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  • Proposed article title: Imitation of non-Muslims by Muslims Redirects: Tashabbuh bi’l-kuffār, Tashabbuh تشبه
    • Note: It could be fine to use the Arabic term. For examples, see this article: Glossary of Islam
    • No apostrophe in "non-Muslims"
  • Short description Imitation of non-Muslim practices by Muslims (al-tashabbuh bi’l-kuffār التشبه بالكفار  ?).
  • Not to be confused with "tashabbuh bi-llāh"

Imitation of non-Muslims by Muslims (Arabic: التشبه بٱلكفار, romanized: al-Tashabbuh bi-'l-Kuffar) is a Sunni Islamic doctrine that considers imitation of others, mainly of non-Muslims, as deplorable.[1] Historically, the Islamic literary genre of tashabbuh treatises, which oppose imitation, have played a significant part in forming both Islamic orthodoxy and Muslim inter-religious relations.[1]

Definitions

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  • According to Meir Hatina, tashabbuh is religious prohibition against imitating the infidel.[2] Youshaa Patel says, the verb tashabbaha can alternatively be translated as resembles, assimilates, or conforms.[3] p 366.
  • Edward William Lane defines the Arabic term, tašabbuh, as: “He became assimilated to him or it. He assumed, or affected, a likeness, or resemblance to him, or it. He imitated him or it. He made himself to be like, or resemble him or it.”[1]

According to Youshaa Patel it's the Hadith, not the Quran, supports the architecture of this doctrine.[3]

Q 5:51, in full, reads:[3]


A subsequent verse (Q 5:55) tells the believers who their true friends are: “Your

friend is only God, and His Messenger, and the believers….”[3]

Time line

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According to Youshaa Patel, the pivotal hadith on imitation (1514 of Abu Dawood) progressed from a narrative statement to a normative dictum in three stages: (a) transmission among early Muslim authorities; (b) classification in canonical hadith collections; and (c) interpretation by the ʿulamā.ʾ[4] Patel says (p.363) that the custom likely to have first spread from late Umayyad Damascus, to Abbasid Baghdad, after the caliphate moved from the Umayyads to the Abbasids in the 8th century AD.[4]

  • Ibn ʿAbbās (Muḥammad’s cousin) (d. ca 68/687-688) [1] p.602


The doctrine and the sources

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Tashabbuh is first mentioned in Hadith 1514 , book 16 of Abu Dawood Sulayman (b. Ash'ath al-Sijistani (d. 888-9).[5] This hadith states that “Whoever imitates a people becomes one of them” and this serves as one of the most frequently cited expressions on the 'Tashabbuh doctrine'.[4][6]

Youshaa Patel names this Hadith as 'imitation hadith'.[3] P362. According to Patel, the Prophet Muḥammad may not have said “Whoever imitates a people becomes one of them” as a standalone statement. Patel says, detailed analysis of its transmission history of the Hadith indicates that, even if prophet would have said, then, it's likely to have been part of a longer statement with a more specific context. Subsequent generations of Muslims separated this phrase out and in the course of time infusing new interpretations unto it, allowing distinct meaning to permeate independently.[3] p 363.

****


According to Muhammad Khalid Masud, while many traditional scholars relied on Abu Dawood's report/ hadiths, good number of scholars doubt these Hadiths for the reason, first, no mention is found in the earlier Hadith collectors, namely Bukhari (d. 870), Muslim (d. 875) and Malik (d. 795).[6] Secondly Abu Da’ud version differs in content with Hadith mentions of Ibn Hanbal’s (d. 855) Musnad, Abu’l Qasim al-Tabarani’s (d. 881) Mu’jam, and Abu ‘Isa Muhammad’s (b. 'Isa al-Tirmidhi (d. 892)) Jami’. Same time there can be some chance that Hanbal's Hadith is earlier one and Abu Da’ud's hadits is derived from Hanbal's following Hadith.[6]




I have been sent close to the Day of Judgment with the sword in order that God alone is worshipped without any associate. My sustenance is placed under the shade of my lance and humiliation and subjugation is ordained for those who oppose me. Whoever imitates a people belongs to them.[6]

~ Ibn Hanbal, Musnad (Riyadh: Dar al-Salam l’il nashr wa’l tawzi’, 2000), section Musnad Abd Allah b. Umar, Hadith no. 4869.[6]

Masud says Abu Da’ud and Tirmidhi, both, have been criticized on the technical ground that links among narrators seem weak.[7]

The following version in Tirmidhi Hadith, on one hand refers to different styles of greetings among other religious denominations, same time emphasizes the religious context of the hadith.[7]

One who imitates others does not belong to us. Do not imitate the Jews and the Christians in the ways they greet; the Jews greet raising (ishara) fingers and the Christians by raising palm of the hand.

~ Tirmidhi, al-Jami’ (Riyadh: Dar al-Salam li’l nashr wa’l tawzi’, 2000), chapter Privacy and Manners, section Greetings, p. 1923.[7]

  • Apocalyptic version:
  • I was sent [by God] on the eve of the Hour [to fight] with the sword until God is worshipped alone without any other partner ascribed to him. My provision has been placed under the shadow of my spear, and abasement and contempt have been placed upon the one who disobeys my command. And whoever imitates a people becomes one of them. [4] p.368


***

Discourse against imitation

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According to Youshaa Patel seeds of Tashabbuh doctrine got planted during ninth and tenth century AD; Developed as a literary genre 14th -15th century, spread across globe 19th 20th century as impact of Salafism and in response to colonialism.

