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Mexico–Spain relations

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Mexico–Spain relations
Map indicating locations of Mexico and Spain

Mexico
Spain

Ties between Mexico and Spain date back to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1519 and subsequent Spanish colonialism in the region which lasted until the end of the Mexican War of Independence in 1821. Formal diplomatic relations between both nations commenced in 1836 and were severed with the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War in 1939. Diplomatic relations were re-established in 1977 and have continued unabated since.

Both nations are members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Organization of Ibero-American States and the United Nations. Diplomatic ties between both nations are based on shared historical and cultural ties, a shared common language and stems from the Spanish Conquest and Spanish migration to Mexico.

History

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Spanish conquest

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Main article: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés and his indigenous mistress La Malinche meeting the Aztec Emperor Moctezuma II in 1519.

The Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés led an expedition to what is now Mexico in 1518, establishing the city of Veracruz on his arrival. Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire, was conquered by the Spanish and the Tlaxcaltecs in 1521.[1] Rebuilt to present-day Mexico City, the new capital was founded as the center of power for the subsequent Viceroyalty of New Spain in 1535.[2] The viceroyalty had a stratified social hierarchy based on race with the criollos on top, who had the most rights, until the Laws of the Indies were established throughout the Spanish Empire in the Americas. Likewise, the rights of the Aztec nobility were recognized, which lived and co-governed with the Spanish during the viceroyalty.[3]

Independence

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Main article: Mexican War of Independence

The late 18th and early 19th century saw much revolutionary feeling in the countries of Western Europe and their colonies. The feeling built up in Mexico after the occupation of Spain by the French Revolutionary Emperor Napoleon in 1808, and the 1810 Grito de Dolores speech by Mexican Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla against Spanish rule is widely recognized as the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence. In 1811, Hidalgo was executed by the Spanish militia, but his movement fought on until the establishment of the independent constitutional Mexican Empire in 1821, after the Treaty of Córdoba. The Empire was ousted and the first Mexican Republic created in 1823.[4]

Post-independence

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Spain fails to reconquer Mexico at the Battle of Tampico in 1829

Spain established diplomatic relations with Mexico on 26 December 1836 (15 years after Mexico had declared its independence). In the beginning, the diplomatic relationship between the two nations was strained due to Mexico having been a former colony of Spain and the latter's unsuccessful endeavors to reconquer its former colony in the ensuing years under General Isidro Barradas.[4]

General Juan Prim commanded the Spanish expeditionary army in Mexico in 1862, when France, Spain, and the United Kingdom sought forced payment from the liberal government of Benito Juárez for loans. Prim was a sympathizer with the Mexican liberal cause, thus he refused to consent to the ambitious schemes of French emperor Napoleon III, and withdrew Spanish forces following a meeting with Manuel Doblado.[5]

During the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), Mexico had provided arms to the Republican faction[6] and refuge to political refugees. Throughout the war, Mexican volunteers joined the Republican side to fight Francisco Franco. In 1939 when Francisco Franco took power in Spain, Mexico severed diplomatic relations between the two nations. After the war, thousands of Spanish refugees sought asylum in Mexico and former Mexican consul in Marseille, France, Gilberto Bosques Saldívar, issued thousands of visas to Spanish refugees and other asylees to seek refuge in Mexico.[7] Though the Republicans had lost the war, this helped improve the relationship between the two countries after the death of Franco. Mexico and Spain re-established diplomatic relations on 28 March 1977.[8]

Since re-establishing diplomatic relations, both nations share close and warm diplomatic relations. On several occasions, both countries had supported each other diplomatically and there have been several high level visits and meetings between both governments including with the Spanish royal family. Soon after re-establishing diplomatic relations 1977; Spanish Prime Minister Adolfo Suárez paid an official visit to Mexico, the first ever by a Spanish head of government. That same year, in October 1977, Mexican President José López Portillo paid an official visit to Spain.[9]

Relations in the 21st century

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Several Latin American countries, including Mexico, have been accusedby[according to whom?] of harboring members of the armed organization ETA.[10][11]

