Ottoman wars in Africa
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The Ottoman Empire was founded at the beginning of the 14th century. Beginning in the 16th century, it also began acquiring possessions following series of wars in coastal North Africa.
Egypt
[edit]Egypt was under the rule of a Mamluk Sultanate led by Circassians and Kipchak Turks, and who also ruled Syria, Palestine, Lebanon and Jordan. After Mehmed II (the Conqueror) united most of Anatolia under Ottoman rule, the two empires became neighbours of each other where two Mamluk vassals of Turkmen origin were the buffer states between the two. During the Ottoman-Safavid Persia war, Mamluks (or their vassals) supported Persia. Selim I (the Grim) of the Ottoman Empire used this claim as a pretext to wage a war on Mamluks. During Selim's long campaign to Egypt in 1516–18, Mamluks were defeated three times; in the battles Marj Dabiq and Yaunis Khan on the way to Egypt and in the Battle of Ridanieh in Egypt (The first and the third personally commanded by Selim and the second by Hadim Sinan Pasha), the grand vizier. The third battle in which Hadim Sinan Pasha fell was the final blow to Mamluks. After clashes in Cairo, the Mamluk sultan Tumanbay II was arrested and Selim annexed the whole Mamluk territory, enlarging the Ottoman Empire more than two times in only two years.[1][2]
Algeria
[edit]Turkish corsair and admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa in 1516, captured the city of Algiers from Charles V. Although initially Barbaros and his brothers were independent, after his elder brother's death, Barbaros appealed to Selim for protection.[3] In 1532, during the reign of Suleiman I (the Magnificent), Barbaros was appointed as the grand admiral of the Ottoman Navy and Algeria became an Ottoman possession. Eventually the Ottomans began controlling the hinterland also. In 1552, Salih Reis an Ottoman admiral, marched over the Sahara and captured Touggourt.
Tunisia
[edit]In the early years of the 16th century Tunisia was ruled by Hafsid dynasty of Berber origin. Although Tunis, the most important city of Tunisia was captured by Barbaros on behalf of the Ottoman Empire in 1534, next year during the reign of Charles V, a navy of the Holy Roman Empire took the city.[4] In the year 1560, an Ottoman navy commanded by Piyale Pasha defeated a large navy of the Holy Roman Empire in the Battle of Djerba. After this battle Uluç Ali Reis of the Ottoman Empire captured the city for the second time in 1569 during the reign of Selim II.[5] Two years later the city was lost to the Holy Roman Empire for the second time. Finally in 1574, an Ottoman navy commanded by the grand admiral Sinan Pasha captured the city for the third time.[6]
Libya
[edit]After Knights Hospitaller left the island of Rhodes in 1522, some of them had settled in Tripoli, the most important city of Libya. In 1551, Ottoman admiral Turgut Reis (also known as Dragut) captured the city [7] with the help of Sinan Pasha. Eventually Benghazi and the hinterland Fezzan were also annexed. Between 1711 and 1835 Libya became autonomous under Karamanlı dynasty (a dynasty founded by a military ruler from Karaman, Turkey). After 1835 Mahmud II reestablished Ottoman control.
Horn of Africa
[edit]In 1538, Suleiman I sent a navy to the Indian Ocean. (see Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean). The expeditions continued for about 30 years. Özdemir Pasha, the deputy of the admiral, conquered the west bank of the Red Sea (roughly corresponding to a narrow coastal strip of Sudan and Eritrea) in 1567, during the reign of Selim II.[8][9] In the late 16th century Ottoman Admiral Ali Bey established Ottoman supremacy in many cities of the Swahili coast between Mogadishu and Kilwa.[10] Mogadishu recognised Ottoman suzerainty in 1585, and Ali Bey also established Ottoman supremacy in other regions such as Brava, Mombasa, Kilifi, Pate, Lamu and Faza.[11][12] Ethiopia also experienced a brief period of Ottoman domination when the independence of the Emirate of Harar was interrupted by Ottoman-Egyptian rule which resulted in the Emirate of Harar being added as an Ottoman-Egyptian possession until being driven out by the British 10 years later.[13][14][15]
Morocco
[edit]The Ottomans never conquered Morocco. The Ottomans, led by Hassan Pasha, suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Saadi Sultan Abdallah al-Ghalib in Wadi al-Laban. Hassan Pasha was unable to escape thanks to the speed of his horse.[16][17][18][19][20] In 1792 the Regency of Algiers had possession of the Moroccan Oujda which they then abandoned in 1795, Oujda was under Ottoman rule for 2 years.[21][22][23]
Napoleon's campaign in Egypt
[edit]General Napoleon Bonaparte (later Napoleon I) of France invaded Egypt in 1798. The main Ottoman army was preoccupied in European fronts and the only defenders were local forces which were routed in the Battle of Pyramids.[24] However Napoleon couldn't proceed much because his fleet was defeated by the British navy. In 1799 he returned and the French army evacuated Egypt following the Battle of Alexandria in 1801.