According to Youshaa Patel, while the meaning of the Hadith “Whoever imitates a people becomes one of them” would appear simple at the out set; describing objectively how imitation would influences  group belonging and social identity; and even more fundamentally, the saying also indicates that, the more time people stay together, the more they become similar. However, most Muslim religious scholarship (ʿulamāʾ), deviate from such neutral meaning, and apply the hadith to create traditions to establish clear divisions by defining who would belongs to the Muslim community, by interpreting the hadith as a strong warning for Muslims to keep themselves different from non-Muslims, especially Jews and Christians (ahl al-kitāb).[8] Patel says, In a single statement, the hadith differentiates between “us and them,” while bringing Muslims together same time making them distance from others; effectively puts pressure on Muslims to conform to the Muslim community and also forewarns about the risks of nonconformity like stigma, sin, and exclusion.[9]

Patel says, in present times , Muslim religious leadership in North America frequently refers to this doctrine to discourage Muslims against participating in celebrations like Christmas, Halloween,and Valentine’s Day, and from emulating non-Muslim ways of dressing and other cultural practices.[9]

Bruce Lawrence mentions an anecdotal tashabbuh incidence from 11th century Al-Biruni's book on the topic of 'The Exhaustive Treatment of Shadows' where in literalist muezzins were reluctant to use astrolabe in spite of accuracy it offered, since they were afraid to use any thing pertaining to Byzantine non-Muslims, then Al-Biruni retorted to them saying "The Byzantines also eat food and walk around in the market. Do not imitate them in these two things”.[10][11] [12]

  • According to Muhammad Haniff Hassan, Sunni Muslim scholarship[13](P 7.) holds that, means of civil disobedience are western import, not only proscribed by primary sources of Islam, amounts to innovative bid'ah,[13][14] but also the concept of civil disobedience in it's all forms is al-tashabbuh bil-kuffar immitating ways of non-Muslim in this case imitation of West. Hassan notes, Shaykh Al Albany regards such imitation of others through acts of civil disobedience Muslims would end up utilizing illicit means to correct the ruler and society and Shaykh Al-Muhsin Al-Abbad Al-badr is also of similar opinion.[13]
  • According to Mohamed Bin Ali, for modern Salafis social dimension of WB give and take of gifts from non-Muslims, joining them in their religious festivals, listening to music especially non-Islamic one, using non-hijri calendar as tashabbuh.[15] Former Mufti of Saudi Arabia, too, had said that participating in celebrations and feast of non-Muslims is not allowed.[15]
  • Bustamam-Ahmad, Kamaruzzaman. Islamic thought in Southeast Asia: New Interpretations and Movements. United Kingdom, University of Malaya Press, 2013. P 10, 11.

literature

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Roel Meijer’, G. E. Von Grunebaum




Fatwa literature

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Tashabbuh and orthodoxy

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From the view point of the traditional Islamic scholars and clergy, keeping tab on tašabbuh (imitation) and bidʿa (innovation) is essential, if unchecked, can disrupt Islamic orthodoxy. Imitation (tašabbuh) and innovation (bidʿa), overlaps and complements each other in maintaining and enhancing the authority of the Prophet Muḥammad’s sunnah.[16]

According to Richard Gauvain in Salafi Ritual Law and Practice, Al-Wala' wal-Bara' is main principle, ritualized according to al-tashabbuh hadith, by which (Salafi) Muslims tend to distance themselves from all non-Muslim beliefs and practices. [17] Gauvain says at times Salafi scholar like Al-Albani's extended this principle even to hold prayers in a mosque with one's shoes. as permissible, because as per Al-Albani's analogy the Jews do not pray in their shoes;[17] while usually, praying with shoes on, is not the case and runs counter to the wider Islamic consensus, and more specifically to Hanbali jurisprudence.[18] According to Joas Wagemakers purpose of Al-Wala' wal-Bara' concept, in early Islam, may have been about not allowing taking of help from non-Muslim by making Muslims to choose one of the two political entity in times of war, eventually that purpose may have been conflated to not allowing imitation of non-Muslim (tashabbuh al-kuffar or al-mushabaha -li-l-kuffar), that may bee the reason development of such understanding among most Salafi scholars.[19]


Tashabbuh and Muslim inter-religious relations

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Pact of Umar

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While Pact of Umar deals with restrictions on Christian subjects not to imitate Muslims, the hadith based tashabbuh literature attempts to restrict Muslims from imitating non-muslims.[24]

https://www.cmcsoxford.org.uk/resources/book-reviews/muslim-difference

Transvaal fatwa

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Transvaal fatwa was issued by Muhammad Abduh (1849 – 11 July 1905), an Egyptian modernist Islamic scholar, and then Grand Mufti of Egypt.[25][26][27][28][26] **on 25th December 1903.[29]

(**Copy pasted from Muhammad Abduh). In December 1903 Abduh had received a petition from a Muslim from Transvaal, South Africa seeking fatwa to understand a) whether it would be permissible to use European style hats? b) Whether it's okay for Muslims to eat meat slaughtered by Transvaal Christians c) Was it okay for a Muslim of Shafi Madhhab to perform communal prayers led by a Hanafi imam?[29] Abduh's fatwa hold that if believer is not intending apostasy then wearing a hat would not amount tashabbuh; about denying validity of prayer with imam of other Islamic sect, Abduh hold that would amount to undermining unity of Islam; Abduh's fatwa also deduced to permit eating meat of the animals slaughtered by Jews and Christians, they being people of the book.[29] This fatwa steered an immediate backlash and a long discourse on the topic in Muslim world.[29]

Copt - Muslim relations

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See also: Persecution of Copts

According to Catherine Mayeur-Jaouen, since the twentieth-century, fundamentalist revivalism among both Copts and Muslims, along with urbanization and also the inhospitable disparagement, by Salafiyya high priests of imitation of Christians in western forms, as well as folk custom of cult of saints and worshiping them together, has caused reduction in sharing of interfaith saints, shrines and ritual culture among Copts and Muslims.[30]

Mutual criticism

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Moderation and liberalism

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According to Etty Terim, a Morraccan scholar Muḥammad al-Ḥajwī through his 1937 fatwa, advised Albanian cleric Ibrāhīm Repīshtī in differentiating between helpful and unhelpful appropriation of European objects by Muslims. Ḥajwī okayed usage of European hat 'burnayṭa' when usage was made compulsory by then Albanian king Aḥmad Zog.[31]