From June 29 to July 1, 2015, the king and queen of Spain, Felipe VI and Letizia Ortiz, paid a state visit to Mexico. They were received by the head of Government of the Federal District, Miguel Ángel Mancera, at the City Hall Palace, where they received the appointment of Distinguished Guests. King Felipe VI attended the Mexico Spain Business Forum, in which businessmen and representatives of the governments of the two nations also participated. Meanwhile, Queen Letizia participated in a meeting with the Ibero-American Alliance for Rare Diseases. They were also received in a solemn session in the Republic's Senate, where the anthems of the two nations were sung and the guest book was signed. Don Felipe and Doña Letizia attended a lunch organized by the Spanish Embassy in Mexico, during which they had the opportunity to meet and talk with members of the Spanish community in Mexico. Their Royal Highnesses traveled to Zacatecas, where they held the closing ceremony of the "past, present and future" colloquium on relations between Mexico and Spain, at the Guadalupe Viceroyalty Museum. Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto and his wife, Angélica Rivera, accompanied the royal couple to most of their engagements, including this last one.[12]

On September 19, 2017, Mexico suffered an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.1 that seriously affected different areas of the country, including its capital, Mexico City, where several buildings collapsed. The following day, the Military Emergencies Unit (UME) began the progressive deployment of an Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) team with health support, communications and logistics capabilities. A total of 54 soldiers, two of them from the Army, who flew to Mexico in an Air Force Airbus in response to a bilateral request from the Government of that country. Coordinated by the Centralized Command for the Management of International Teams, the UME USAR team collaborated with the country's emergency services to rescue the greatest number of people alive and recover the dead bodies that could be trapped in the rubble.[13]

In 2019, Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador classified foreign investment in Mexico as "neocolonialist" and linked Spanish and U.S. companies without evidence, the same political situation that occurred in other Latin American countries such as Argentina or Bolivia.[14] In January, the President of the Spanish Government, Pedro Sánchez, made an official visit to Mexico and met with the Mexican president. Both leaders commemorated eighty years since the end of the Spanish civil war and recognized Mexico's openness to receive thousands of Spanish refugees who fled their homes and found asylum in Mexico and their contribution to their adopted country.[15] However, in March, the Mexican Government demanded a public apology from Spain for the conquest of Mexico,[16] which was firmly rejected, both by the Spanish Crown and Government[17] as well as by the National Indigenous Congress (CNI) of Mexico through its spokeswoman, María de Jesús Patricio Martínez, who described the petition as "a simulation" and stated that what the Mexican president should do is stop dispossessing indigenous communities of the land.[18][19] In addition, 62% of the Mexican population believes that López Obrador used the conquest to do politics, while more than half of Mexicans (55%) do not consider an apology necessary for colonization.[20] In fact, the descendants of the Aztec emperor Moctezuma II, such as Juan José Marcilla de Teruel-Moctezuma y Valcárcel (current holder of the Dukedom of Moctezuma de Tultengo), criticized the Mexican president, considering that there is no point in apologizing for something that happened five centuries ago, and that they do not want their ancestors to be used for political purposes to cause social division.[21][22]

In November 2020, Spanish Foreign Minister Arancha González Laya paid a visit to Mexico. In April 2021, the visit was reciprocated by Mexican Foreign Minister Marcelo Ebrard when he paid a visit to Spain. During his visit, Ebrard announced that Mexico will participate in Phase 3 of the Spanish project for a vaccine against COVID-19. In addition, Ebrard announced that Spain made the decision to share vaccines with other countries in Latin America and the Caribbean.[23]

In February 2022, Mexican president López Obrador proposed a "pause" in the bilateral relations between both countries, in light of alleged mispractices of Spanish companies in Mexico during previous administrations.[24] The Spanish Government issued a notice categorically rejecting the offences against Spain and Spanish companies, arguing that both countries are "strategic partners" while noting that the Spanish government wishes for "relations based on mutual respect".[25][26]

In March 2022, the Spanish Foreign Minister José Manuel Albares traveled to Mexico and together with the Mexican Foreign Minister, Marcelo Ebrard, both countries have agreed to “accelerate the relationship” between the two countries instead of taking a pause as requested in February 2022 by President López Obrador. During the meeting, the two foreign ministers signed four agreements on political, cultural, scientific and cooperation in the rights of women.[27]

High-level visits

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Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador and Spanish Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez in Mexico City; January 2019.

