, but fears embarrassment."

Kweis o goms o dhat, dagoms beuu blongs.

Want learn then learn well, otherwise go back home

"要学就真正地学，不然就回家去，(If you) want to learn, then learn (it) well, otherwise, go back home."

b. The conditional relationship

Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause indicating the condition, and the latter one is the major clause expressing the consequence. The conjunction words that express a conditional relationship are "laeis" (如果, if), "dalunx" (无论, no matter what), e.g.,

Dalunx na rien dhongras, hou ngan hei.

no matter what he say how, I also go

"不管他怎样说，我都去，No matter what he says, I'll also go."

Laeis na da buuen, dhes fan hei gongx na.

If he not come, I then go find him

"如果他不来，我就去找他，If he doesn't come, then I'll go find him."

Laeis zaux tax, hou goms lax.

If have/there is rice, I then eat

"如果有饭，我就吃，If there is rice, then I (will) eat."

Laeis na euu, meuu goms waeix ku hou bas.

If he agree, you then tell to me accent

"如果他答应，你就告诉我吧，If he agrees, then (you) tell me."

Sometimes, the conditional sentence does not need a conjunction word, e.g.,

Tuuen kaux vuek gong, nge zaux gan zaux jien.

Out strength do work, must have money have money

"努力工作，一定会有金钱，(If you) use strength to work, (you) will have money."

c. The causal relationship

Usually, the first clause is the major clause indicating the result, and the latter one is the subordinate clause expressing the cause. The conjunction words that express a causal relationship are "hans" (因为, because), "dagoms" (不然, otherwise), e.g.,

Fas fun yous hei,dagoms ia cok.

Sky rain don't go otherwise gain/get sickness

"天下雨了，别去，不然要得病，It's raining, don't go, otherwise (you'll) get sick."

Dhes da hei, hans dhes cok bhe.

I not go because I sick accent

"我不去，因为我病了，I'm not going because I'm sick."

Hou beuu bat dhoei, hans tuut bhaeis.

I come back take rope, because break totally

"我回来拿绳子，因为全断了，I came back to take a rope, because (my rope is) totally broken."

Sometimes, the word "hans" also can be used in a conditional clause, e.g.,

Jieng, hans hloei ges fa ngan duuengx.

Success, no matter what much price/cost we also give

"能成功的话，那么多少钱我们都给，(Achieve) success, no matter how much it costs."

When the loan words "ienxuis…dosdzis"are used to present the cause-result relationship, the causal clause is placed before the result clause, e.g.,

Ienxuis boux neix fas raenx, dosdzis daenslieng aiszangs peek.

Because year this sky dry, so produce not so high

"因为今年天旱，所以产量不太高，Because this year it (is) dry, (so) the produce (is) not so much."

C. Compressed compound sentences

In view of idea expressed, the compressed sentence is a compound sentence; in view of construction, it is a simple sentence.

Dhes ghais meuu vuek meshes goms vuek meshes.

I tell you do what then do what

"我叫你做什么就做什么，Whatever I tell you to do, do (it)."

Hou kweis rien oms dhas.

I want say but fear

"我想说又害怕，I want to speak but (I) fear (to say it)."

Na faets ngop faets hlenyvis.

He more... think more... happy

"他越想越高兴，The more he thinks the more happy he is."

Bou neix luuengx bhoux luuengx ghweis.

Pig this more... feed more... fat

"这只猪越喂越肥，The more this pig is fed the fatter it is."

Na lax vuek lax dzuuns.

He more... do more... fast

"他越做越快，The more he works the faster he gets/becomes."

Aeu ceeng buuen ceeng hloei.

He more... come more... many

"人越来越多，The people coming (are) more and more."

Hlai Sentence Types and their basic rules^[43]^[44]

According to the function and mood, Hlai sentences can be classified as declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, imperative sentences, and exclamatory sentences.