In Islam and the cultural imperative, under heading 'Respecting Other Cultures: A Supreme Prophetic Sunna', Islamic neo-traditionalist[32] scholar Umar Faruq Abd-Allah says "The Prophet Muhammad and his Companions were not at war with the world’s cultures and ethnicities but entertained an honest, accommodating, and generally positive view of the broad social endowments of other peoples and places", Abd-Allah says prophetic law expected positive Islamic synthesis which would seek to prune, nurture, and nourish distinctiveness of other people and did not intend to burn or obliterate distinctiveness of other people. Abd-Allah cites early jurist, saying "..Abu Yusuf understood the recognition of good, local cultural norms as falling under the rubric of the sunna. ..." After analysis about liberalism of Ibn al-Mawaq's ideas, Abd-Allah cites Ibn 'Atiyya referring to Qur’an 7:199 saying the verse, other than those things which are clearly not allowed by scriptures, everything else in local cultures that pleases people is very much allowed.[33] Abd-Allah expects concept of tashabbuh to be read along with concept of 'Mushabaha' and accommodate "Al-‘Ada Muhakkama" i.e. local customs and norms ".. which should be altered or obstructed only when absolutely necessary. .." [33]

According to Farooq Hassan, due to political expediencies against each others over the centuries and incomplete understanding of each other's religions has led to misunderstanding among Abrahamic followers despite religious commonalities and in the process even the prophetic saying relating Tashabbuh have been misinterpreted to achieve political objectives. Hassan says, purpose to avoid imitation of people of another faith was to protect people from any deceit; Hassan further says, as per Nujayam Hanafi and Imam al-Haskafi Hanafi, the principle of Tashabbuh is expected to avoid resemblance with people of the book only in bad things and not in all the matters.[34]

Cosmopolitanism and tashabbuh

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According to Muhammad Khalid Masud, in both Muslim and non-Muslim societies, the twenty-first-century discourse pertaining globalism, pluralism, integration, multiculturalism, Islamophobia and inter-faith dialogues has opened up further concerns regarding cosmopolitanism and tashabbuh.[35] Masud says that,G. E. Von Grunebaum discusses the doctrine of tashabbuh bi’l-kuffar, which forbids imitating non-Muslims.[36] Grunebaum argues that, this doctrine inculcates a sense of religious superiority that blocks interaction with other non-Muslims. By prioritising similarities and differences, the tashabbuh doctrine sets unequivocal marker of cultural authenticity within the theological context of religious identity, effectively discouraging cosmopolitanism among Muslim societies, is a common belief.[36] Masud says that this common belief that the pursuit of cultural authenticity and religious identity in the contemporary Muslim world dissuades cosmopolitanism is problematic. This belief complicates the concept of cosmopolitanism by binding it with the issue of cultural authenticity.[36] Derryl N. MacLean  says, after recontextualizing South Asian Islamic religious opinions on tashabbuh bi’l-kuffar, Masud argues that British imperialism and subsequent communalism and nationalism perturbed Indo-Muslim cosmopolitanism, Masud further says, in the process distinct political and cultural differences between religion and culture were emerging, also along with new forms of openness were being imagined; MacLean says, in spite of taking note of accommodation through change in context as discussed in Masu's study, interpretations of tashabbuh seem to remain constrained by its place in the broader fiqh.[37]

See also

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List is temporarily long to invite more diverse active user participation/ contribution from various related articles.

Bibliography

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  • Tareen, SherAli. Perilous Intimacies: Debating Hindu-Muslim Friendship After Empire. United States, Columbia University Press, 2023.
  • Buddhist and Islamic Orders in Southern Asia: Comparative Perspectives. United States, Knowledge Unlatched, 2019.p.47
  • Bosanquet, Antonia. Minding Their Place: Space and Religious Hierarchy in Ibn Al-Qayyim’s Aḥkām Ahl Al-dhimma. Netherlands, Brill, 2020. p.309
  • Ingram, Brannon D.. Revival from Below: The Deoband Movement and Global Islam. United States, University of California Press, 2018. p.103-4
  • Chittick, William C.. The Heart of Islamic Philosophy: The Quest for Self-knowledge in the Teachings of Afḍal Al-Dīn Kāshānī. Kiribati, Oxford University Press, 2001. p.73
  • Law, Religion and Love: Seeking Ecumenical Justice for the Other. N.p., Taylor & Francis, 2017.
  • Ahn, Daniel S. H., et al. Religious Encounters in Transcultural Society: Collision, Alteration, and Transmission. United States, Lexington Books, 2017.p13
  • Ruffle, Karen G.. Everyday Shi'ism in South Asia. United Kingdom, Wiley, 2021. p.154
  • Weiss, Max David. Institutionalizing Sectarianism: Law, Religious Culture, and the Remaking of Shi'i Lebanon, 1920-1947. United States, Stanford University, 2007. p155-161
  • Moj, Muhammad. The Deoband Madrassah Movement: Countercultural Trends and Tendencies. United Kingdom, Anthem Press, 2015.p153
  • Weiss, Max. In the Shadow of Sectarianism. United Kingdom, Harvard University Press, 2010. p.81, 84
  • Pazos, Antón M.. Pilgrims and Pilgrimages as Peacemakers in Christianity, Judaism and Islam. United Kingdom, Taylor & Francis, 2016. p. 80
  • Gesink, Indira Falk. Islamic Reform and Conservatism: Al-Azhar and the Evolution of Modern Sunni Islam. United Kingdom, I.B.Tauris, 2009. p.180
  • Gesink, Indira Falk. Islamic Reform and Conservatism: Al-Azhar and the Evolution of Modern Sunni Islam. United Kingdom, I.B.Tauris, 2009. p.188
  • Cultural Pearls from the East: In Memory of Shmuel Moreh (1932-2017). Netherlands, Brill, 2021.p.296
  • Kresse, Kai. Swahili Muslim Publics and Postcolonial Experience. United States, Indiana University Press, 2018.
  • Imagining the Public in Modern South Asia. United Kingdom, Taylor & Francis, 2018. Chapter 4
  • Abd-Allah, Umar Faruq. “ISLAM AND THE CULTURAL IMPERATIVE.” CrossCurrents, vol. 56, no. 3, 2006, pp. 357–75. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24461405.
  • Etty Terem (2023)Muslim men, European hats: a fatwā on cultural appropriation in a global age, The Journal of North African Studies, 28:3, 563-588, DOI:10.1080/13629387.2021.1973246 Taylor and Fransis online.
  • M Kurz. ISBN online: 978-3-95650-454-9. Protectors, Statesmen, Terrorists? Gender and Masculinities in Muslim Texts and Contexts. God's Own Gender? Masculinities in World Religions. Germany, Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 2018.
  • Ingram, Brannon D.. Crises of the public in Muslim India, critiquing 'custom' at Aligarh and Deoband Imagining the Public in Modern South Asia. United Kingdom, Taylor & Francis, 2018.
  • Shavit, Uriya (2013). Can Muslims Befriend Non-Muslims? Debating al-walāʾ wa-al-barāʾ (Loyalty and Disavowal) in Theory and Practice. Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, 25(1), 67–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/09596410.2013.851329
  • Lawrence, Bruce. Muslim Cosmopolitanism, The Idea of Islam. United Kingdom, C Hurst & Company, 2012. p 22. - Al Biruni (Also refer: Lawrence, Bruce B.. The Bruce B. Lawrence Reader: Islam Beyond Borders. United States, Duke University Press, 2020.; https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/wps/ccas/0021788/f_0021788_18030.pdf)
  • Rassi, Salam. Christian Thought in the Medieval Islamicate World: Abdisho of Nisibis and the Apologetic Tradition. United Kingdom, OUP Oxford, 2022. P 201.