Presidential visits from Mexico to Spain[28][29][30][31][32][33]

Royal and Prime Ministerial visits from Spain to Mexico[9][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41]

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  • President José López Portillo and his wife with King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofía in Madrid, October 1977.
    President José López Portillo and his wife with King Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofía in Madrid, October 1977.
  • President Carlos Salinas de Gortari and Prime Minister Felipe González in Madrid, 1989.
    President Carlos Salinas de Gortari and Prime Minister Felipe González in Madrid, 1989.
  • Presidente Felipe Calderón, Argentine President Cristina Fernández and Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero in New York, 2009.
    Presidente Felipe Calderón, Argentine President Cristina Fernández and Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero in New York, 2009.
  • President Felipe Calderón and Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy in Los Cabos, 2012.
    President Felipe Calderón and Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy in Los Cabos, 2012.
  • King Felipe VI and President Enrique Peña Nieto in Mexico City, 2015.
    King Felipe VI and President Enrique Peña Nieto in Mexico City, 2015.
  • President Enrique Peña Nieto and Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy in Hamburg, 2017.
    President Enrique Peña Nieto and Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy in Hamburg, 2017.
  • President Enrique Peña Nieto and King Felipe VI in Madrid, 2018.
    President Enrique Peña Nieto and King Felipe VI in Madrid, 2018.
  • Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez and President Andrés Manuel López Obrador in Mexico City, 2019.
    Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez and President Andrés Manuel López Obrador in Mexico City, 2019.

Bilateral agreements

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Over the years, both nations have signed numerous bilateral agreements and treaties such as an Agreement on Scientific and Technical Cooperation (1977); Agreement on the elimination of visas (1977); Agreement on Cultural and Educational Cooperation (1978); Agreement on Nuclear Energy Cooperation for peaceful purposes (1979); Air Transportation Agreement (1979); Agreement on Economic and Commercial Cooperation (1980); Extradition Treaty (1984); Agreement on the Avoidance of Double-Taxation (1984); Tourism Agreement (1996); Agreement on the Promotion and Protection of Investments (1997); Agreement on Cooperation between the Bank of Mexico and Bank of Spain (2014) and an Agreement on Cooperation against Organized Crime (2014).[42]

Transport

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There are direct flights between Mexico and Spain through the following airlines: Aeroméxico, Air Europa, Iberia, Iberojet, Wamos Air and World2Fly.

Cultural cooperation

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Both countries have established cultural centers in their respective capitals in order to promote the development of both Mexico and Spain, through greater knowledge of both nations in cultural, business, entrepreneurship, tourism, gastronomic, and community development issues.[43][44]

Spain is the European country with which Mexico has traditionally held the largest academic exchange. Both countries actively promote the Spanish language as a symbol of common identity and heritage.[45] In 2015, the kings of Spain witnessed the signing of an agreement between the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), the Instituto Cervantes and the University of Salamanca, to implement the National Service for the Evaluation of the Spanish Language (SIELE) in Mexico, which allows accrediting the command and level of Spanish of any user electronically.[12]

Mariachi and flamenco are two genres of Latin music, recognized as intangible cultural heritage, being emblems of Mexican and Spanish culture respectively. Likewise, they have become popular among the societies of both countries with the exchange of music and dance artists.[46][47]

In May 2022, the Mexican Congress installed a friendship group with Spain. The president of the group, deputy Anuar Roberto Azuar of the PAN, described as "necessary and timely" the meeting with the Spanish ambassador, Juan López-Doriga Pérez, who went to the Lower House of Congress to sign the agreement.[48] In the same month, within the framework of the celebration of the 45th anniversary of the reestablishment of relations between the two countries, Mexico reinforced cultural promotion and academic cooperation with Spain.[49] In addition, in October, the Undersecretary of Foreign Affairs of Mexico, Carmen Moreno Toscano, made a working visit to Spain with the aim of expanding the "key" political dialogue between the two countries and stressed that the bilateral relationship is "broad, solid and dynamic, for the bonds of friendship and the desire for cooperation between the two countries”, and "which is extremely rich, not only because of our common history and culture, but also because of our commercial and human exchanges".[50]