1. Declarative sentence

A. Affirmative sentence

Hou kweis hei ang.

I will go hilly field

"我要去山栏地，I will go to the hilly field."

Neix man veengs na.

This is shirt/top her/his

"这是他/她的衣服，This is her/his shirt/top."

Sometimes, the linking verb is omitted, e.g.,

Neix veengs na.

This shirt/top her/his

"这是他/她的衣服，This (is) her/his shirt/top."

B. Negative sentence

Neix ghwaix veengs na.

This is not shirt/top her/his

"这不是他/她的衣服，This is not her/his shirt."

Na da buuen zo.

He not come accent

"他还没来呢，He has not come yet."

2. Interrogative sentence

A. Using interrogative pronouns

There are several interrogative pronouns that are used: "uuras/asras" (谁, who?), "meshes" (什么, what?), "dhongras" (怎样, how?), "ras" (哪，如何, where? which? how?), "qiras" (何时, when?), and "hloeiras" (多少, How much/many?), e.g.,

Neix veengs asras?

This shirt/top who?

"这是谁的衣服，Whose shirt is this?"

Uuras uengx hou hei?

Who with me go?

"谁跟我去？Who(will) go with me?"

Neix man meshes?

This is what?

"这是什么？What is this?"

Vuek dhongras naus dhiu?

Do how just right?

"怎么样做才好？How should it be done, so that it will be done right?"

Meuu hei zok ras?

You go to/toward where?

"你去哪儿？Where are you heading?"

Na qiras buuen?

He when come?

"他何时来？When (will) he come?"

zaux hloeiras zuen uucok?

Have how many classifier sick

"有几个病号？How many (people) are sick?"

B. Using interrogative accent words

These questions require an answer: "Yes or no".

Ghwaix na bas?

Is not him accent

"不是他吧？It is not him, right?"

Neix guu meuu hos?

This belong to you accent

"这是你的吗？Does this belong to you?"

Meuu bhaeis lax tax hixhos?

You already eat rice accent

"你已经吃过饭了吗？Did you already eat (rice)?"

(There are several more words used in the interrogative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)

C. Using negation words ("da")

Meuu kweis hei da?

You will go NEG?

"你要去吗？Won't you go?"

Meuu kweis da?

You be willing to NEG?

"你愿意吗？Aren't you willing?"

Meuu kweis laeis hisdhop da?

You want see movie NEG?

"你要看电影吗？Don't you want to see a movie?"

Gong neix hleny da?

Stuff this good NEG?

"这东西好吗？Isn't this stuff good?"

The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added before the negative words "da" to express a question, e.g.,

Meuu qieng dheuu cuus da?

You want take or not?

"你想拿吗？Do you want to take (it) or not?"

Meuu bhaeis lax cuus da?

You already eat or not?

"你已经吃了吗？Have you already eaten or not?"

Veengs neix hleny cas da?

shirt/top this good or not?

"这件衣服好吗？Is this shirt/top good or not?"

D. Using conjunction words ("cuus/cas")

The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,

Meuu dheuu cuus ais?

You want or don't want?

"你要不要？Do you want (it) or not?"

Fa caem cuus bhiek?

We carry with hands or carry on shoulders?

"我们抬还是扛？Should we carry (it) with (our) hands or on (our) shoulders?"

Dhat cas tuas?

Genuine/real/true or false/fake?

"真的还是假的？Are you telling the truth, or did you make it up?"

Another related conjunction word "cuusnaus/casnus" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,

Na hei cuusnaus hou hei？

He go or I go?

"他去还是我去？Will he go or should I go?"

3. Imperative sentence

When a speaker demonstrates a request or a command, usually he will express it with an accent. When the subject is omitted, it can become a one word sentence, e.g.,

Buuen!

Come

"来！Come！"

Uuhaux laus zuucoeis bas.

tomorrow pick litchi (fruit) accent

"明天摘荔枝吧！Tomorrow let's (finish) pick(ing) litchi (=a kind of fruit)!"