Further reading

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  • Juynboll, G. H. A. “Dyeing the Hair and Beard in Early Islam A Ḥadīth-Analytical Study.” Arabica, vol. 33, no. 1, 1986, pp. 49–75. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4057156.
  • Rock-Singer, Aaron. In the Shade of the Sunna: Salafi Piety in the Twentieth-Century Middle East. United States, University of California Press, 2022. Chapter 6 (Search term imitation)
  • Moj, Muhammad. The Deoband Madrassah Movement: Countercultural Trends and Tendencies. United Kingdom, Anthem Press, 2015.
  • Skovgaard-Petersen, Jacob. Defining Islam for the Egyptian State: Muftis and Fatwas of the Dār Al-Iftā. Netherlands, Brill, 2021.
  • Identity formation in Muslim world
  • de Koning, Martijn. ""You Follow the Path of the Shaitan; We Try to Follow the Righteous Path": Negotiating Evil in the Identity Construction of Young Moroccan-Dutch Muslims". Coping with Evil in Religion and Culture. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789401205375_010 Web.
  • Gutmann, Timothy. "Distinguishing Companions: Mixed-Confession Education, Assimilation, and Islamic Thought". Sociology of Islam 7.4 (2019): 263-288. https://doi.org/10.1163/22131418-00704003 Web.
  • Hadas Hirsch (2021) The Prophet Muḥammad’s Ring:Raw Materials, Status, and Gender in Early Islam, Journal of Arabian Studies, 11:2, 314-328, DOI: 10.1080/21534764.2021.2007569
  • Tieszen, Charles. "Chapter 20 Discussing religious practices". Christian-Muslim Relations A Bibliographical History. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004423701_021 Web.
  • Pegram, N.D., Austin, D.A., Muqowim, Duderija, A., Luetz, J.M. (2023). Character Formation in Muslim and Christian Higher Education: A Comparative Case Study Between Australia and Indonesia (Part Two). In: Luetz, J.M., Austin, D.A., Duderija, A. (eds) Interfaith Engagement Beyond the Divide. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3862-9_12
  • Shadid, W. A. R., and Koningsveld, P. Sj. van. Political Participation and Identities of Muslims in Non-Muslim States. Netherlands, Kok Pharos, 1996.
  • Tamcke, Martin. Koexistenz und Konfrontation: Beiträge zur jüngeren Geschichte und Gegenwartslage der orientalischen Christen. Germany, Lit, 2003.
  • MacLean, Derryl N., and Sikeena Karmali Ahmed, editors. Cosmopolitanisms in Muslim Contexts: Perspectives from the Past. Edinburgh University Press, 2012. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt3fgs9b.
  • Von Grunebaum, G. E.. Modern Islam: The Search for Cultural Identity. United States, University of California Press, 2023. p240
  • Von Grunebaum, G. E. “Nationalism and Cultural Trends in the Arab Near East.” Studia Islamica, no. 14, 1961, pp. 121–53. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1595188.
  • Arin Shawkat Salamah-Qudsi: "The idea of tashabbuh in sufi communities and literature of the late 6th/12th and early 7th/13th century in Baghdad" in Al-Qantara: Revista de Estudios Arabes 32/1 (2011) 175–197. Hier S. 181–189 (Sufi outlook)
  • The Idea of Islam. United Kingdom, C Hurst & Company, 2012.
  • Editors: Oliver Leaman, Seyyed Hossein Nasr, History of Islamic Philosophy. United Kingdom, Taylor & Francis, 2013.
  • Qadri, A. D., & Zubair, M. . (2021). Hadith Tashabbuh: A Critical Evaluation in the light of ‘Ilm Asmā-al-Rijāl: حدیث تشبہ:علم اسماء الرجال کی روشنی میں سندی وتحقیقی جائزہ. International "Journal of Academic Research for Humanities" (Rawalpindi, Punjab, Pakistan), 1(1), 23–31. Retrieved from https://jar.bwo-researches.com/index.php/jarh/article/view/16
  • Ali, Muhamad. "Chapter 18: Khutbahs and fatwas in colonial Indonesia and Malaya". Research Handbook on Islamic Law and Society. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2018. < https://doi.org/10.4337/9781781003060.00030>.
  • Harmakaputra, H.A. (2020), Say “No” to Christmas? An Analysis of the Islamic Fatwa on the Prohibition against Wearing Non-Muslim Symbols in Indonesia. Muslim World, 110: 502-517. https://doi.org/10.1111/muwo.12352
  • Lacroix, Stéphane. Awakening Islam: The Politics of Religious Dissent in Contemporary Saudi Arabia. United Kingdom, Harvard University Press, 2011. p 108
  • Mayeur-Jaouen, Catherine. What do Egypt's Copts and Muslims share? the issue of shrines, Sharing Sacred Spaces in the Mediterranean: Christians, Muslims, and Jews at Shrines and Sanctuaries. United States, Indiana University Press, 2012. Page 166
  • American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 32:2. N.p., International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT), 2015. Page 101.
  • Saparudin, Saparudin (2017-06-30). "Salafism, State Recognition and Local Tension: New Trends in Islamic Education in Lombok". Ulumuna. 21 (1): 81–107. doi:10.20414/ujis.v21i1.1188. ISSN 2355-7648.
  • Hassan, Muhammad Haniff. Civil Disobedience in Islam: A Contemporary Debate. Singapore, Springer Nature Singapore, 2017. P 35. (Author: Muhammad Haniff Hassan is a Research Fellow at the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. His research interests Islamism, wasatiyah, and contemporary Islamic jurisprudence.)
  • Ali, Mohamed Bin. Roots Of Religious Extremism, The: Understanding The Salafi Doctrine Of Al-wala' Wal Bara'. Singapore, Publisher Imperial College Press, Distributor: World Scientific Publishing Company, 2015. P 10. (Author: Research Fellow at the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.)
  • Şule Yüksel UYSAL .The Revaluation of the Hadith “Man Tashabbaha Bi Qawmin Fa Huwa Minhum” in Terms of Global Dress Culture. Journal of Turkish Studies (2016)
  • Levy-Rubin, Milka. Non-Muslims in the Early Islamic Empire: From Surrender to Coexistence. United States, Cambridge University Press, 2011.
  • Hatina, Meir. Fatwas as a prism of social history in the middle east, The status of non-Muslims in the nineteenth century. Tamcke, Martin. Koexistenz und Konfrontation: Beiträge zur jüngeren Geschichte und Gegenwartslage der orientalischen Christen. Germany, Lit, 2003. P 58.
  • Dr. Allah Ditta, Hafiz Muhammad Usman, and Dr. Irshad Hussain. “Islamic Distinctiveness and Prohibition of Imitation of Non-Muslims: A Rational Review”. INKISHAF, vol. 4, no. 13, Sept. 2024, pp. 31-42, https://www.inkishaf.org/index.php/home/article/view/492.