Descendants of Aztec royalty live in Spain and retain titles of nobility.[51][52] In May 2022, the Mexican archaeologist responsible for the excavation of Tenochtitlan, Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, was distinguished with the Princess of Asturias Award for Social Sciences and argued that both countries should further strengthen their relations.[53] Likewise, in October, he stated that "Spain and Mexico are linked by indissoluble ties" and that "they must move towards a promising future".[54][55]

Since June 2022, the Group of World Heritage Cities of Spain and the National Association of Mexican World Heritage Cities have agreed to strengthen their relations with the aim of promoting mutual cooperation and the exchange of information, experiences and good practices in matters related to the defense of heritage, culture, and tourism promotion. This agreement has been reflected in the signing of a letter of intent signed by the president of the Group of World Heritage Cities of Spain, Carlos García Carbayo, and the president of the Mexican association, Loredana Montes, after holding a meeting that they have kept in the headquarters of the Historic Center Trust of Mexico City.[56]

In 2022, it was the 40th anniversary of the signing of the twinning between the city of Guadalajara in Castilla-La Mancha (Spain) and the corresponding Guadalajara in Jalisco (Mexico).[57] Likewise, the twinning of the city of Valladolid in Castile and León (Spain) with its counterpart Valladolid in Yucatán (Mexico) was established, so that both cities have been linked institutionally, promoting human contact and the cultural ties of each culture.[58][59]

In February 2023, the twinning of the Sanctuaries dedicated to the Virgin of Guadalupe in Mexico and Spain was signed.[60][61]

Mexico House in Madrid
Spanish Cultural Center in Mexico City

Drug trafficking

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In 2012, four suspected members of Mexican drug cartel Sinaloa were arrested in Spain, while allegedly trying to set up a European operation.[62][63]

In 2013, the head of the Spanish Drugs and Organized Crime Unit (known as Udyco) believed that the Mexican drug cartels had set out to “conquer” Spain and not forge an alliance with Colombian drug organizations.[64]

In 2017, Spanish police extradited Juan Manuel Muñoz Luévano, suspected of carrying out operations for Mexican drugs cartel los Zetas in Spain, to the United States.[65]

Trade relations

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In 1997, Mexico signed a Free Trade Agreement with the European Union, of which Spain is a member. In 2023, two-way trade between both nations amounted to US$7.4 billion.[66] Mexico's exports to Spain include: crude oil, medicine, alcohol, fish and mobile phones; while Spanish exports to Mexico include: vehicles, vehicle parts and wine.[67] Mexico is Spain's biggest trading partner in Latin America.[68]

Several prominent Spanish multinational companies operate in Mexico, such as: Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria, Mapfre, Santander Group, Telefónica and Zara; while several multinational Mexican companies operate in Spain, such as: ALFA, Cemex, Gruma, Grupo Bimbo and Softtek (among others).[69]

Resident diplomatic missions

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  • Embassy of Mexico in Madrid
    Embassy of Mexico in Madrid
  • Consulate of Mexico in Barcelona
    Consulate of Mexico in Barcelona
  • Embassy of Spain in Mexico City
    Embassy of Spain in Mexico City
  • Building hosting the Consulate-General of Spain in Guadalajara
    Building hosting the Consulate-General of Spain in Guadalajara