Uengxtoengs dzuuns buuen res!

Everyone quickly come accent

"大家快来吧！Everyone, come quickly!"

(There are several more words used in the imperative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)

When a speaker expresses a prohibition, usually the adverbial word "yous" (别, don't) is used.

Yous vuek!

Don't do

"别做！Quit doing that!"

4. Exclamatory sentence

There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aidzo", "aiho", "euu", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feelings.

A. An accented word in one word sentence

Euu! Hauux bhe!

Yes! That is (it)!

"嗯！是！Yes! That's it!"

Aei! Dhongras vuek naus hleny?

Oh my! How do just/then good

"哎哟！怎么做才好？Oh my! What's a good way to do this?"

B. An accented word follows one word or one phrase

Cok ho!

Pain accent

"疼啊！Ouch!"

Hleny hloei ho!

good/so many accent

"好多啊！So many!"

C. An accented word at the end of a sentence

Aidzo! Keuuhwoek ho!

Oh my! Poor accent

"哎哟！可惜啊！Oh (my)! Poor (guy)!"

Tau bhaeis poens a!

Pot already break accent

"锅已经破了！The pot broke!"

Bheuucai neix hleny lax ho!

Vegetable this good eat accent

"这菜好吃啊！This vegetable (=dish) (is) good to eat (=delicious)!"

Noms neix ghan a!

Water this cold accent

"这水凉啊！This water is cold!"

(There are several more words used in the exclamatory mood, so please see the section on accented words.)

Influence of Chinese grammar^[45]^[46]

Due to the frequent contacts made between the Li (黎族) and the Han (汉族) over a relatively lengthy stretch of time, the Hlai language has been influenced by the Chinese language and its grammar. As previously mentioned, the Hlai counting system for dates, ordinal numbers, and measurements have been influenced by Chinese. In this chapter, the Chinese influence in Hlai's word order of attribute phrases, verb-object-complement phrases, and interrogative sentences is discussed.

Attribute phrases

Nouns act as head words, and the attribute word is a number. Natively, the number should be placed before the head word. But, due to the Chinese influence, the number can be placed after the head word, e.g.,

Original order	Influenced order
三 fus three 只 lang CLF 野猪 laty boar 三只野猪 fus lang laty three CLF boar "three boars"	野猪 laty boar 三 fus three 只 lang CLF 野猪三只 laty fus lang boar three CLF "three boars"
一 zuu one 个 hom CLF 果子 coem fruit 一个果子 zuu hom coem one CLF fruit "one fruit"	果子 coem fruit 一 zuu one 个 hom CLF 果子一个 coem zuu hom fruit one CLF "one fruit"
两 hlaus two 条 dhanx CLF 竹子 roenx bamboo 两条竹子 hlaus dhanx roenx two CLF bamboo "two bamboo"	竹子 roenx bamboo 两 hlaus two 条 dhanx CLF 竹子两条 roenx hlaus dhanx bamboo two CLF "two bamboo"

When nouns act as head words, and the attribute words are demonstrative pronouns and numbers, the number is placed before the head word and the demonstrative pronoun after the head word. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order has become more like the word order in Chinese, e.g.,

Original order	Influenced order
这一个枕头 zuu one hom CLF ngaen pillow neix DEM zuu hom ngaen neix one CLF pillow DEM "this pillow"	这 neix DEM 一 zuu one 个 hom CLF 枕头 ngaen pillow 这一个枕头 neix zuu hom ngaen DEM one CLF pillow "this pillow"
那六件衣服 dom six fans CLF veengs shirt hauux DEM dom fans veengs hauux six CLF shirt DEM "these six shirts"	那 hauux DEM 六 dom six 件 fans CLF 衣服 veengs shirt 那六件衣服 hauux dom fans veengs DEM six CLF shirt "these six shirts"
那七棵椰子树 tou seven kuuengx CLF zuuyunx coconut max DEM tou kuuengx zuuyunx max seven CLF coconut DEM "those seven coconut tree"	那 max DEM 七 tou seven 棵 kuuengx CLF 椰子树 zuuyunx coconut 那七棵椰子树 max tou kuuengx zuuyunx DEM seven CLF coconut "those seven coconut tree"

