In grammar, the comitative case (abbr. com) is a grammatical case that denotes accompaniment.[1]: 17–23 In English, the preposition "with", in the sense of "in company with" or "together with", plays a substantially similar role. Other uses of "with", like in the meaning of "using" or "by means of" (I cut bread with a knife), correspond to the instrumental case or related cases.
Core meaning
editThe comitative case encodes a relationship of "accompaniment" between two participants in an event, called the "accompanier" and the "companion". In addition, there is a "relator" (which can be of multiple lexical categories, but is most commonly an affix or adposition).[1]: 17–18 Use of the comitative case gives prominence to the accompanier.[2]: 602 This Italian sentence is an example:
- [il professore]accompanier entra nell'aula [con]relator [i suoi studenti]companion
- 'the professor enters the lecture-hall (together) with his students'.[2]: 602
In this case, il professore is the accompanier, i suoi studenti is the companion, and con is the relator. As the accompanier, il professore is the most prominent.
Animacy also plays a major role in most languages with a comitative case. One group of languages requires both the accompanier and the companion to be either human or animate. Another group requires both to be in the same category: both human or both animate. A third group requires an animate accompanier and an inanimate companion. Other languages have no restrictions based on animacy.[2]: 603–604
Comparison to similar cases
editThe comitative case is often conflated or confused with other similar cases, especially the instrumental case and the associative case.
The comitative relates to an accompanier and a companion, and the instrumental relates to an agent, an object, and a patient.[3]: 593 Enrique Palancar defines the role of Instrumental case as 'the role played by the object the Agent manipulates to achieve a change of state of the Patient.'[4] Even though the difference is straightforward, because the instrumental and the comitative are expressed the same way in many languages, including English, it is often difficult to separate them.
Russian is one of many languages that differentiate morphologically between instrumental and comitative:
Я
Ya
I
пойду
poydu
go
в
v
in
кино
kino
cinema
с
s
with
мамой
mamoy
mom.COM
'I'll go to the cinema with my mom.'
Я
Ya
I
нарезал
narezal
cut
хлеб
khleb
bread
этим
etim
this.INSTR
ножом
nozhom
knife.INSTR
'I cut the bread with this knife.'[5]
In Russian, the comitative is marked by adding a preposition с and by declining the companion in the instrumental case; the design с мамой as a whole becomes comitative. In the instrumental case, the object is declined, but no preposition is added.[5]
The comitative case is often confused with the associative case. Before the term comitative was applied to the accompanier-companion relationship, the relationship was often called associative case, a term still used by some linguists.[6]
It is important to distinguish between the comitative and the associative because the associative also refers to a specific variety of the comitative case that is used in Hungarian.[2]: 605
Expressions of comitative semantic relation
editGrammatical case is a category of inflectional morphology. The comitative case is an expression of the comitative semantic relation through inflectional affixation, by prefixes, suffixes and circumfixes. Although all three major types of affixes are used in at least a few languages, suffixes are the most common expression. Languages which use affixation to express the comitative include Hungarian, which uses suffixes; Totonac, which uses prefixes; and Chukchi, which uses circumfixes.[2]: 602
Comitative relations are also commonly expressed by using adpositions: prepositions, postpositions and circumpositions. Examples of languages that use adpositional constructions to express comitative relations are French, which uses prepositions; Wayãpi, which uses postpositions; and Bambara, which uses circumpositions.[2]: 603
Adverbial constructions can also mark comitative relations, but they act very similarly to adpositions. One language that uses adverbs to mark the comitative case is Latvian.[2]: 603
The final way in which comitative relations can be expressed is by serial-verb constructions. In these languages, the comitative marker is usually a verb whose basic meaning is "to follow". A language which marks comitative relations with serial-verb constructions is Chinese.[2]: 603
Examples
editIndo-European languages
editLatvian
editIn Latvian, both instrumental and comitative are expressed with the preposition ar[1]: 102 However, it is used only when the companion is in accusative and singular or when it is in dative and plural. Otherwise the co-ordinating conjunction un is used.[1]: 21
un
and
Nelda
Nelda.NOM
ar
COM
Rudolfu
Rudolf.ACC
ļoti
very
nozīmīgi
significantly
pa-skatījās
at-look.PRET.REFL.3
uz
on
Ernestīni
Ernestine.ACC
'And Nelda and Rudolf looked very knowingly at Ernestine.'[1]: 21
In the example above, ar is used because Rudolf, the companion, is in accusative and singular. Below, it is used in the other case that it is allowed, with a dative plural companion.