References

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  1. ^ a b c d Patel, Youshaa (2018-09-30). "The Islamic Treatises against Imitation (Tašabbuh): A Bibliographical History". Arabica. 65 (5–6): 597–639. doi:10.1163/15700585-12341517. ISSN 1570-0585. .. the Sunni Islamic doctrine of tašabbuh—the reprehensible imitation of others, especially non-Muslims. Since the formative period of Islam, tašabbuh has played an important role in shaping both Islamic orthodoxy and Muslim inter-religious relations. .. Given this intermingling of social differences, it is worth noting that tašabbuh is a distinctly Sunni Muslim discourse. The term frequently appears in Sunni collections of ḥadīṯ, but rarely in Shiʿi collections. .. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 175 (help)
  2. ^ Hatina, Meir (26 April 2021). Hatina, Meir; Sheffer, Yona (eds.). Encountering modernity in the late nineteenth century: Two Egyptian accounts. Netherlands: Brill. p. 296. ISBN 9789004459120. Commenting on attire of muslims in Bairut, al-Qayati noted that some of the men wore western style .. . In al-Qayati's view, the local Christian women emulated the European women in every way except language. He described them as offering their charms to wealthy and foolish men. Refuting the Christian premise that such behaviour is hall mark of civilized society, al Qayati - revealing his opinion of modernity and alarmed by the violation of religious prohibition of imitating the infidel (tashabbuh) - argued that such thinking strips religion of its moral content , of which one of the foundation is decency. "Those who seek prostitution blemish the attributes of religion", he asserted, quoting .. Hasan Effendi Bayyuham .. "modernity is nothing but diminishment of religion" {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  3. ^ a b c d e f Patel, Youshaa (2018). ""Whoever Imitates a People Becomes One of Them": A Hadith and its Interpreters". Islamic Law and Society. 25 (4): 359–426. doi:10.1163/15685195-00254A01. ISSN 0928-9380. JSTOR 26571305.
  4. ^ a b c d Patel, Youshaa (2018). ""Whoever Imitates a People Becomes One of Them": A Hadith and its Interpreters". Islamic Law and Society. 25 (4): 359–426. doi:10.1163/15685195-00254A01. ISSN 0928-9380. JSTOR 26571305.
  5. ^ "The Comprehensive Book - كتاب الجامع - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". sunnah.com. Retrieved 2024-02-06.
  6. ^ a b c d e Masud, Muhammad Khalid (2012-07-15), "Chapter 9 Cosmopolitanism and Authenticity: The Doctrine of Tashabbuh Bi'l-Kuffar ("Imitating the Infidel") in Modern South Asian Fatwas", Cosmopolitanisms in Muslim Contexts, Edinburgh University Press, pp. 160, 174, doi:10.1515/9780748644575-010, ISBN 978-0-7486-4457-5, retrieved 2024-02-16, ..In Islamic tradition, the Qur'an and hadith, (the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad), are considered primary sources. However, almost every discussion on the doctrine of tashabbuh cites the following saying of the Prophet reported in the Sunan by Abu Da'ud Sulayman (b. AshÆath al-Sijistani (d. 888-9)): "Whoever imitates (tashabbaha) a people he belongs to them".14 Abu Da'ud's version is quite problematic as it differs with reports in other hadith collections. It is not reported by earlier collectors such as Bukhari (d. 870), Muslim (d. 875) and Malik (d. 795). This version differs with other versions reported in Ibn Hanbal's (d. 855) Musnad, Abu'l Qasim al-Tabarani's (d. 881) Mu'jam, and Abu 'Isa Muhammad's (b. ÆIsa al-Tirmidhi (d. 892)) Jami'. Abu Da'ud's report appears to be part of the following report by Ibn Hanbal, which is apparently the earliest on the subject: .. {{citation}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 76 (help)
  7. ^ a b c Masud, Muhammad Khalid (2012-07-15), "Chapter 9 Cosmopolitanism and Authenticity: The Doctrine of Tashabbuh Bi'l-Kuffar ("Imitating the Infidel") in Modern South Asian Fatwas", Cosmopolitanisms in Muslim Contexts, Edinburgh University Press, pp. 160, 174, doi:10.1515/9780748644575-010, ISBN 978-0-7486-4457-5, retrieved 2024-02-16, ..The following version in Tirmidhi, on the other hand, also stresses the religious context of the hadith, referring to the different ways of greeting among other religious communities. .. Reports by Abu Da'ud and Tirmidhi have both been subjected to technical criticism pointing to the weak links among the narrators, but that is not our present concern. .. {{citation}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 84 (help)
  8. ^ Patel, Youshaa (2018). ""Whoever Imitates a People Becomes One of Them": A Hadith and its Interpreters". Islamic Law and Society. 25 (4): 359–426. doi:10.1163/15685195-00254A01. ISSN 0928-9380. JSTOR 26571305. ..At face value, the tradition appears benign; it objectively describes how imitation shapes group belonging and social identity; and even more fundamentally, it suggests that the more time people spend together, the more they become alike. .. Most Muslim religious scholars (ʿulamāʾ), however, depart from this neutral reading. Instead, they read the hadith as a polemically-charged admonition for Muslims to be different from non-Muslims, especially Jews and Christians (ahl al-kitāb). As the keynote expression of what became the Islamic doctrine of tashabbuh (reprehensible imitation), this tradition authorizes ʿulamāʾ to draw sharp lines defining who belongs in the Muslim community. .. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 99 (help)
  9. ^ a b Patel, Youshaa (2018). ""Whoever Imitates a People Becomes One of Them": A Hadith and its Interpreters". Islamic Law and Society. 25 (4): 359–426. doi:10.1163/15685195-00254A01. ISSN 0928-9380. JSTOR 26571305. .. In this context, "Whoever imitates a people becomes one of them," places pressure on Muslims to conform to the Muslim community and also warns against the dangers of nonconformity: stigma, sin, and exclusion. In a single utterance, the hadith defines "us and them," at once bringing Muslims together and setting them apart from others...