When two nouns are placed together as an attribute phrase, the front noun is the head word, and the back one the attribute word. However, due to Chinese influence, the word order can be changed, but only when applied to loan word attribute phrases, e.g.,

Original order	Influenced order
海南省 dengs province Haeisnaems Hainan dengs Haeisnaems province Hainan "Hainan province"	海南 Haeisnaems Hainan 省 dengs province 海南省 Haeisnaems dengs Hainan province "Hainan province"
乐东县 gwaeis county Lokdhongs Ledong gwaeis Lokdhongs county Ledong "Ledong county"	乐东 Lokdhongs Ledong 县 gwaeis county 乐东县 Lokdhongs gwaeis Ledong county "Ledong county"
抱由镇 dhiens township Bhausdzius Baoyou dhiens Bhausdzius township Baoyou "Baoyou township"	抱由 Bhausdzius Baoyou 镇 dhiens township 抱由镇 Bhausdzius dhiens Baoyou township "Baoyou township"

Another kind of attribute phrase is where the noun is the head word and the adjective is the attribute word. When the words in the phrase are all loan words, the word order follows the Chinese one, e.g.,

ex:

新

dienx

new

中国

Dongxgok

China

"new China"

ex:

新

dienx

new

裙子

gun

skirt

"new skirt"

ex:

大

dhuax

big

救星

giuscex

savior

"great savior"

However, when the words in the phrase are not all loanwords, the adjective is placed after the noun, e.g.,

ex:

新中国

Dongxgok

China

baen

new

"new China"

ex:

这是新裙子

neix

DEM.this

man

is

gun

skirt

baen.

new

"This is a new skirt."

ex:

大救星

giuscex

savior

long

big

"great savior"

Verb-object-complement phrases

When verbs act as head words, the word order is verb-object-complement. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order, verb-complement-object has also been adopted, e.g.,

Original order	Influenced order
吃完饭 lax eat tax rice bhaeis finished lax tax bhaeis eat rice finished "finished eating"	吃 lax eat 完 bhaeis finished 饭 tax rice 吃完饭 lax bhaeis tax eat finished rice "finished eating"
做完工 vuek do gong work bhaeis finished vuek gong bhaeis do work finished "finished working"	做 vuek do 完 bhaeis finished 工 gong work 做完工 vuek bhaeis gong do finished work "finished working"
吃完酒 lax eat bhiengx rice wine bhaeis finished lax bhiengx bhaeis eat {rice wine} finished "finished drinking"	吃 lax eat 完 bhaeis finished 酒 bhiengx rice wine 吃完酒 lax bhaeis bhiengx eat finished {rice wine} "finished drinking"

Interrogative sentences

The native ways to denote a question in the Hlai language are using interrogative pronouns, interrogative accents, or placing the negation word da at the end of a sentence. However, due to Chinese influence, a new word order has appeared, which is, verb (head word) + negation + verb, e.g.,

ex:

你

Meuu

You

去

hei

go

不

da

NEG

去？

hei?

go

"Are you going?"