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "Los conquistadores tlaxcaltecas". Letras Libres. 1 October 2021.
  2. ^ "BBC - History - Hernando Cortés". BBC.
  3. ^ Ots Capdequí, José María (1968). Historia del Derecho español en América y del Derecho indiano. Madrid: Aguilar. ISBN 978-84-03-25044-4.
  4. ^ a b "Mexican Ministry of Education 'Derrota de Isidro Barradas el 11 de septiembre de 1829'(in Spanish)". inehrm.gob.mx. Archived from the original on 2012-11-07. Retrieved 2013-02-19.
  5. ^ Brian Hamnett, Juárez, New York: Longmans 1994, pp. 169, 278.
  6. ^ Explora historiador el envío mexicano de armas para la República española (in Spanish)
  7. ^ Bloomekatz, Ari B. (1 December 2008). "'Mexican Schindler' honored". Los Angeles Times.
  8. ^ "History of diplomatic relations between Mexico and Spain (in Spanish)" (PDF). sre.gob.mx.
  9. ^ a b "México y España veinte años después de la reanudación de relaciones (in Spanish)" (PDF). colmex.mx. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-02-17. Retrieved 2015-03-22.
  10. ^ "América Latina: el refugio idílico de los etarras". El Imparcial. 2010-02-03.
  11. ^ "LAS CONEXIONES DE ETA EN LATINOAMÉRICA". Fundación Víctimas del Terrorismo. 2010.
  12. ^ a b "Revelan la agenda de la visita de los Reyes de España a México". ¡HOLA! México. 23 June 2015.
  13. ^ "México". Gob.es. 2017.
  14. ^ "Latinoamérica, de la crisis a la hostilidad política con el capital extranjero". El País. 13 March 2021.
  15. ^ Mexico y España: unidos por la historia, comprometidos con el cambio
  16. ^ "Obrador, el 'Maduro' mexicano: no sabe qué hacer con sus indígenas y se mete con España". El Español. 2 April 2019.
  17. ^ Lafuente, Javier; Abellán, Lucía (26 March 2019). "España rechaza con firmeza la exigencia de México de pedir perdón por los abusos de la conquista". El País.
  18. ^ "Marichuy: Pedir disculpas a España es una simulación". Nación 321. 28 March 2019.
  19. ^ "Para Marichuy, pedir disculpa a España es simulación". El Financiero. 28 March 2019.
  20. ^ "Un 62% de los mexicanos creen que López Obrador utiliza la conquista para hacer política". El País. 18 July 2021.
  21. ^ "El descendiente de Moctezuma, contra López Obrador: "Me molesta que usen a mi ancestro con fines políticos"". ABC. 31 March 2019.
  22. ^ "Descendiente de Moctezuma pidió a AMLO no usar la figura del emperador azteca con fines políticos". Infobae. 2 April 2019.
  23. ^ España compartirá vacunas anticovid con México, anuncia Ebrard (in Spanish)
  24. ^ Aragón Espejo, Adriana de (9 February 2022). "AMLO plantea poner 'pausa' en relación con España". televisa.com.
  25. ^ "Comunicado sobre las declaraciones del Presidente de México". Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, Unión Europea y Cooperación. 10 February 2022.
  26. ^ Hernández, Marisol (11 February 2022). "El Gobierno exige a López Obrador "respeto mutuo" tras las "descalificaciones" a España". El Periódico de Catalunya.
  27. ^ Albares acuerda en México “acelerar la relación” con España en lugar de pausarla (in Spanish)
  28. ^ "Fuerte contenido económico del viaje de López Portillo a España". El País. 1 October 1977.
  29. ^ "El presidente de México, Miguel de la Madrid, inicia hoy en la capital española una gira europea de negocios". El País. 6 June 1985.
  30. ^ "Salinas de Gortari abrirá en Madrid la sede de Fondo de Cultura Económica". El País. 17 July 1992.
  31. ^ "Zedillo: Visita Oficial de Trabajo a España (in Spanish)". presidencia.gob.mx. Archived from the original on 2016-02-16. Retrieved 2015-03-22.
  32. ^ "Official trips by President Vicente Fox (in Spanish)" (PDF). diputados.gob.mx.
  33. ^ "Official trips by President Felipe Calderón (in Spanish)" (PDF). diputados.gob.mx.
  34. ^ "Casa de Su Majestad el Rey de España - S.M. el Rey Don Juan Carlos - S.M. el Rey Don Juan Carlos". casareal.es.
  35. ^ okler.net. "Mmh.org.mx". mmh.org.mx. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-03-22.