jo
because
ne-bija
NEG-be.PAST.3
ne-kāda
NEG-some.GEN
prieka
fun.GEN
dzīvot
live.INF
zem
under
sveša
foreign.GEN
jumta
roof.GEN
un
and
vēl
still
ar
COM
vis-iem
all-DAT.PL
zirg-iem
horse-DAT.PL
un
and
rat-iem
cart-DAT.PL
'Because it was no fun to live under someone else's roof, especially with all the horses and the cart'.[1]: 307
Uralic languages
editEstonian
editIn Estonian, the comitative (kaasaütlev) marker is the suffix -ga.[1]: 90
ja
and
Barber
Barber
rüüpa-b
drink-3SG
koos
together
Balthasari-ga
Balthasar-COM
sügava
deep.GEN
sõõmu
mouthful.GEN
'And Barber takes a sip together with Balthasar.'[1]: 90
Finnish
editIn Finnish, the comitative case (komitatiivi) consists of the suffix -ne with adjectives and -ne- + a mandatory possessive suffix with the main noun. There is no singular-plural distinction; only the plural of the comitative exists and is used in both singular and plural senses, and thus it always appears as -ine-. For instance, "with their big ships" is
suuri-ne
big-COM
laivo-i-ne-en
ship-OBL-PL-COM-POS.3PL
while "with his/her big ships" is
suuri-ne
big-COM
laivo-i-ne-nsa
ship-OBL-PL-COM-POS.3SG
It is rarely used and is mainly a feature of formal literary language, appearing very rarely in everyday speech.
The much more common, less formal way of expressing "with" is with the postposition kanssa, e.g., suurten laivojensa kanssa 'with their big ships'. The two forms may contrast, however, since the comitative always comes with the possessive suffix and thus can only be used when the agent has some sort of possession of the thing expressed by the main noun. For instance, Ulkoministeri jatkaa kollegoineen neuvotteluja sissien kanssa, 'The foreign minister, with [assistance from] his colleagues, is continuing the negotiations with the guerrillas', has kollegoineen 'with his colleagues' contrasted with sissien kanssa 'with the guerrillas', the former "possessed", the latter not.
Colloquial Finnish also has the postposition kaa, derived from kanssa and cognate with the Estonian -ga. With pronouns it is written as a suffix, -kaa. Compare also Ingrian -nka/-nkä, e.g., talonka 'with a house'.
mun-kaa
1SG.GEN-with
'with me'
mun
1SG-GEN
kavereitten
friend-GEN-PL
kaa
with
'with my friends'
Sami languages
editAs there are many Sami languages there are variations between them. In the largest Sami language, Northern Sami, the comitative case means either communion, fellowship, connection - or instrument, tool. It can be used either as an object or as an adverbial.
It is expressed through the suffix -in in the singular and -iguin in the plural.
An example of the object use in Northern Sami is Dat láve álo riidalit isidiin 'She always argues with her husband'. An example of the adverbial use is Mun čálán bleahkain 'I write with ink'.[7]
Hungarian
editIn Hungarian, comitative case is marked by the suffix -stul/-stül, as shown in the example below.[8]
ruhá-stul
clothes-COM
és
and
cipő-stül
shoe-COM
feküd-t-em
lie-PAST-INDEF.1SG
az
the
ágy-ban
bed-INE
'I was lying in bed with my clothes and shoes on.'[8]
However, the comitative case marker cannot be used if the companion has a plural marker. So when the comitative marker is added to a noun, it obscures whether that noun is singular or plural.[8]
gyerek-estül
child-COM
men-t-ek
go-PAST-INDEF.3PL
nyaral-ni
vacation-INF
'They went on vacation with their child/children.'[8]
Chukchi
editChukchi uses a circumfix to express comitative case.