The possessive auxiliary word gaeis

The native possessive auxiliary word in Hlai is guu. In the Chinese language, the possessive auxiliary word is gaeis, and both its usage and function have been imputed into the Hlai language, e.g.,

ex:

北京

Bhakgengs

Beijing

的

gaeis

AUX.POSS

颐和园

Ihwashueis

the name of emperor's Summer Palace

"Beijing's Summer Palace"

ex:

海南

Haeisnaems

Hainan

的

gaeis

AUX.POSS

乐东

Lokdhongs

Ledong

县

gwaeis

township

"Hainan's Ledong township"

ex:

早晨

gaeusdhom

morning

的

gaeis

AUX.POSS

太阳

cahwan

sun

"the morning's sun"

References

^ Yuan 1994, pp. 56–57.
^ ^a ^b Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 91–92.
^ Peng, Min-Sheng; He, Jun-Dong; Liu, Hai-Xin; Zhang, Ya-Ping (2011-02-15). "Tracing the legacy of the early Hainan Islanders – a perspective from mitochondrial DNA". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 11 (1): 46. Bibcode:2011BMCEE..11...46P. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-11-46. ISSN 1471-2148. PMC 3048540. PMID 21324107.
^ Ouyang Jueya 欧阳觉亚 & Zheng Yiqing 郑贻青 (1983). Liyu diaocha yanjiu 黎语调查研究. Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe 中国社会科学出版社. p. 4.
^ Wen & Wen 2006.
^ Wen & Wen 2006, p. 332.
^ Wen & Wen 2006, p. 333.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 58–61.
^ ^a ^b Wen & Wen 2009, p. 20.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 61–62.
^ ^a ^b Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 96–99.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 62–77.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 70–71.
^ ^a ^b Wen & Wen 2006, p. 103.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 71–77.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 77–87.
^ Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 107–09.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 87–90.
^ Ouyang Jueya 欧阳觉亚 Zheng Yiqing 郑贻青 (1992). Hlai Han Dictionary 黎汉词典. Chengdu, Sichuan: Sichuan Ethnic Publishing Press. ISBN 7540903023.
^ ^a ^b Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 114–15.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 88–90.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 90–97.
^ Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 120–22.
^ Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 252–54.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 97–101.
^ Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 129–31.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 101–08.
^ Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 144–45.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 108–10.
^ Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 137–39.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 110–13.
^ Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 151–52.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 113–19.
^ Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 158–60.
^ Yuan 1994, p. 120.
^ Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 165–66.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 121–30.
^ Wen & Wen 2009, pp. 22–30.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 132–51.
^ Wen & Wen 2009, pp. 31–40.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 152–57.
^ Wen & Wen 2009, pp. 41–44.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 158–61.
^ Wen & Wen 2009, pp. 44–47.
^ Yuan 1994, pp. 180–85.
^ Wen & Wen 2009, pp. 47–51.

Bibliography

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[FOOTNOTEYuan199456–57-1] Yuan 1994, pp. 56–57.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen200691–92-2] Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 91–92.

[3] Peng, Min-Sheng; He, Jun-Dong; Liu, Hai-Xin; Zhang, Ya-Ping (2011-02-15). "Tracing the legacy of the early Hainan Islanders – a perspective from mitochondrial DNA". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 11 (1): 46. Bibcode:2011BMCEE..11...46P. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-11-46. ISSN 1471-2148. PMC 3048540. PMID 21324107.

[4] Ouyang Jueya 欧阳觉亚 & Zheng Yiqing 郑贻青 (1983). Liyu diaocha yanjiu 黎语调查研究. Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe 中国社会科学出版社. p. 4.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen2006-5] Wen & Wen 2006.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen2006332-6] Wen & Wen 2006, p. 332.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen2006333-7] Wen & Wen 2006, p. 333.

[FOOTNOTEYuan199458–61-8] Yuan 1994, pp. 58–61.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen200920-9] Wen & Wen 2009, p. 20.

[FOOTNOTEYuan199461–62-10] Yuan 1994, pp. 61–62.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen200696–99-11] Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 96–99.

[FOOTNOTEYuan199462–77-12] Yuan 1994, pp. 62–77.

[FOOTNOTEYuan199470–71-13] Yuan 1994, pp. 70–71.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen2006103-14] Wen & Wen 2006, p. 103.