Loss of territories
[edit]The Ottoman Empire lost direct control of Egypt and the lands to the south during the revolt of Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Pasha in the 1830s. Although Egypt was still considered an Ottoman vassal, the Ottoman Empire totally lost control in the 1880s to the British Empire. By the 19th century, Ottoman control of the countries west of Egypt was also weakened. Algeria was lost in 1830 [25] and Tunis was lost in 1881, both to France.[26] Libya, the last Ottoman territory in Africa was lost to Italy at the end of the Italo-Turkish War in 1911.[27]
See also
[edit]- List of wars involving the Ottoman Empire
- Ottoman wars in Europe
- Ottoman wars in Asia
- Military of the Ottoman Empire
References
[edit]- ^ Agaston-Masters, p.512
- ^ Jorga Vol 2, p.284-286
- ^ Kinross, p.212
- ^ Kinross, p. 214-216
- ^ Kinross, 271
- ^ Jorga, Vol 3, p. 142
- ^ Shaw, p.106
- ^ Yücel-Sevim, p.295
- ^ Kinross, p.241
- ^ The Portuguese Empire in Asia, 1500-1700: A Political and Economic History
- ^ Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology
- ^ Historic Cities of the Islamic World
- ^ Ethiopia: From Autocracy to Revolution
- ^ The Journal of Oromo Studies, Volumes 8-9
- ^ The Portion of Somali Territory Under Ethiopian Colonization Government Publications, Somali Democratic Republic
- ^ Veronne, La; De, Chantal (1973). "Relations entre le Maroc et la Turquie dans la seconde moitié du XVIe siècle et le début du XVIIe siècle (1554-1616)". Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée. 15 (1): 391–401. doi:10.3406/remmm.1973.1258.
- ^ texte, Mohammad al Saghir ibn al Hādjadj ibn Abd-Allah al Wofrāni Auteur du (1889). Nozhet-el hādi bi akhbar moulouk el-Karn el-Hadi : 1511-1670 / [par] Mohammad al Saghir ben al Hadj ben Abd-Allah al Wafrani ; [publ. par O. Houdas].
- ^ Asteroide (1956). Sources Inedites De L'histoire Du Maroc. T. II.
- ^ Mouline, Nabil (2015-04-20). Le califat imaginaire d'Ahmad al-Mansûr: Pouvoir et diplomatie au Maroc au XVIe siècle (in French). Humensis. ISBN 978-2-13-074021-6.
- ^ Lacroix, Napoléon (1855-1910) Auteur du texte; La Martinière, Henri Poisson de (1859-1922) Auteur du texte (1894–1897). Documents pour servir à l'étude du Nord-Ouest africain. T. 1 / réunis et rédigés... par H.-M.-P. de La Martinière,... N. Lacroix,...
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Morocco in the Reign of Mawlay SulaymanMohamed El MansourMiddle East & North African Studies Press, 1990 - Morocco - 248 pages
- ^ Present-day Morocco - Osmund Hornby WarneAllen & Unwin, 1937 - Morocco - Pg 237
- ^ Bulletin économique et social du Maroc, Volume 21, Issues 73-76 Société d'études économiques, sociales, et statistiques, 1957 - Morocco - Pg 74
- ^ Agaston-Masters p.205
- ^ Agoston-Masters, p. 36
- ^ Agoston-Masters p.574
- ^ Agoston-Masters, p.572
Sources
[edit]- Nicolae Jorga (2009). Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches. trans by Nilüfer Epçeli. Istanbul: Yeditepe yayınları. ISBN 978-975-6480-18-2.
- Gábor Ágoston; Bruce Masters (2009). Encyclopaedia of the Ottoman Empire. Facts On File. p. 650. ISBN 978-0-8160-6259-1.
- Lord Kinross (2008). The Ottoman Centuries. trans by Meral Gaspıralı. Istanbul: Altın Kitaplar. ISBN 978-975-21-0955-1.
- Yaşar Yücel-Ali Sevim (1990). Türkiye Tarihi (History of Turkey). Vol II. Istanbul: AKDTYK Yaynları. ISBN 975-160-25-99.
- Stanford Shaw (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol I. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-21280-4.