  10. ^ Lawrence, Bruce (April–June 2012). "Muslim Cosmopolitanism". In Yassin-Kassab, Robin; Sardar, Ziauddin (eds.). The Idea of Islam. C Hurst & Company. p. 22. .. As eleventh-century Persianate scholar Ahmad Al-Biruni noted it did not matter if the Byzantine had first used the astrolabe; it became Muslim when five daily prayer times were superimposed on the Byzantine calendar. And to those purists who objected to his recycled use of 'Christian' instrument claiming that it showed imitation (tashabbuh) of unbelievers, Al-Biruni rejoined: 'The Byzantines also eat food. Then do not imitate them in this!' .. Al-Biruni was sarcastic yet he made a point worth stressing: . {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  11. ^ Stowasser, Barbara Freyer (9 May 2014). The Day Begins at Sunset (PDF). Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 155. ISBN 978-1-78076-542-6. .. Other mu'adhdhins were of "excessive ignorance." One of them was upset that all available measurement devices and time tables were based on the (solar) "Byzantine year," not the Arab (lunar) year, and "his ignorance made him at the end refuse to accept anything based on the Byzantine months, not allowing it into the mosque, since [those] people are not Muslims. Then I said to him: The Byzantines also eat food and walk around the market. Do not imitate them in these two things [either]?" ..
  12. ^ Al-Biruni, Ahmad (Eleventh-century (Translation 1976)). The Exhaustive Treatise on Shadows by Biruni [The Exhaustive Treatise on Shadows by Biruni]. Vol. 1. Translated by Kennedy, Edward Stewart. University of Aleppo. p. 76. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ^ a b c Ḥasan, Muḥammad Ḥanīf (2017). Civil disobedience in Islam: a contemporary debate. Singapore: Springer Nature (published 13 April 2017). pp. 7, 35. ISBN 978-981-10-3271-4.
  14. ^ Amin, H. (2022). "The Shifting Contours of Saudi Influence in Britain, The Salafi Divide". In Mandaville, Peter G. (ed.). Wahhabism and the world: understanding Saudi Arabia's global influence on Islam. Religion and global politics. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 296. ISBN 978-0-19-753256-0. .. The main disagreement between the Salafis in the Arabian peninsula was over political engagement,.. such as Bib Baz .. The senior scholars claimed in return that only privately advising the ruling elite is permissible and that oppositional political engagement, even if nonviolent , was a western innovation; the prioritize correct religious thought and practice. ..
  15. ^ a b Ali, Mohamed Bin (2013-11-11). The Roots of Religious Extremism. Insurgency and Terrorism Series. Vol. 9. IMPERIAL COLLEGE PRESS. p. 10. doi:10.1142/p924. ISBN 978-1-78326-392-9.
  16. ^ Patel, Youshaa (2018-09-30). "The Islamic Treatises against Imitation (Tašabbuh): A Bibliographical History". Arabica. 65 (5–6): 597–639. doi:10.1163/15700585-12341517. ISSN 1570-0585. .. For many readers, the treatises against imitation bring to mind Maribel Fierro's seminal article, "The Treatises Against Innovation." The two parallel genres actually have much in common. As boundary-regulating discourses, their functions overlap and complement each other: both imitation (tašabbuh) and innovation (bidʿa), unchecked, can disrupt Islamic orthodoxy. Regulating imitation and innovation in Islam, from the perspective of the ʿulamāʾ, preserved and augmented the authority of the Prophet Muḥammad's sunna; . .. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 75 (help)
  17. ^ a b Gauvain, Richard (2022). "Salafi Ritual Law and Practice". In Leaman, Oliver (ed.). Routledge Handbook of Islamic Ritual and Practice. London ; New York: Routledge/Taylor and Francis Group. ISBN 9781000583908. ..The main legal principle used to draw a line between (Salafi) Muslims and non-Muslims - Christians and Jews (Ahl al-kitab) are invariably singled out - is al-wala' wa'l-bara' (loyalty and disassociation). According to this principle, Muslims must not only demonstrate their alliance to Islam (by fulfilling their ritual-legal obligations), but also their willingness to separate themselves from all beliefs and practices that are not endorsed by Islam. The same principle has direct ritual application in that, according to well-known hadith Muslims are instructed not "to resemble (la tashabbuh) non-Muslims in forms of worship." This provides for rationale, for instance, for al-Albani's above mentioned ruling that shoes may be worn during prayer, as "the Jews pray neither in their shoes nor in their leather socks." By the same logic Muslims must avoid attending non-Muslim festivals and are not permitted to invite non-Muslims to their own festivals. ..
  18. ^ Stephane Lacroix (Spring 2008), Al-Albani's Revolutionary Approach to Hadith (PDF), Leiden University's ISIM Review, p. 6, archived from the original (PDF) on October 10, 2017, retrieved February 13, 2013
  19. ^ Wagemakers, Joas (2012-06-11). A Quietist Jihadi, The Ideology and Influence of Abu Muhammad Al-Maqdisi. Cambridge University Press. p. 151. doi:10.1017/cbo9781139135368. ISBN 978-1-107-60656-2. .. It may therefore be the case that wala (perhaps in combination with bara) in early Islam primarily referred to choosing the sides between two political entities during times of war, and that it was latter conflated with the inadmissibility of resembling non-Muslims (tashabbuh al-kuffar or al mushabaha li-l-kuffar) which is how most Salafi authors seem to interpret al-wala wa-l-bara. ..