а'ачек
aʼaček
boy
ңытоскычат-гьэ
ňytoskyčat-gʹè
ran.out-PERF
га-мэлгар-ма
ga-mèlgar-ma
COM.PRED-gun-COM.PRED
'The boy ran out with a gun.'[9]
In the example, the circumfix га⟩...⟨ма is attached to the root мэлгар 'gun' to express comitative.
Drehu
editIn Drehu, there are two prepositions which can be used to mark comitative. Which of the prepositions is used is determined by the classes of the accompanier and companion.[10]
Hausa
editThe comitative marker in Hausa is the preposition dà. In Hausa, a prepositional phrase marked for comitative can be moved to the front of the sentence for emphasis, as shown in the examples below.[11]
(tàare)
(together)
dà
with
yâara-n-shì
children-of-3SG.M
fa,
indeed
yaa
3SG.M.PFV
zoo
come
nannìyà
here
'With his children indeed, he came here.'
(tàare)
(together)
dà
with
Bàlaa
Bala
née
COP
na
1SG.RP
jee
go
kàasuwaa
market
'It is with Bala that I went to the market.'[11]
In Hausa it is ungrammatical to do the same with coordinating conjunctions. For example, if the companions were "dog and cat", it would be ungrammatical to move either "dog" or "cat" to the front of the sentence for emphasis, while it is grammatical to do so when there is a comitative marker rather than a conjunction.[11]
Further reading
edit- Anhava, Jaakko (2010). "Criteria for Case Forms in Finnish and Hungarian Grammars". Studia Orientalia. 108: 239–244.
- Karlsson, Fred (2018). Finnish - A Comprehensive Grammar. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-82104-0.
References
edit- ^ a b c d e f g h Stolz, Thomas; Stroh, Cornelia; Urdze, Aina (2006). On Comitatives and Related Categories: A Typological Study with Special Focus on the Languages of Europe. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110197648.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Stolz, Thomas; Stroh, Cornelia; Urdze, Aina (2009). "Varieties of Comitative". In Malchukov, Andrej; Spencer, Andrew (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Case. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 593–600.
- ^ Narrog, Heiko (2009). "Varieties of Instrumental". In Malchukov, Andrej; Spencer, Andrew (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Case. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. pp. 601–608.
- ^ Palancar, E. L. (1999). "Instrumental Prefixes in Amerindian Languages: An Overview to their Meanings, Origin, and Functions". Sprachtypologie und Universalienforschung. 52: 151–166.
- ^ a b Heine, Bernd; Kuteva, Tania (2006). The Changing Languages of Europe. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 188.
- ^ Haspelmath, Martin (2009). "Terminology of Case". In Malchukov, Andrej; Spencer, Andrew (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Case. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 514.
- ^ Nickel, Klaus Peter (1994). Samisk Grammatikk [Sami Grammar] (2nd ed.). Karasjok, Norway: Davvi Girji. p. 399.
- ^ a b c d Kenesei, István; Vago, Robert M.; Fenyvesi, Anna (1998). Hungarian. New York: Routledge. pp. 212–213. ISBN 9780415021395.
- ^ Kämpfe, Hans-Rainer; Volodin, Alexander P. (1995). Abriß der Tschuktschischen Grammatik auf der Basis der Schriftsprache. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 53–54.
- ^ a b c Moyse-Faurie, Claire; Lynch, John (2004). "Coordination in Oceanic languages and Proto Oceanic". In Haspelmath, Martin (ed.). Coordinating Constructions. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins. p. 453.
- ^ a b c Abdoulaye, Mahamane L. (2004). "Comitative, coordinating, and inclusory constructions in Hausa". In Haspelmath, Martin (ed.). Coordinating Constructions. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins. p. 180.