[FOOTNOTEYuan199471–77-15] Yuan 1994, pp. 71–77.

[FOOTNOTEYuan199477–87-16] Yuan 1994, pp. 77–87.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen2006107–09-17] Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 107–09.

[FOOTNOTEYuan199487–90-18] Yuan 1994, pp. 87–90.

[19] Ouyang Jueya 欧阳觉亚 Zheng Yiqing 郑贻青 (1992). Hlai Han Dictionary 黎汉词典. Chengdu, Sichuan: Sichuan Ethnic Publishing Press. ISBN 7540903023.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen2006114–15-20] Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 114–15.

[FOOTNOTEYuan199488–90-21] Yuan 1994, pp. 88–90.

[FOOTNOTEYuan199490–97-22] Yuan 1994, pp. 90–97.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen2006120–22-23] Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 120–22.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen2006252–54-24] Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 252–54.

[FOOTNOTEYuan199497–101-25] Yuan 1994, pp. 97–101.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen2006129–31-26] Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 129–31.

[FOOTNOTEYuan1994101–08-27] Yuan 1994, pp. 101–08.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen2006144–45-28] Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 144–45.

[FOOTNOTEYuan1994108–10-29] Yuan 1994, pp. 108–10.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen2006137–39-30] Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 137–39.

[FOOTNOTEYuan1994110–13-31] Yuan 1994, pp. 110–13.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen2006151–52-32] Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 151–52.

[FOOTNOTEYuan1994113–19-33] Yuan 1994, pp. 113–19.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen2006158–60-34] Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 158–60.

[FOOTNOTEYuan1994120-35] Yuan 1994, p. 120.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen2006165–66-36] Wen & Wen 2006, pp. 165–66.

[FOOTNOTEYuan1994121–30-37] Yuan 1994, pp. 121–30.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen200922–30-38] Wen & Wen 2009, pp. 22–30.

[FOOTNOTEYuan1994132–51-39] Yuan 1994, pp. 132–51.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen200931–40-40] Wen & Wen 2009, pp. 31–40.

[FOOTNOTEYuan1994152–57-41] Yuan 1994, pp. 152–57.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen200941–44-42] Wen & Wen 2009, pp. 41–44.

[FOOTNOTEYuan1994158–61-43] Yuan 1994, pp. 158–61.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen200944–47-44] Wen & Wen 2009, pp. 44–47.

[FOOTNOTEYuan1994180–85-45] Yuan 1994, pp. 180–85.

[FOOTNOTEWenWen200947–51-46] Wen & Wen 2009, pp. 47–51.

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Introduction

Phonology and orthography

Consonants

Vowel rimes

Tones

Grammar

Related to mankind/person

Related to objects/things

Related to time or space

People

Group/organization/party

Places

Nations

The basic rules for Nouns in Hlai language[8][9][2]

Verbs for expressing mental activities

Verbs for expressing existence, change, development

The basic rules for Verbs in Hlai language[12][11]

1. In Hlai language, verbs never change their form. The placement of an adverb or an auxiliary word after or before a verb determines the verb's tense.

A. Progressive aspect

B. Perfect aspect

C. Future aspect

D. Others

3. Hlai verbs, except for linking verbs, can usually be made nominal by adding a prefix "uu-"; nominal verbs can be a subject, but cannot be a major part of the predicate, e.g.,

4. Hlai verbs are rarely doubled as they are in Chinese; only monosyllabic action verbs and verbs for expressing mental activities can be doubled. Doubled monosyllabic verbs imply that the action is casually and carelessly done, e.g.,

5. Modal verbs are usually placed before a verb forming the predicate of a sentence to express 1) the ability of the one performing the action, or 2) the possibility, obligation, or need of the action, e.g.,

6. Verbs of motion can act alone as a predicate, e.g.,

7. Linking verbs are placed before nouns, noun phrases or pronouns, combining two grammatical parts as a predicate, to provide information about the objects, e.g.,

8. When the suffix "toengs" is added to some verbs, the compound words become reciprocal verbs, and cannot be followed by any objects, e.g.,

9. Some words in Hlai language are both nouns and verbs, e.g.,

Describing the characteristics of a person or thing

Describing the forms/attributes of thing

Describing the state of actions or emotions

The basic rules for Adjectives in Hlai language[15][9][14]

1. In Hlai language, adjectives cannot be a subject, nor an object, but can act as a predicate, attribute, adverbial, or complement.