  20. ^ Ingram, Brannon D. (2018-11-21). "3. Remaking the Public". Revival from Below. University of California Press. pp. 92, 93. doi:10.1525/california/9780520297999.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-520-29799-9. .. Why, precisely, did Deobandis see Muslim public as a site of normative disorder, how did they understand task of reforming it? .. For one Deobandis encouraged Muslims to distinguish themselves from non-Muslims -- in everyday habits, demeanor, clothing -- through denunciation of imitating (tashabbuh) non-Muslims. (pp 92,93) .. But in late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Deobandis strived to change the awam in two ways: they encourage even demanded, that the awam distinguish themselves from non-Muslims .. stated differently they sought to foster distinction on the horizontal axis between Muslims and others, while they blurred it on the verticle axis between 'Ulama and laity'. (p.102)
  21. ^ Ingram, Brannon D. (2018-11-21). "3. Remaking the Public". Revival from Below. University of California Press. pp. 92, 93. doi:10.1525/california/9780520297999.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-520-29799-9. .. Why, precisely, did Deobandis see Muslim public as a site of normative disorder, how did they understand task of reforming it? .. For one Deobandis encouraged Muslims to distinguish themselves from non-Muslims -- in everyday habits, demeanor, clothing -- through denunciation of imitating (tashabbuh) non-Muslims. (pp 92,93) .. But in late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Deobandis strived to change the awam in two ways: they encourage even demanded, that the awam distinguish themselves from non-Muslims .. stated differently they sought to foster distinction on the horizontal axis between Muslims and others, while they blurred it on the verticle axis between 'Ulama and laity'. (p.102)
  22. ^ Ingram, Brannon D. (2018-11-21). "3. Remaking the Public". Revival from Below. University of California Press. pp. 92, 93. doi:10.1525/california/9780520297999.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-520-29799-9. .. Ashraf 'Ali Thanvi, too, was determined to educate Muslims on dangers of imitation (Tashabbuh). Like Gangohi he critiqued certain devotional practices for their resemblance to non-Sunni practices. He believed distribution of sweets during mawlud may have drived from Shi'i practice.. Thanvi explained .. with following analogy "suppose a man fills an empty liquor bottle water and drinks it in public.. He is a criminal and from perspective of Sharia, a sinner, because he appears [tashabbuh] to be among consumers of liquor" .. "Where as the Sharia requires certain forms of Muslim distinction in any context - for example beard - some are mandated only in specific context " .. "In our country wearing coat and pants, wearing 'gurgabi' (type of a shoe), tying a dhoti (worn by Hindu..) and women wearing lehanga (a kind of skrit) are all things that are purely charecterstics of other communities (akaum). ..
  23. ^ Ingram, Brannon D. (2018-11-21). "3. Remaking the Public". Revival from Below. University of California Press. pp. 92, 93, 102, 103, 104. doi:10.1525/california/9780520297999.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-520-29799-9. .. Ashraf 'Ali Thanvi, .. For Muslims to wear English dress in England was perfectly acceptable, but wearing such clothing in India was forbidden, precisely because it compromised public distinctions between Muslims and others. Even printing the Qu'ran might unwittingly perpetuate illicit forms of imitation. In 1917 Thanvi responded to a question about the permissibility of printing an English translation and the commentary on the Quran with the Arabic side by side in parallel columns. Thanvi regarded this, with no explanation, as an "imitation of non-Muslims" and said that Quran must come at the top of the page with the English translation below it and commentary at the bottom. .. p.103,104
  24. ^ Bosanquet, Antonia (2020-08-20), "Space, Religious Difference and Aḥkām ahl al-dhimma", Minding their Place, BRILL, p. 309, doi:10.1163/9789004437968_011, ISBN 978-90-04-42369-5, retrieved 2024-06-10 {{citation}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  25. ^ Richard Netton, Ian (2008). "'Abduh, Muhammad (1849–1905)". Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilisation and Religion. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-7007-1588-6. .. [Abduh became] a member of the Council of al-Azhar in 1895 and Chief Mufti (Legal Official) in 1899.
  26. ^ a b von Kügelgen, Anke (2007). "ʿAbduh, Muḥammad". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett K. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE. Vol. 3. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_0103. ISBN 9789004161641. ISSN 1873-9830.
  27. ^ E. Campo, Juan (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. New York: Facts On File, Inc. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
  28. ^ Roshwald, Aviel (2013). "Part II. The Emergence of Nationalism: Politics and Power – Nationalism in the Middle East, 1876–1945". In Breuilly, John (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 220–241. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199209194.013.0011. ISBN 9780191750304.
  29. ^ a b c d Gesink, Indira Falk (2010). Islamic Reform and Conservatism. I.B. Tauris. pp. 188, 189. doi:10.5040/9780755623891. ISBN 978-1-84511-936-2.