  36. ^ "Untitled Document". El Mundo. Spain.
  37. ^ "La reina Sofía visita hoy la zona afectada por el terremoto de México". El País. 8 December 1985.
  38. ^ "Visita de Trabajo de Su Majestad la Reina Sofía de España (in Spanish)". presidencia.gob.mx. Archived from the original on 2017-10-29. Retrieved 2015-03-22.
  39. ^ "Confirman visita relámpago de Aznar a México". cronica.com.mx.
  40. ^ "Mariano Rajoy destaca la 'meritoria lucha' contra la violencia en México". CNN.
  41. ^ SS.MM. los Reyes visitan los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (in Spanish)
  42. ^ "Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Mexico (in Spanish)" (PDF). exteriores.gob.es.
  43. ^ "CCEMX".
  44. ^ "Fundación Casa de México en España".
  45. ^ "Relación bilateral México – España". Gobierno de México. 9 June 2014.
  46. ^ "México es el tercer país con más academias de flamenco". Expo Flamenco. 1 July 2019.
  47. ^ "Madrid clausura Hispanidad 2022 con animación en la calle, flamenco, tango, mariachis, el musical 'Malinche', bandas de música y fuegos artificiales al son de Albéniz y Falla (horarios y ubicaciones)". Gacetín Madrid. 11 October 2022.
  48. ^ "Tras polémica "pausa", instalan grupo de amistad México-España en la Cámara de Diputados". El Comentario. 4 May 2022.
  49. ^ "México refuerza promoción cultural y cooperación académica con España". Excélsior. 6 May 2022.
  50. ^ "España y México refuerzan el diálogo bilateral clave para ambos países". Forbes. 20 October 2022.
  51. ^ "Orden JUS/2484/2013, de 18 de diciembre, por la que se manda expedir, sin perjuicio de tercero de mejor derecho, Real Carta de Sucesión en el título de Duque de Moctezuma de Tultengo, con Grandeza de España, a favor de don Juan José Marcilla de Teruel-Moctezuma y Valcárcel" (PDF). BOE. 2 January 2014. p. 366.
  52. ^ "Nobleza mexicana: ella es la condesa de Miravalle; heredera al 'trono' azteca". Radio Fórmula.mx. 24 February 2023.
  53. ^ "Eduardo Matos Moctezuma: "Hay que conocer la Historia, pero mirar hacia el futuro"". ABC. 18 May 2022.
  54. ^ "Eduardo Matos Moctezuma: "España y México están unidos por lazos indisolubles"". ABC. 26 October 2022.
  55. ^ "México y España deben dirigirse hacia un futuro promisorio". El Comercio. 29 October 2022.
  56. ^ "Las Ciudades Patrimonio de la Humanidad de España y México fortalecen sus relaciones". Europa Press. 15 June 2022.
  57. ^ "México y España, países hermanos gracias a Guadalajara". Henares aldía.com. 17 May 2022.
  58. ^ "Las Valladolid de México y España fusionan su gastronomía en Yucatán". Infobae. 12 August 2022.
  59. ^ "Valladolid se hermana con su homóloga de México con el apoyo unánime del Pleno del Ayuntamiento". 20 minutos. 6 September 2022.
  60. ^ "Hermanamiento de los Santuarios de Guadalupe de España y México". Vatican News. 6 February 2023.
  61. ^ "Se firmó el Hermanamiento de los Santuarios de Guadalupe en México y España". Vatican News. 13 February 2023.
  62. ^ "Spain 'foils Mexican drug plot'". BBC. 10 August 2012.
  63. ^ "Mexican drug cartel members arrested in Spain". Al Jazeera.
  64. ^ "Mexican drug cartels eye Spain as their new home". newamericamedia.org. February 2013.
  65. ^ "Spain to extradite suspected Mexican drug lord to US". El País. 16 January 2017.
  66. ^ Data Mexico: Spain (in Spanish)
  67. ^ "Trade between Mexico and Spain (in Spanish)" (PDF). economia.gob.mx.
  68. ^ España y México, una apuesta empresarial de futuro (in Spanish)
  69. ^ Las empresas mexicanas más importantes en España (in Spanish)
  70. ^ "Inicio". embamex.sre.gob.mx.
  71. ^ "Inicio". consulmex.sre.gob.mx.
  72. ^ "Páginas - Embajada de España en México". exteriores.gob.es.
  73. ^ "Páginas - Consulado de España en Guadalajara". exteriores.gob.es.
  74. ^ "Páginas - Consulado de España en Monterrey". exteriores.gob.es.
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