A. As a predicate

B. As an attribute

C. As an adverbial

D. As a complement

2. An adjective also can be modified by adverbs, which can be placed either before or after the adjective, e.g.,

3. In Hlai language, adjectives have comparative and superlative degrees.

A. comparative degree

B. superlative degree

C. Others

4. Except for adjectives that describe a mental/emotional status, adjectives can be made nominal by adding the prefix "uu-". Adjectives that are nominal cannot be a predicate, but can act as a subject, an object, or an attribute, e.g.,

5. Adjectives for describing the forms/attributes of things, and those for describing the status of actions or emotions, can be doubled, but the adjective has to be monosyllabic.When the adjectives are doubled, the degree of the adjective increases, e.g.,

6. Some adjectives can have a duplicated suffix tagged on to the ends, which cannot exist independently, to intensify the description, e.g.,

7. The word "enyx" is used to describe something small, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the latter word, e.g.,

Basic numbers units

Basic numbers unit combinations

C. Cardinal numbers by themselves usually cannot modify nouns, but need to be placed before a classifier to modify the noun that goes after the classifier, e.g.,

D. Cardinal numbers cannot be doubled, except for with "nguen" and "vaens"; when their pattern is AABB, and the resulting phrase means a number of great amount, e.g.,

E. There are four words ("zuu", "ceuus/zeuus", and "lax") that can represent the place value of "one", but each word has its own usage.

F. There are two words ("fuet" and "bun") that are used for the place value of "ten," but each word has its usage.

Zero

H. In Hlai language, there are two rules to construct numbers

Counting with ordinal numbers

C. For counting the passage of years, months, days, or time

Number of Approximation

A. In Hlai language, one way to represent approximate numbers is to place two or three sequential numbers together, e.g.,

B. Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dzaengsloepp" (大约/大概，probably), e.g.,

C. Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dza" (余，a surplus/more than), e.g.,

D. There are some synonyms, like "zuugit", "zuugitgit", "zuugitlaei", that can be used to represent approximate numbers. These words indicate the uncertainty of a small amount, e.g.,

E. The word "hloei" (多, many/much) can represent the uncertainty of a great amount; if the amount is even greater, this word, "hloei" is repeated, "hloeihloei", e.g.,

1. Classifiers that modify nouns

A. Common classifiers

B. Classifiers for measurement

C. Classifiers derived from nouns or verbs

2. Classifiers for modifying verbs

The basic rules for Classifiers in Hlai language[21][20]

1. Classifiers cannot be doubled as AA (e.g., lang lang), but can be used in a AB+AB pattern, e.g.,

2. Classifiers cannot modify nouns alone; classifiers and numbers must be used together to modify nouns, e.g.,

3. Classifiers (for modifying verbs) and numbers must be used together and be placed after the verb as a complement; in some regions, the combination (number+classifier) would be placed before the verb, e.g.,

4. In some occasions, the combination of numbers and classifiers exists alone, whereby they are not modifying any nouns or verbs, e.g.,

Demonstrative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns

Adverbs

Negation

Degree

Scope, extent, or range

Timing

The basic rules for Nouns in Hlai language^[8]^[9]^[2]

The basic rules for Verbs in Hlai language^[12]^[11]

The basic rules for Adjectives in Hlai language^[15]^[9]^[14]

The basic rules for Classifiers in Hlai language^[21]^[20]