  30. ^ Mayeur-Jaouen, Catherine. (2012). "What do Egypt's Copts and Muslims share? the issue of shrines". In Albera, Dionigi; Couroucli, Maria (eds.). Moulids at a time of confessional tension. New anthropologies of Europe. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-253-01690-4. .. While good neighborliness still exists at individual level, the days when Copts and Muslims venerated the same saints and rituals, and went to the same moulids, are gone. Muslim reformism is the main reason for this. In the interwar period, the high priests of Salafiyya, stigmatized the shameful imitation of Christians (tashabbuh) and thus rejected western model and the folk custom of worshiping together. .. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  31. ^ Terem, Etty (2023-05-04). "Muslim men, European hats: a fatwā on cultural appropriation in a global age". The Journal of North African Studies. 28 (3): 563–588. doi:10.1080/13629387.2021.1973246. ISSN 1362-9387 – via Taylor and Francis online. ... In 1937, Muḥammad al-Ḥajwī, a prominent Muslim scholar and an avid reformer of Moroccan state and society, received a request for a legal advice from Ḥāfiẓ Ibrāhīm Repīshtī, a distinguished Muslim cleric in Shkodra, Albania. Apparently, the Albanian king, Aḥmad Zog, had required all state employees and public-school students to wear a European hat (burnayṭa). Repīshtī urged al-Ḥajwī to provide him with an explicit answer to the question: Is it permissible for civil servants and students to wear the burnayṭa? Al-Ḥajwī answered in the affirmative....his legal advice takes the form of a long and extensive fatwā, focusing on the legality of Muslim imitation of non-Muslims (tashabbuh bi'l-kuffār). In it, al-Ḥajwī advocated a reconciliation of the Muslim umma with Western modernity. His message established an explicit distinction between beneficial and detrimental Muslim appropriation of European objects. ...
  32. ^ Alnizar, Fariz (2023-10-19). "Neo-Traditionalism in Islam in the West: Orthodoxy, Spirituality and Politics Neo-Traditionalism in Islam in the West: Orthodoxy, Spirituality and Politics , by Walaa Quisay, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2023, v + 332 pp., $44.95 (paperback), ISBN 978 139 950279 5". Religion. 54 (1): 159–162. doi:10.1080/0048721x.2024.2272422. ISSN 0048-721X. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |title= at position 78 (help)
  33. ^ a b Abd-Allah, Umar Faruq (2006). "Islam and the Cultural Imperative". CrossCurrents. RELIGIOUS LANGUAGE: ITS USES AND MISUSES. 56 (3). University of North Carolina Press: 357–375. ISSN 0011-1953 – via JSTOR. ... The Qur'an enjoined the Prophet Muhammad to adhere to people's sound customs and usages and take them as a fundamental reference in legislation: "Accept [from people] what comes naturally [for them]. Command what is customarily [good]. And turn away from the ignorant [without responding in kind]."7 Ibn ¢A~iyya, a renowned early Andalusian jurist and Qur'anic commentator, asserted that the verse not only upheld the sanctity of indigenous culture but granted sweeping validity to everything the human heart regards as sound and beneficial, as long as it is not clearly repudiated in the revealed law. For classical Islamic jurists in general, the verse was often cited as a major proof-text for the affirmation of sound cultural usage, and it was noted that what people generally deem as proper tends to be compatible with their nature and environment, serving essential needs and valid aspirations. ... {{cite journal}}: |chapter= ignored (help); line feed character in |quote= at position 48 (help)
  34. ^ Hassan, Farooq (2018). An Inter-Religious Perspective. Ethnographies of religion. Lanham Boulder New York London: Lexington Books. pp. 13, 14. ISBN 978-1-4985-6919-4. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  35. ^ a b Masud, Muhammad Khalid (2012-07-15), "Chapter 9 Cosmopolitanism and Authenticity: The Doctrine of Tashabbuh Bi'l-Kuffar ("Imitating the Infidel") in Modern South Asian Fatwas", Cosmopolitanisms in Muslim Contexts, Edinburgh University Press, pp. 156–175, doi:10.1515/9780748644575-010, ISBN 978-0-7486-4457-5, retrieved 2024-02-16
  36. ^ a b c Masud, Muhammad Khalid (2012-07-15), "Chapter 9 Cosmopolitanism and Authenticity: The Doctrine of Tashabbuh Bi'l-Kuffar ("Imitating the Infidel") in Modern South Asian Fatwas", Cosmopolitanisms in Muslim Contexts, Edinburgh University Press, pp. 156–175, doi:10.1515/9780748644575-010, ISBN 978-0-7486-4457-5, retrieved 2024-02-16, .. This paper examines the frequently held assumption that the quest for cultural authenticity and religious identity in present-day Muslim societies discourages cosmopolitanism. This assumption problematises the notion of cosmopolitanism as an issue of cultural authenticity. .. the doctrine of tashabbuh bi'l- kuffar that forbids imitating non-Muslims and is, therefore, frequently cited as a decisive factor for cultural authenticity. G. E. Von Grunebaum observed that this specific doctrine formed the basis of a sense of religious superiority that inhibited interaction with others. Focusing on the notions of similarity and dissimilarity, the doctrine defines authenticity within the theological framework of religious identity. .. {{citation}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 332 (help)
  37. ^ MacLean, Derryl N. (2012-07-15), "Chapter 1 Introduction: Cosmopolitanisms in Muslim Contexts", Cosmopolitanisms in Muslim Contexts, Edinburgh University Press, p. 6, doi:10.1515/9780748644575-010, ISBN 978-0-7486-4457-5, retrieved 2024-02-16, .. The well-entrenched Indo-Muslim cosmopolitanism, Masud argues, was compromised by the British imperial project and the subsequent forms of nationalism and communalism in the subcontinent. As a result, a variety of political and cultural contexts emerged, and these were reflected by growing distinctions between religion and culture and the imaginings of various forms of openness. The readings of tashabbuh follow this change in context, although at the same time the embedment of the concept within the larger fiqh syllabus, no matter how much the accommodation, does seem to constrain the method and range of interpretation of the legal opinions. ..

Categories to be added

[edit]

Category:Islamic culture, Category:Sunni belief and doctrine Category:Islamic philosophy Category:Islamic terminology Category:Taboo Category:Cultural anthropology Religious discrimination Category:Moral psychology Category:Social philosophy



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